Cambridge O Level Physics Paper Code: 5054

Kinematics is the research regarding the types of movement of an object without referring to
the forces that cause the movement of the object.
Movement along a straight line is called linear motion.
Under linear motion, we study the
 distance and displacement
 speed and velocity
 acceleration
and the relationship between them.

Distance
The distance traveled by an object is the total length that is traveled by that object.
SI unit: meter (m)
Quantity: Scalar

Displacement
Displacement of an object from a point of reference, O is the shortest distance of the object
from point O in a specific direction.
SI unit: meter (m)
Quantity: Vector
Distance v.s Displacement

Distance Displacement

The shortest distance travelled

The length of path travelled. It
Definition from starting position to ending
does not depend on direction.
position.

Quantity Scalar Vector

SI unit m m

A runner runs in the following,pathway: A->B->C->D->A.

Example

Displacement = 0m as it goes
Total distance travelled = 12m
back to its original point.

Note that the magnitude of displacement can only be same or smaller than the distance.
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They are the same only when the motion in a straight line. However, the magnitude of
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displacement is smaller when the motion with changing direction.

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Cambridge O Level Physics Paper Code: 5054
Speed
Speed is defined as the rate of change in distance. It is a measure of how fast the distance
change in a movement.
Speed is a scalar quantity.
The SI unit of speed is m/s (metre per second)

Velocity
Velocity is define as the rate of displacement change. It is the measure of how fast the
displacement change of a moving object.
Velocity is a vector quantity.
The unit of velocity is m/s (metre per second)

Positive or Negative Sign of Velocity

In velocity, the positive/negative sign indicates direction.
You can take any direction as positive and the opposite as negative.
For a linear motion, normally we take the motion to the right as positive and hence the motion
to the left as negative.

Average speed
= (total distance traveled)⁄(total time taken)
Instantaneous Speed: the gradient of the tangent at a point on the distance-time graph.
instantaneous speed = ∆d⁄∆t

Acceleration
1. Acceleration is defined as the rate of velocity change. It is a measure of how fast the
2. velocity change.
3. Acceleration is a vector quantity.
4. The unit of acceleration is ms-2.
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5. An object moving with a velocity that is decreasing is said to be experiencing deceleration.

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Positive and Negative Sign of Acceleration

1. Acceleration is a vector quantity, its sign (positive or negative) is determined by

a) its direction
b) rate of change of the speed
2. If the speed of an object is increasing, the rate of change of the speed is positive, and
if the speed of an object is decreasing, the rate of change of the speed is negative.
3. Table below shows the positive/negative sign of acceleration related to the direction
and rate of change of speed.
a) When both the direction and change of speed are positive, the acceleration is positive.
b) When the direction is positive and the change of speed is negative (speed decrease),
then the acceleration is negative. This is equivalent to deceleration.
c) When the direction is negative and the change of speed is positive (speed increase),
then the acceleration is also negative. Since the speed increase, hence this is not
deceleration.
d) When both the direction and change of speed are negative, the acceleration is positive.

Kinematics Graph

Two types
 Distance-time graph (d-t)
 Speed-time graph (v-t)

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Tips:
(1) It is very easy to mix up kinematics graphs. The only way to differentiate these graphs is
to look at the y-axis!
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(2) When describing the motion, do it region by region! And always talk about acceleration or
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speed / velocity with values if applicable

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Cambridge O Level Physics Paper Code: 5054
Free Fall

Objects falling without air resistance (in a vacuum)

For object falling without air resistance, it will undergo free fall with a constant acceleration of 10
ms^(-2).

This acceleration due to free fall (or acceleration due to gravity) does not depend on Material,
Mass, and Size or shape.

Motion of falling objects:

Initially, the only force acting on the falling object is its own weight.
All free-falling objects increase their speed at the same rate of 10m/s every second, that is, they
experience constant acceleration of 10ms^(-2) (acceleration due to gravity).
All free-falling objects dropped from the same height will hit the ground at the same time with the
same speed.

Object falling with air resistance

Air resistance always opposes the motion of a moving object.
It increases with
 Speed,
 Surface area of the object and
 Density of air.

Motion of falling objects:

Initially, the only force acting on the falling object is its own weight and it accelerates
downwards at 10 ms^(-2) (Diagram A).
As its speed increases, air resistance increases. Therefore, resultant force acting downwards is
smaller, and hence accelerates at a rate less than 10 ms^(-2) (Diagram B & C).
When air resistance balances the weight, resultant force is 0 N and acceleration is 0 ms^(-2).
Thus, the object falls with constant speed, which is called terminal velocity (Diagram D).
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Note:
(1) The object accelerates at a rate of 10ms^(-2) initially, then, its acceleration gradually
decreases to 0 ms^(-2) due to increasing air resistance.
(2) An object reaches terminal velocity only when the height is sufficient for it to fall.
(3) Terminal Velocity depends on
- Surface area of the falling object. The greater it is, the shorter the time it reaches terminal
velocity and hence smaller terminal velocity.
- Mass of the falling object. The bigger it is, the longer the time it reaches terminal velocity and
hence larger terminal velocity. -

Parachuting / Skydiving
For parachuting, there are two terminal velocities:
(1) Before opening the parachute and
(2) After opening the parachute.
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Force
 it is either a push or pull that one object exerts on the other object.

 SI Unit: Newton (N)

 Vector quantity

Effect

(1) Start an object moving.

(2) Stop a moving object.
(3) Change the direction and speed of a moving object.
(4) Change the size or shape of an object.

Types

(1) Contact-forces which exist between objects when they are in contact. e.g friction, tension
(2) Non-contact forces which act at a distance => objects are not in contact with each other. e.g
magnetic force, electric force, gravitational force

Vector Diagram

In a vector diagram, a vector quantity is represented by an arrow.

The length of the arrow is proportional to the magnitude of the vector quantity;
The direction of the arrow is the direction of the vector quantity.
In a vector diagram, we use a single vector called resultant vector (or net vector) to represent
the individual vectors combined in terms of magnitude and direction. A resultant vector is
indicated by a double-headed arrow while individual vector is a single-headed arrow.
Note that the following illustration is associated with forces but vector diagram is applicable to
all vector quantities like displacement or velocity and so on.

Addition of Parallel forces

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Addition of non-parallel forces

Two methods
(1) Parallelogram Method
(2) Tip-to-Tail Method

Example 1

Consider two forces that are not acting along the same line (i.e they are not parallel) on an
object, find the resultant force.

Example 2

A weight W of 8 N hangs from the end of a rope. It is pulled sideways by a horizontal force F
of 5 N and is held stationary. What is T?

Newton's Law of Motion

Newton’s First Law (Balanced Forces)

It states that every object will continue in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line
unless a resultant force acts on it.

This is also known as Law of inertia.

Inertia of an object is the reluctance of the object to change its state of rest or motion.
Inertia of an object depends on its mass. The greater the mass, the greater the inertia.
This means it is harder to start moving, stop, slow down, speed up or change direction.
Note that a force is required to overcome the inertia.

Also, if forces acting on the object are balanced, the resultant force is 0 N. This means the
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object is in a state of equilibrium.

(1) Object at rest will remain at rest;
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(2) Object in motion will remain in motion at constant velocity (same speed and direction)
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Cambridge O Level Physics Paper Code: 5054
Newton’s Second Law (Unbalanced Forces)

It states that when a resultant force acts on an object of a constant mass, the object will
accelerate in the direction of the resultant force. The product of the mass and the acceleration
of the object gives the resultant force.

Fnet = ma
where Fnet = resultant force or net force (N)
m = mass (kg)
a = acceleration (N/kg) or (ms^(-2))

When forces are unbalanced, there is a resultant force. And this will cause a stationary object
to move or a moving object to (a) stop (b) change the speed (c) change the direction

Note:
(1) When acceleration is 0, it does not mean there is no force acting on the object. It only
means net force is 0 N. e.g weighting scale measures a force (our weight) acting on us.
(2) Zero acceleration implies the object is in a state of equilibrium (at rest or at constant speed /
velocity).

Newton’s Third Law

It states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction, and they act on mutually
opposite bodies.

e.g If body A exerts a force FAB on body B, then body B will exert an equal but opposite force
FBA on body A.

Friction

Friction is a force which always opposes the motion between two surfaces in contact.
(1) When an object is in motion, friction will tend to slow it down.
(2) When an object is at rest, friction will have to be overcome before it can start to move.

Types

(1) Static friction: acts between two solid surfaces

(2) Fluid friction (drag): air resistance and water resistance

How to minimize the friction?

(1) Use ball bearings

(2) Use lubricants like oil, grease to allow machines to move more freely
(3) Polish the surfaces to make it smoother
(4) Streamline cars, planes to reduce drag
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(5) Air cushion

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Effect of Friction

Positive Effects Negative Effects

Wear and tear of moving

Walking
parts

Braking a
Slows down vehicles
vehicle

holding objects Generates heat

Free Body Diagram

Free-body Diagram is a simple diagram with arrows to represent the forces acting on the object.
For example,

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Heat Transfer
Thermal energy is transferred only when there is a difference in the temperature and it always flows
from a region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.

When two objects are at same temperature, they are in thermal equilibrium. This means there is no
net heat transfer between them.

When we say there is no net heat transfer between two objects, A and B, actually there is still heat
transfer between them. It is so because the amount of heat transfer from A to B is same as that
amount transferred from B to A. Thus, no net heat transferred between A and B. This means at
thermal equilibrium, there is still heat transfer between two objects but no net heat transfer between
them. A is in thermal equilibrium with B and B is in thermal equilibrium with C, then A, B and C are
all in thermal equilibrium.

Thermal energy is transferred by three processes:

Conduction
Convection
Radiation

What is Conduction?
Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy without any flow of the material medium.

Metals such as copper and iron are good conductor of heat;

Non-metals such as wood and glass are poor conductor of heat.

Conditions for Conduction:

Conduction takes place from one object to another only under the following two conditions.
The two objects should be in direct physical contact.
Temperature of the two objects should be different.

Process of conduction
(a) Molecular Vibrations for both metal and non-metal

When one end of the solid is heated, the molecules at the hotter end gain kinetic energy and vibrate
faster. These molecules collide with their less energetic neighbouring molecules and transfer some
of their energy to them which in turn gain kinetic energy. Heat is then passed from molecule to
molecule until it reaches the colder end of the solid. The process will only stop when the temperature
of the solid becomes uniform and constant.
It is a rather slow process.

(b) Free electron diffusion for metal only

When a metal is heated, the free electrons gain kinetic energy and move faster. These electrons can
move freely in the spaces between molecules before colliding with other electrons or molecules and
transfer some energy to them.
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Free electron diffusion is a very quick process, much faster than molecular vibration.
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Rate of heat transfer via conduction

Solid > liquid > gas

Reason:
Molecules in solids are more closely packed and hence collisions are more frequent.

Liquids and gases are poor conductor of heat.

Application
(a) Good conductor of heat

The materials which are good conductors of heat are used whenever heat is to be transferred fast.
i.e. cooking utensils are usually made of metals and their alloys.

(b) Poor conductor of heat

The materials which are poor conductors of heat are used to prevent the transfer of heat or minimize
the loss of thermal energy.
i.e. handles of the cooking utensils are made of wood or plastics so that even the hot utensils can
be lifted safely.

Note that Fibreglass, foam and felt usually trap pockets of air, which are poor conductors of heat.

What is Convection?
Convection is the transfer of thermal energy by means of currents in fluids (liquids or gases) only.

A convection current is the movement of fluid caused by the change in density in various parts
of the fluid. When a fluid is heated, its mass remains constant but its volume expands. Its density
decreases as p = m / V.

Process of Convection
When the water at the bottom of the beaker is heated, it gains heat and expands. The hot water,
being less dense, rises and the cooler water at the top, being denser, sink to replace the hotter water
at the bottom. A Convection current is set up.
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Application
(a) Air conditioner is always installed near to the ceiling of the room.

Reason:
Cool air from the air conditioner, being denser, sinks. The warm air below, being less dense, rises and
is drawn into the air conditioner where it is cooled. A convection current is set up and whole room is
cooled to a desired temperature.

(b) Heating element of an electric kettle is always placed at the bottom of the kettle.
Radiation is the continual emission of infra-red (IR) waves from the surface of all bodies transmitted
without the medium.

Radiation
All objects and surfaces absorb or emit radiant heat or IR radiation. The hotter the object, the
greater the amount of radiant heat emitted.

Factors that affected the rate at which radiant heat is emitted are
Colour and texture of the surface
Dull black surfaces are better absorbers and emitters of IR radiation than shiny white surfaces.
Shiny surfaces are also good reflector of IR radiation.
Surface area
The object with larger surface area will absorb and emit IR radiation at a faster rate.
Surface temperature
The object with higher surface temperature will absorb and emit IR radiation at a faster rate.

Absorbers, Emitters & Reflectors

Some materials are good at absorbing and emitting thermal radiation while others are good at
reflecting radiation. Examples of good absorbers and emitters are matt black materials. White and
silvery surfaces
are bad absorbers because they reflect away most of thermal radiation. However, bad absorbers are
good reflectors and likewise good absorbers are poor reflectors of thermal radiation.
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In summary:
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Matt Black Materials = good absorbers/emitters + poor reflectors

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White/Silvery Materials = poor absorbers/emitters + good reflectors

Radiation does not require medium for energy transfer and can take place in vacuum.
In explaining energy transfer involving radiation, we can only use the term “infra-red radiation
” or “radiant heat”.
A good absorber of IR radiation is also a good emitter of IR radiation.
he vacuum flask is designed to keep liquid hot by minimizing heat loss in four possible ways,
namely
Conduction, Convection, Radiation and Evaporation.

However, heat loss by radiation is harder to stop as it can occur in vacuum.

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Reducing Heat Transfer with Thermal Insulation

Take a look at this image showing heat loss from a house. Heat is lost:

 through the roof

 through windows
 through gaps around the door
 through the walls
 through the floor

Heat energy is transferred from homes by conduction through the walls, floor, roof and windows.
It is also transferred from homes by convection. For example, cold air can enter the house through
gaps in doors and windows, and convection currents can transfer heat energy in the loft to the
roof tiles. Heat energy also leaves the house by radiation through the walls, roof and windows.

Ways to reduce heat loss

Through conduction by using

 Cavity insulation,
 Double glazed windows,
 Carpets on floor,
 Insulating material for making thicker walls/ floor / roofs.

Through convection
 Reducing draughts by filling the cracks of floor and wall/ gaps in doors and windows.

Through Radiation
 Painting walls/roof white
 Using curtains /shutters/ blinds
 Providing fewer windows
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 Keeping windows and doors closed

 Using external shading
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Temperature v.s Heat

Temperature Heat

how hot or
the amount of thermal energy
cold an object
that is being transferred from
Definition is
a hotter to a colder
(degree of
object (Quantity of hotness)
hotness)

depend
Factor depend on mass and speed
on speed

SI Unit Kelvin (K) Joules (J)

Relationship between them: Heat is transferred from a region of higher temperature to a region of
lower
temperature.
Thermometer
To measure temperature accurately, we have to use a thermometer, which makes use of
thermometric substances.

Thermometric substances: substances (solid, liquid or gas) that have physical properties that varies
continuously and linearly with temperature.

Thermometric properties Examples of thermometer

Mercury-in-glass thermometer,
Volume of a fixed mass of liquid
Alcohol-in-glass thermometer

Electrical resistance of a piece of metal Resistance thermometer

Voltage or electromotive force (e.m.f.) Thermocouple thermometer

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Pressure of a fixed mass of gas at constant Constant-volume gas

volume thermometer
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Features of a good thermometer

 An easy-to-read scale
 Safe to use
 Responsive to temperature changes
 Sensitive to small temperature changes
 Able to measure a wide range of temperatures

Calibration of Thermometer
Step 1: Determine two fixed points on an unmarked mercury thermometer
Fixed point is the standard degree of hotness or coldness such as a melting or boiling point of a
substance.
Ice point is the temperature of pure melting ice at one atmospheric pressure and has a value of 0⁰C.
Steam point is the temperature of steam from pure water boiling at one atmospheric pressure and
has a value of 100⁰C.
Step 2: Divide the interval between ice point and steam point into a 100 equal parts. Each interval is
1⁰C

Calibration of thermometer-Measuring the temperature.

After marking the ice point (0oC) and steam point (100oC), the temperature of a substance can be
determined by the formula:

Response Time of Thermometer

The response time of a thermometer can be increased by
Using a thermometer with a smaller bulb – A smaller bulb contains less mercury and hence absorbs
heat in shorter time.
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A glass bulb with thinner wall – Heat can be transferred to the bulb easily.
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Accuracy of Thermometer
To increase the accuracy of a thermometer, the diameter of the capillary tube of the thermometer
must be constant throughout.

 When choosing a thermometer, there are 3 features to consider:

Range
 Responsiveness
 Sensitivity

We will examine the factors affecting each of these structures carefully.

Range
Range of a thermometer refers to scope of temperature it can measure. Logically, a laboratory
thermometer should have a larger range than a clinical thermometer.
Typically, the range of a laboratory thermometer is 0 - 110 oC while the range of a clinical
thermometer is 30 - 42 oC.

Range of a thermometer is affected by: length of the stem

The longer the length of the stem, the larger the range of the thermometer.

Responsitivity
It refers to how fast the thermometer can respond to the temperature changes and register the new
reading. A clinical thermometer should be rather responsive.
No patient or doctor wants to to wait for 10 minutes to read their temperature!
The responsiveness of a thermometer is affected by:
size of the bulb
thickness of the bulb wall

Logically the larger the bulb, the less responsive it is, since there is more liquid in the larger bulb.
Also, bulb wall are usually made to be thin so that conduction of heat energy can occur as quickly as
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possible.
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Sensitivity
A sensitive thermometer has better precision. It can read precisely to smaller units of temperature.
It is affected by: the diameter of the bore
Typically, a thermometer with a thicker bore will be less sensitive since the change in length of the
thermometric liquid is lesser.

Thermocouple

A thermocouple consists of two different types of wires (i.e copper and iron). The ends of wires are
joined together to form two junctions (hot and cold junction).
If two junctions are at different temperatures, a small voltage (or emf) is produced. The greater the
difference, the greater the voltage produced.
Note that if two junctions are at same temperature, no reading will be observed.

Advantage:

 Robust, compact
 Wide temperature range
 Able to measure temperature at a point
 Very responsive to rapidly changing temperature
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Internal Energy

Internal energy is sum of kinetic energy and potential energy of molecules. Kinetic energy
is due to motion of molecules and directly proportional to temperature. Potential energy is
due to the stretching and compression of the intermolecular forces. The amount of
potential energy stored in the bonds depends on the force between the particles and how
far apart the particles are.

Heat Capacity v.s Specific Heat Capacity

Heat capacity, C Specific Heat Capacity, c

Definition Amount of heat required to change Amount of heat required to change the
the temperature of the object by 1K temperature of 1Kg (unit mass) of the
or 1oC substance by 1K or 1oC.
SI unit J/K or J/oC or JK-1 or JoC-1 J/(Kg K) or J/(Kg oC) or JKg-1K-1 or JKg-
1oC-1
Formula C= Q/∆θ c= Q/(m * ∆θ)
Where Where
∆θ = change in temperature( in K or ∆θ = change in temperature( in K or oC)
oC) m = mass (in Kg)
Q = thermal energy absorbed in (J) Q = thermal energy absorbed in (J)
Factors that
affect it Mass, type of substance

Different (bigger) mass of same

material has different (bigger) heat
capacity; Type of substance only
Same mass of different material
has different heat capacity; For same material, the specific heat
Different mass of different material capacity is the same regardless of the
may or may not have same heat mass.
capacity.
=> It is more meaningful to
compare specific heat capacity for
different materials

Relationship C=mc

Note:
For same amount of thermal energy supplied, the substance with lower specific heat
capacity will be heated up faster than that with higher specific heat capacity.
When doing calculation, first think about which material releases thermal energy
(temperature decreases) and which one gains thermal energy (temperature increases), and
these two should be the same with the assumption of no energy is lost to the surrounding
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(which is always the case for calculation).

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Change of State

Melting is a change of state from a solid to a liquid without a change in temperature.

For a pure substance, it occurs at a constant temperature called melting point.

Freezing or solidification is a change of state from a liquid to a solid without a change in

temperature. A pure substance freezes at a temperature equal to its melting point.

Boiling is a change of state from a liquid to a gas without a change in temperature.

For a pure substance, it occurs at a constant temperature called boiling point.

Condensation is a change of state from a gas to a liquid without a change in temperature.

A pure substance condenses at a temperature equal to its boiling point.

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Heating Curve

Note:
The temperature of a pure substance changes only when there is no change of state.
The temperature of a pure substance is a constant when there is a change in state.
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The thermal energy absorbed without a change in temperature is called Latent Heat.
Why do gases have highest potential energy?
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During melting (where solid changes to liquid), heat supplied is converted to potential
energy which in turn stored in the liquid. Therefore, liquids have a higher potential energy
than solids. Likewise, during boiling, heat supplied is converted to potential energy and
stored in the gas, hence, gases have a higher potential energy than liquids.

Cooling Curve

Note:
The temperature of a pure substance changes only when there is no change of state.
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The temperature of a pure substance is a constant when there is a change in state.

The thermal energy released without a change in temperature is called Latent Heat.
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Latent Heat
Latent heat is the energy absorbed or released when there is a change in state.
Two Types
Latent Heat of Fusion
Latent Heat of Vaporization
Latent heat of fusion, L f Specific latent heat of fusion, l f

Definition The amount of heat needed to The amount of heat needed to change
change the substance from solid to 1kg of the substance from solid to liquid,
liquid, or vice versa, without a or vice versa, without a change in
change in temperature. temperature.
SI unit J J / kg or J kg-1

Factors that Mass, type of substance Type of substance only

affect it
The bigger the mass, the higher For same material, the specific latent
the latent heat required. heat of fusion is the same regardless of
the mass
Relationship Lf=mlf

where m = mass (in kg)

Latent heat of vaporisation, L v Specific latent heat of vaporisation, l v

Definition The amount of heat needed to The amount of heat needed to change 1kg
change the substance from liquid of the substance from liquid to gas, or vice
to gas, or vice versa, without a versa, without a change in temperature.
change in temperature.
SI unit J J / kg or J kg-1

Factors that Mass, type of substance Type of substance only

affect it The bigger the mass, the higher For same material, the specific latent heat
the latent heat required. of vaporisation is the same regardless of
the mass.
Relationship Lv=mlv

where m = mass (in kg)

Note that Latent heat of Vaporization is much greater than Latent Heat of Fusion for
a given substance since vaporization involves more energy to separate molecules as well
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as to push back on the surrounding atmosphere.

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Heat Calculation
Steps to do a calculation in thermal physics
Step 1: Determine which material releases thermal energy (temperature decreases) and
which one gains thermal energy (temperature increases)
Step 2: Determine whether the substance undergoes any change of state.
Step 3: Apply the formula and solve the problem by making an assumption that no energy
is lost to surrounding unless question stating otherwise. The following heating curve will help
you in determining which formula to use.

Evaporation
Evaporation is a process which a substance changes its state from liquid to gas without
boiling. Evaporation cause cooling.

Reason:
Molecules in a liquid have different kinetic energies (different speeds). The more energetic
molecules absorb heat from surrounding and overcome the intermolecular bonds between
other molecules and escape into the atmosphere. The less energetic molecules are left
behind. The average kinetic energy of the molecules in the liquid decreases, so temperature
of liquid decreases.
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Factors affecting evaporation

Boiling v.s Evaporation

Criteria Boiling Evaporation

Speed Quick process Slow process

Temperature at which Occurs at any

Occurs at a fixed temperature
it occurs temperature

Temperature change? Remains constant May change

Bubbles formed? Yes No

Takes place at…? Throughout the liquid Only at liquid surface

Energy supplied
External energy source Surroundings
by…?
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Ripple Tank
The phenomenon of water waves can be investigated using a ripple tank. The water waves are
produced by a vibrating bar on the water surface. The tank is leveled so that the depth of water in the
tank is uniform to ensure water waves propagate with uniform speed.

The water acts as a lens to produce a pattern of bright and dark regions on a piece of white paper
placed under the tank when light passes through it. Water waves have crests and troughs.
A crest is the highest position of the wave acts as a convex lens, whereas a trough is the lowest
position acts as a concave lens. Light rays from the lamp on top will focus onto the white screen
below. The bright lines correspond to the crests, and the dark lines correspond to the troughs.

REFRACTION OF WAVES
Refraction of waves is a change in its direction as the waves pass from one medium to another. It
occurs when there is a difference in the speed of the wave at the boundary of two mediums.
After refraction, the wave has the same frequency, but a different speed, wavelength and direction of
propagation.

Water passing from the deep region to the shallow region, the water wave is refracted toward the
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Water passing from the shallow region to the deep region, the water wave is refracted away from the
normal.

REFLECTION OF WAVES
 Occurs when a wave strikes an obstacle.
 The wave undergoes a change in direction of propagation when it is reflected.
 The value of frequency (f), wavelength (λ) and speed (v) remain the same after reflection
Incident wave : the wave before it strikes the obstacle
Reflected wave: the wave which has undergone a change in direction of propagation after reflection.
i = angle of incident – the angle between the direction of propagation of incident wave and the normal
r = angle of reflection – the angle between the direction of propagation of reflected wave and the
normal.

Law of Reflection:
The angle of incidence, i is equal to the angle of reflection, r.

Reflection of plane water waves in a ripple tank

1. Set up a ripple tank.
2. Switch on the motor to set the vibrating. Increase the frequency of the waves by increasing the
voltage power supply to the motor.
3. Observe the reflected wave by using a stroboscope.
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Electromagnetic Spectrum
 It consists of a group of waves with similar natures.
 The member of electromagnetic spectrum arranged in increasing frequencies and decreasing
wavelengths are Radio waves, Micro waves, Infrared waves, Visible light, Ultraviolet rays, X-
rays and Gamma rays.
 Radio waves have the longest wavelength but are of low frequency waves. They carry very
little energy.
 Gamma rays have the shortest wavelength but are of high frequency waves. They carry high
energy.

Electromagnetic Waves
 It is produced when electric and magnetic field vibrate at right angle to each other.
 The direction of propagation of the wave is perpendicular to both fields.

Dispersion of light
 Visible light waves are the only electromagnetic waves we can see.
 When white light shines through a prism, the white light is broken apart into seven colours of
the visible light spectrum.
 Red, orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo and violet.
 Each colour has different wavelength.
 Red has the longest wavelength and violet the shortest.
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Properties of Electromagnetic waves
 They transfer energy from one point to another.
 They are transverse waves.
 They can travel through vacuum.
 They travel at the same speed through vacuum, i.e at the speed of light, c = 3 x 108 ms-1
 They all show wave properties such as reflection and refraction.
 They obey the wave equation, v=f

Sources of Electromagnetic waves and Applications

Electromagnetic Sources Applications

waves
Gamma Rays Radioactive  Engineering: to detect leakages in
substances underground pipes.
 Medicine: cancer treatment
X-Rays X-ray rube  Medicine: X-ray photograph of the internal
organs of the body and cancer treatment
 Engineering: to detect cracks is metal
 Checking of luggage at airports
Ultra-violet Rays The sun, mercury  Cause sunburn
vapour lamp  Stimulates the formation of vitamin D
 Fluorescent lamp
 Sterilization of surgical tools and plant
seeding
Visible light Flames, lamps, the  Visual communication
sun  Photography
 Photosynthesis
Infrared Waves Hot objects such as  Thermal imaging and physiotherapy
flames, the Human  Infrared binoculars for night time vision
body, the sun  Remote control for TV
Micro Waves Radar transmitter,  Communication system with satellites
Microwaves oven  Used in radar system
 Cooking
 Cellular (mobile) phone service
Radio Waves Electrons oscillating  For broadcasting and wireless
in aerials, communication
Radio/Television  Television and hand phones
transmitter  Local radio FM and wireless
communication
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Sound
 Sound is a form of energy propagated from one point to another as a wave. It is produced by
vibrating sources in a medium. This medium can be solid, liquid or gas.
 Sound travels fastest in solid, then liquid and slowest in gas because the particles in solid are
closely packed.
 Sound cannot travel in vacuum. It requires a medium to travel from one point to another.
 Sound is a longitudinal wave and consists of a series of compressions (C) and rarefactions (R)
in the medium.
 In air, compression is a region in which air particles are pushed towards each other and the air
is at a pressure higher than surrounding air pressure;
 Rarefaction is a region in which air particles are pulled from each other and the air is at a
pressure lower than surrounding air pressure

Propagation of sound

In Diagram (a), the tuning fork is stationary on the left.

When the tuning fork is struck, the prongs vibrate towards and away from each other to produce
sound.

In Diagram (b), when the prongs move away from each other, the air particles nearest to the prongs
are pushed away to the right. This causes a compression in the layers of air particles in Region A.
The displaced air particles collide with and transfer energy to the other air particles in Region A.

In Diagram (c), as the prongs move towards each other, the air particles nearest to the prongs are
pulled back to the left. This causes a rarefaction in the layers of air particles in Region A and
compression passes from Region A to Region B due to energy transfer. This cycle then repeats.
After a while, a series of compression and rarefaction is set up in the air.

Pressure-Distance Graph (for all particles)

Compression, C: highest pressure of sound wave;
Rarefaction, R: lowest pressure of sound wave;
Amplitude, A: the maximum pressure change from surrounding pressure in either direction;
Wavelength, λ: the distance between two consecutive C or R or any two points that are in phase.
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Displacement-Distance Graph (for all particles)

Both C and R are at position of zero displacement, which are at rest position.
Amplitude, A: maximum distance from the rest or central position, in either direction.
Wavelength, λ: the distance between two consecutive C or R or any two points that are in phase.
Note that Compressions and Rarefactions in a longitudinal wave (sound) are NOT analogous to the
crests and troughs in a traverse wave although some textbooks stating otherwise.

Displacement-Time Graph (for individual particle)

Displacement-Time Graph is for an individual particle in the vibrating medium. It shows the
displacement of a particle from the rest position at a particular time.
At t = 0 s, particle is at displacement = 0 m;
At t = T/4 s, particle is at displacement = – A m;
At t = T/2 s, particle is at displacement = 0 m;
At t = 3T/4 s, particle is at displacement = +A m;
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Transmission of Sound :
Sound cannot be transmitted through vacuum.
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The bell jar experiment

o A bell is suspended in a sealed jar.
o As air is pumped out from the jar, the sound becomes fainter
and fainter.
o Finally you can still see the striking of the bell but no sound
is heard.

Sound waves need a medium in order to travel from one point to another.

 Sound waves travel at different speed in different media.

 Speed of sound in solids > speed of sound in liquids > speed
of sound in gases
 Speed of sound in gases depends on Temperature and on
humidity.

Measuring Speed of Sound

Direct Method
Procedure:
1. Measure a distance d from person A to person B in an open field using measuring tape.
2. Person A fires the pistol.
3. Person B starts the stopwatch when he sees the flash of pistol and stops it when he hears the
sound. The time interval t is recorded.
4. Using speed = d / t , we can calculate the speed.

Improvements
Exchange the positions of the person A and B and repeat the experiment. It will reduce the effect of
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wind on the speed of sound in air.

Repeat the experiment several times and take the average value of the time intervals recorded to
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calculate the average speed of sound.

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Indirect Method (Echo Method)
Procedure:
1. Measure the distance d from the wall to the clapper in an open field using measuring tape.
2. Make a sharp clapping sound and repeat the sound at regular intervals to coincide with the echoes.
In other words, the second clap coincides with the echo from the wall from the first clap.
3. Start counting the clap at zero as the stopwatch is started, count the number of claps and stop the
stopwatch at 50 claps.
4. Repeat step 3 to find the average time for 50 claps. Hence, calculate the time interval t between
claps.
5. Using speed = 2 d / t, we can calculate the speed.

Echo
Echo is formed when a sound is reflected by large, hard and flat surfaces like buildings, walls and
cliffs. It is a distinct, reflected sound wave from a surface. Sometimes, we will hear many echoes
when there are many reflecting surfaces.
Note that reflection of sound occurs just like the reflection of light.

Application of Echo
 Find the depth of a sea
 Locate the shoals of fish

Echo Calculation

(1) If the total time taken includes time taken for returning echo,
total time taken needs to divide by two or total distance traveled by sound is twice the distance
between the sound source and reflecting surface due to its echo.

Formula:

Ultrasound
 Range of audibility for human is from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
 Ultrasound are sound waves with frequencies above the upper limit of the human range of
audibility (above 20 kHz).
 Infrasound are sound waves with frequencies below the lower limit of the human range of
audibility (below 20 Hz).
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Application
 Ultrasound is used to check for cracks or cavities for quality control.
 Ultrasound is used to form images of babies in the womb.
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 Ultrasound is used to break the kidney stone.

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Pitch & Loudness

Pitch
 Pitch is related to the frequency of a sound wave.
 The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch.

Loudness
 Loudness is related to the amplitude of a sound wave.
 The larger the amplitude, the louder the sound.

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Electric Charges
All matters are made up of atoms which consist of electrons orbiting a nucleus (containing protons
and neutrons).
Electrons: negatively charged particles;
Protons: positively charged particles;
Neutrons: neutral or uncharged particles.
 When an object is neutral, it means there are equal number of negatively charged electrons
and positive charges.
 When an object is positively charged, it means there are more positive charges than electrons.
 When an object is negatively charged, it means there are more electrons than positive
charges.
Note that only electrons can be transferred to make the object become charged. Positive charges do
not move!
SI Unit: coulombs, C
Note that one electron is not 1C. An electron has 1.6 X 10-19 C of charge. We need 6.25 X1018
electrons to make up 1 C!

Law of electrostatic
Like charges repel, unlike charges attract.

Electric Field
An electric field is a region where an electric charge experiences an electric force.
The direction of electric field is the direction of force on a small positive charge.
It is represented by lines with arrows to indicate the direction of force

Field patterns between two charges

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Note that X is the neutral point where the electric fields from both charges cancel out each other.
There is no electric effect at X.
Electric field lines must not cross each other.
The closer the field lines, the stronger the field is.

Field patterns between charged parallel plates

Arc only occurs at the edge of parallel plates.

The electric field between parallel plates are uniform, thus parallel electric field lines.

Insulators v.s Conductors

Types Insulators Conductors

Definition Materials where Materials that allow

electrons remain on the electrons to move freely
surface of it and do not within the material.
move about freely within
the material.
What happen when When electrons are When electrons are
adding or removing gained or lost in an gained or lost in a
electrons? insulator, the electron conductor, the electrons
remains at the region will be redistributed.
where it was transferred.
i.e it is “localized”.
Example Non-metals like plastic, Metals like copper, iron,
paper, wood steel, graphite
Charging method Charging by Friction Charging by Contact,
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(Rubbing) Charging by Induction

Discharging Method Heating, Humid Earthing
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Charging Insulators by Friction / Rubbing
Rubbing causes a transfer of electrons from one object to another.
If X loses electrons, X becomes positively charged.
If Y gains electrons, Y becomes negatively charged.

Process
Before rubbing
Both are electrically neutral.
i.e same number of electrons and positive charges.

Rubbing
Electrons are transferred from cloth to glass rod

After rubbing
Glass rod has excess electrons
=> negatively charged,
Cloth has excess positive charges
=> positively charged

Number of electrons transferred must be same as number of positive charges left unpaired.
Only some electrons (not all electrons) are transferred from one object to another object.
Which object becomes positively charged or negatively charged, we don’t need to memorize. It will be
stated in the question.
Charging by friction is effective for insulators only, but difficult for conductors.
Yet, we can still charge a conductor by this method but we have to hold the conductor with an
insulator like rubber glove.

Charging Conductors
Charging by Contact
Procedure:
A metal sphere with excess electrons is brought near a neutral object.
Upon contact, electrons from sphere flow to neutral object and spread uniformly.
Sphere has now has less excess electrons and the object now has negative charges.
Note that the charge in the conductor is always same as the charging source.
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Charging by Induction
Induction is a method used to charge a conductor without any contact with the charging body.
Case 1: Charging a single metal conductor

Step 1: Bring a positively charged rod near the metal conductor on an insulating stand.
Electrons in the metal will be attracted to the side near to the rod as unlike charges attract.

Step 2: Without removing the rod, earth the positively charged side of conductor by touching it with
your hand.
Free electrons moving up will neutralize the positive charges on this side.
charging by induction

Step 3: With the rod still in place, remove hand from conductor to stop earthing process.

Step 4: Remove the charged rod.

The electrons will be redistributed and conductor is now negatively charged
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An insulating stand is needed to prevent electrons from flowing to earth or electrons flowing from
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earth to metal conductor during charging process.

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We have to remove the hand first then charged rod. If do it reversely (remove rod then hand),
electrons will flow to earth. Discharging occurs and conductor is not charged.
Number of charges induced in conductor should be less or equal to the number of charges in the
charging source (rod).
The charge induced in the conductor is always opposite to the charging source.

Case 2: Charging two metal conductors

Step 1: Two conductors on insulating stand are touching each other.

Step 2: Bring a negatively charged rod near A. Electrons in both A and B will be repelled to the far
end of B.
A has excess positive charges while B has excess electrons.

Step 3: Without removing the rod, separate A and B.

Step 4: Remove the rod.

A is positively charged;
B is negatively charged.

A and B have same amount of opposite charges.

Note that we have to separate them first before removing the rod. If no, they will neutralize
themselves and become neutral.
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Discharging
Discharging is a process to neutralize a charged object by removing the excess charges.
Insulators
(1) Heating
The intense heat causes the air surrounding the charged object to be ionized. The ions in the
surrounding air then neutralize the excess charges in the charged object.
(2) Humid Conditions
The water vapour in the air helps to remove the excess charges on the charged insulator.

Conductors
A charged conductor can be neutralized by earthing it.
It is to provide a path for excess electrons to flow away from the negatively charged conductor or for
electrons to flow from earth to the positively charged conductor. This will cause the conductor to lose
its charge and become neutral. This can be easily done by touching the charged conductor with our
hand.

Hazards of Electrostatics

(1) Lightning

Electrostatic charges are built up due to friction between water molecules in the cloud and air
molecules. These accumulated charges ionize the air, which then provides a conducting path for
the charges to be discharged to the nearest or sharpest object on ground.

How the danger is reduced?

Lightning conductors are fitted on top of tall buildings to provide a discharge path for excessive
electrons in the air to flow from the top of the building into earth.
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(2) Electrostatic discharge in gas tankers

Electric charges can accumulate on trucks due to friction between road and tyres of truck. Sparks
may be produced when discharging happens. This will cause any flammable materials that the trucks
are carrying to catch fire or explode.

How the danger is reduced?

Connect a metal chain at the rear end of truck to the ground to provide a discharging path for excess
charges.

Application of Electrostatics

Spray painting
As the spray leaves the nozzle, it is being charged by friction. Since the droplets all have same
charge, they will repel each other as like charges repel, and thus, they spread out evenly.

Advantages
Good adhesion of paint onto the object;
Smooth and uniform coating of paint;
Cost efficient as it reduces the wastage of paint.
Similar principle is used in Crop Sprayer as well.

Electrostatic Precipitator
This is used to remove flue-ash emitted from coal-fired power stations.
Mechanism:
Dust and ash particles pass through the fine wires and become negatively charged.
The negatively charged dust and ash particles are attracted to the positively charged plate since
unlike charges attract.
The dust and ash particles are then scraped and removed from the plates.
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Laser Printer

When rotating, the drum surface becomes positively charged.

The laser beam then casts an image of the data to the rotating drum and exposes other parts of drum
surface to laser to be discharged. By doing so, it creates a positively charged pattern which is similar
to the print pattern.
The negatively-charged toner is then attracted to the positively-charged pattern on the drum as unlike
charges attract, and is transferred to the paper.
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Current:
Current is the rate of flow of charge.

Formula: I = Q / t
where I = current (in A)
Q = charge (in C)
t = time taken (in s)
SI Unit: Ampere (A)
Device to measure current: Ammeter

Note:
 Ammeter must be connected in series in a circuit.
 After connecting the ammeter to the circuit, if the needle deflects to the left side of zero mark,
simply
Interchange the connections on the terminal of the ammeter.
 An ideal ammeter has negligible resistance.

Current Flow v.s Electron Flow

Direction of current flow is from positive terminal to negative terminal. It is also known as conventional
current flow.
Electron flow is opposite to conventional current flow. It is from negative terminal to positive terminal.

Note:
When we talk about the direction of current, we mean the conventional current flow (from positive to
negative terminal).
There is a current ONLY when the circuit is completed!

Electric Circuit

Electric circuit is a complete path which charges can flow from one terminal of electric source to
another terminal.
It can be represented by a simple circuit diagram with electric symbols.

Four main components

Electric Source (like cell): a source of e.m.f that drives charges round the circuit
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Switch: to open or close the circuit

Load (like bulb) which moving charges can do a useful job on it
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Wires (copper wire) to connect the components together

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Types of Electric Circuit

(1) Closed Circuit

All electric components are connected together with wires and switch is closed to allow the current
from flowing
through the components.

(2) Open Circuit

There is a break in the circuit such that current is not flowing through the component.

Many reasons
 Missing wire in the circuit
 Switch is open
 Component is not connected properly i.e. loosed. and etc

(3) Short Circuit

A wire acts as an alternative path for current to flow through as it has a lower resistance. Hence, the
current will
pass through the wire instead of bulb. No current passing through the bulb!

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Electromotive Force v.s Potential Difference

Electromotive Force Potential Difference

Definition Work done by the source to drive a Work done to drive a unit charge
unit charge round a complete through a component or across two
circuit. points

Example Cell, Battery Light Bulb

Energy Other forms of energy to electrical Electrical energy to other forms of
Conversion energy energy
Formula ε = W/Q V = W/Q
where ε = e.m.f (in V) where V = p.d (in V)
W = work done (in J) W = work done (in J)
Q = charge (in C) Q = charge (in C)
S.I Unit Volt (V) or J/C Volt (V) or J/C

Note
 Voltmeter must be connected in parallel to the component.
 After connecting the voltmeter to the circuit, if the needle deflects to the left side of zero mark,
simply interchange the connections on the terminal of the voltmeter.
 An ideal voltmeter has very large resistance so no current passing through it.
 (Very Important!!) We cannot say e.m.f of a bulb or p.d of a cell.

Potential at a point
Potential difference can be the difference of potential at any two points. It is not necessarily must be
across an electric component like light bulb or resistor.
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p.d at two points = potential at the higher point – potential at the lower point
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Arrangement of Cells

Cells in Series

Two cells in series with positive terminal of first cell connect to

negative terminal of next cell.
=>emf = 2 * 1.5 = 3.0V

Two cells in series with positive terminal of first cell connect to

positive terminal of next cell.
=>emf = 1.5 – 1.5 = 0V

Two cells in series with positive terminal of first cell connect to positive
terminal of next cell.
=>emf = 2.0 – 1.5 = 0.5V

Note that in this case, current will flow anticlockwise, which is

determined by bigger power source

Cells in Parallel

Two cells in parallel with positive terminal of first cell connect to positive
terminal of next cell and negative to negative terminal.
=>emf = 1.5V for the circuit but it will last longer as compare to only one
cell of 1.5V in the circuit.

Two cells in parallel with positive terminal of first cell connect to

negative terminal of next cell and negative to positive terminal.
=>No emf supplied to the circuit

Resistance

Resistance of a component is the ratio of the potential difference V across it to the current I passing
through it.
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Formula: R = V / I
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where R = resistance (in Ω)

V = p.d (in V)
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I =current (in A)
SI Unit: Ohm (Ω)

Type of Resistors
 Fixed resistor that has a fixed value of resistance.
 Variable resistor (Rheostat) which we can vary the resistance.

Ohm’s Law states that the current passing through a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across it, provided that physical conditions (like temperature) remain constant.

Ohmic Conductors
Ohmic Conductors are conductors that obey ohm’s law. Their resistances are constant and their V– I
or I –V
graphs are a straight line passing through origin.

Experimental Method to determine the Resistance of an Ohmic Conductor

Step 1: Set up the apparatus shown in the circuit diagram

Step 2: Before closing the switch, adjust the rheostat to the maximum resistance.
Step 3: Close the switch and record the ammeter reading I and voltmeter reading V.
Step 4: Adjust the rheostat to allow a larger current to flow and record the ammeter and voltmeter
readings again.
Step 5: Repeat step 4 for at least 5 sets of readings.
Step 6: Plot a graph of V against I.
Step 7: Resistance is the gradient of the V– I graph.

Non-ohmic Conductors
Non-ohmic Conductors are conductors do not obey ohm’s law. Their resistances can be varied and
their V– I or
I –V graphs are not a straight line.
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Filament Lamp Thermistor Diode

Allow current to flow in one

direction only
. Forward Reverse
Biased Biased
Temperature increases, Temperature increases, -Current -No current
Resistance increases Resistance decreases flowing, flowing,
-R is negligible -R is very
(0Ω), large,
-Treated as -Treated as
wire open circuit

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Resistivity

Other than temperature, resistance also depends on

 Length, L
 Cross-sectional area, A or thickness of wire
 Type of material (resistivity, ρ)

Note
The cross-section of a wire is a circle.
Resistivity ρ is a property of the material. It is a constant.
The lower the resistivity, the better the conductor of electricity.

R = ρL⁄A

where R = resistance (in Ω)

ρ = resistivity (in Ωm)
L = length (in m)
A = cross-sectional area (in m2)

R is directly proportional to its length and resistivity;

R is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.

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Series Circuit v.s Parallel Circuit

Series Circuit Parallel Circuit

The current flowing into and out of the

Same current throughout the circuit parallel branches is sum of the
i.e I1 = I2 = I3 individual current in the branch.
i.e I1 = I4 = I2 + I3

p.d across the whole circuit is sum of

Same p.d across the parallel branches
the p.d across each component.
i.e V = V1 = V2
i.e V = V1 + V2

The reciprocal of the combined

resistance issum of the reciprocal of
The combined resistance for the whole individual resistance
circuit is sum of all the resistances. i.e 1⁄Reff = 1⁄R1 + 1⁄R2 or
i.e Reff = R1 + R2
Reff = (1⁄R1 + 1⁄R2)-1
Note that Reff is always larger than the
largest of the individual resistance. Note that Reff is always smaller than
the smallest of the individual
resistance.

Note that “combined resistance” is also known as “effective resistance” or “equivalent resistance”.
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Advantage & Disadvantage of Parallel Circuit
Advantage of Parallel Circuit
Light bulbs connected in parallel are brighter than that connected in series.
When one of the bulbs in parallel circuit blows, others will continue to glow. However, when one
blows in series circuit, the entire circuit will be open. None will glow.

Disadvantage of Parallel Circuit

The power source in parallel circuit will deplete out faster than that in series circuit.

Potential Divider
A potential divider is a simple circuit with resistors arranged in series to obtain a fraction of the main
voltage provided by a voltage supply. The voltage is divided between the resistors;
the greater the value of the resistor, the bigger the proportion of the voltage it will take.

 Two Fixed Resistors

 Variable Resistors
 Potentiometer
 Transducers: Thermistor & LDR

Two Fixed Resistors

Variable Resistor / Rheostat

We can change R1 or R2 to be a variable resistor so that we can easily vary Vout without replacing
the resistors.

Vout = R2⁄(R1 + R2) X V

Case (a): When R1 increases, what Case (b): When R2 increases, what
happen to Vout? happen to Vout?
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When R2 increases,
When R1 increases,
Reff increases
Reff increases
Current decreases as V = IR.
Current decreases as V = IR.
V1 decreases as V1 = IR1 and R1 is a
Vout decreases as Vout = IR2 and R2 is a
fixed resistor.
fixed resistor.
Vout increases as V1 + Vout = V

Note that whenever doing this kind of reasoning,

(1) We have to make sure one of the quantities is a constant.
For example, in case (b), we cannot conclude directly Vout increases or decrease
when current decreases as both current and R2 change.
(2) We have to reason it with current. We cannot simply use the potential divider
formula to explain.

Potentiometer
A potentiometer is a variable resistor that is connected at three terminals shown as points A, B, C.
Contact C is a sliding contact. The position of C determines the ratio of resistance of AC to
BC since resistance is proportional to length (R = ρL / A) for a fixed cross-sectional area.

Note

RAB is always the sum of RAC and RBC. When RAC increases, RBC will decrease or vice verse.
No matter how you move the sliding contact C, the current passing through the potentiometer does
not change as both emf and RAB does not change.

When C is moved towards B, When C is moved towards A,

what happen to Vout? what happen to Vout?

When C is moved towards B, When C is moved towards A,

RAC increases RAC decreases
Vout increases as V=IR Vout decreases as V=IR AC
AC and I is a constant. and I is a constant.

Transducer: Thermistor & LDR

Transducers are devices that transform energy from one form to another. They are used in control
systems, instrumentation and electronic communications.
Input transducers are transducers that change non-electrical energy to electrical energy.
Examples of such transducers are
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 Solar cells
 Microphones
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 Thermistors
 Light Dependent Resistors (LDR)
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 Thermistor

A thermistor is a device that has a resistance changes with temperature. When temperature
increases, the resistance of thermistor decreases. Therefore, it can be used for
temperature control.

Vout = R⁄(R + RTH) X V Vout = RTH⁄(R + RTH) X V

When temperature rises, what happen to Vout?

When temperature rises,

When temperature rises, RTH decreases;
RTH decreases; Effective R decreases;
Effective R decreases; Current increases as V = IR;
Current increases as V = IR; V1 increases as V1 = IR and R is a
Vout increases as Vout = IR fixed resistor.
Vout decreases as V1 + Vout = V

It could be used to activate a fire It could be used to switch on a

alarm, if Vout rises above a certain heater, if Vout fall below a certain
threshold value. threshold value.

LDR is a device that has a resistance changes with light intensity (amount of light) shining on
it. When light intensity increases, its resistance decreases.

Vout = R⁄(R + RLDR) X V Vout = RLDR⁄(R + RLDR) X V

When light intensity rises, what happen to Vout?

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When light intensity rises,

RLDR decreases;
When light intensity rises,
Effective R decreases;
RLDR decreases;
Current increases as V = IR;
Effective R decreases;
V1 increases as V1 = IR and R
Current increases as V = IR;
is a fixed resistor.
Vout increases as Vout = IR
Vout decreases as V1 + Vout =
V

It could be used to activate a It could be used to switch on

burglar alarm, if Vout rises the street lamp, if Vout fall
above a certain threshold below a certain threshold
value. value.

Uses of Electricity
Electricity is widely used in our daily life. By using different electrical appliances, electrical energy is
converted to different forms of energy.

Heating effect of electricity

Heat-generating appliances such as electric kettle, heater, oven, iron and hairdryer etc have
a heating element which converts electrical energy to thermal energy (heat) when current passing
through it. This is heating effect of current. Usually, nichrome wire is used to make the
heating element due to its high resistivity and ability to withstand the high temperature.

Power and Energy

Power is the rate of work done or energy conversion.
SI unit: watt (W)
Other unit: kilowatts (kW) 1kW = 1000 W
In electricity,
P = VI = V2⁄R = I2R
where P = power (in W)
I = current (in A)
V = potential difference (in V)
R = resistance (in Ω)
Hence, we can calculate the work done by the useful electrical energy as
E = Pt = VIt = (V2⁄R)t = I2Rt
where E = electrical energy (in J)
t = time taken (in s)
Note as there are three formulas for calculating power and electrical energy, which formula to use
depend on the given quantities in the question.
However, if comparing the power or electrical energy in series circuit, P = I2R is better as current is
the same f or series circuit.
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If comparing the power of electrical energy in parallel circuit, then P = V2/ R is better as potential
difference is the same for parallel circuit.
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Cost of Electricity
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Normally, we calculate the amount of electrical energy used in kilowatt-hours, kWh (meaning to say
that kWh is the unit for electricity usage) because the cost of electricity consumed is calculated
based on the number of kWh of electrical energy used. i.e 24 cents per kWh in Singapore.

1 kWh = 1kW * 1h
= 1000W * 3600 s
= 3600000 J

Cost of electrical energy = unit cost * the amount of electricity consumed.

Flowchart in finding the total cost:

Power Rating v.s Specification

A light bulb with a specification of “240V, 60 W” means
Under normal working conditions, it requires a potential difference of 240V and a power of 60W.

A light bulb has a power rating 60W means

60 Joules of electrical energy is converted to heat and light energy per unit time. (This is linked to the
definition of power)
Note that resistance is the only constant when the appliance does not connect to the emf or potential
difference required for the appliance to work normally.

Energy Source
Note that we always compare the use of energy sources in terms of energy conversion
efficiency, cost and its environmental impart.

Renewab
Source Efficiency Cost Environmental Impact
le

Solar panel
High efficiency when Clean energy, but requires
Solar cost is high but
Yes there is daylight and large areas to be cleared for
Power cost of fuel is
minimal cloud cover. solar panel installation.
free.

Cost of
Hydroel constructing Clean energy, but dam
Most efficient energy
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ectric Yes and construction disrupts

source
Power maintaining ecosystems.
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power plant is
high.

Cost falling
with improving
technology;
Clean energy, but requires
Wind Efficiency depends on Wind energy is
Yes large open areas and possible
Power wind direction and speed free and costs
noise pollution.
are mainly due
to
maintenance.

Additional cost
incurred for Waste produced can
Nuclear
No High efficiency disposal of contaminate groundwater and
Power
radioactive sources of surface water.
waste.

Cost rising due

Most countries have well- to declining Mining disrupts ecosystems;
Fossil
No established fossil fuel supplies and Burning fossil fuels results in
Fuels
power plants. rising air pollution.
demands.

There are usually three wires in our home circuit:

Potential
Wire Colour Function
of wire

Live (L) 240 V Allows electric current to flow from source to

Brown
wire (high) appliance.

Neutral (N) Allows the same current to return to the source

Blue 0V
wire and complete the circuit.

Earth (E) wire Green/Yellow 0 V Refer to Earthing

Dangers of Electricity
Electricity can be dangerous due to three reasons:
 Damaged Insulation
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 Overheating of Cables
 Damp Environment
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Damaged insulation
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Insulating materials (rubber or PVC) can become worn with time and expose the conducting wires
inside.
This would result in
Severe electric shock leading to serious injury or even death to the users if it is touched.
Short circuit if the live wire touches neutral wire or earth wire, which might result in electric fire.

Overheating of Cables
Overheating of cables occurs when there is an unusual large current passing through the conducting
wires.
This is due to
 Overloaded power sockets. This happens when power socket is overloaded with many
appliances, causing large current flowing through the wires.
 Use of inappropriate wires. Normally, appliances require less power like bulbs use thin wires
while those require more power like hairdryer use thick wires. (Note that Resistance of
wire is inversely proportional to its cross-sectional area.)
This would result in melting of insulation and electrical fire.

Damp Environment
In damp environment like bathing, our body is wet which cause our body resistance to drop drastically
from 100 kΩ (for dry body) to 100 Ω. This allows high current to passing through our body and
causing an electric shock or even death.

Safety Features
Circuit Breakers
Circuit breakers are safety devices that can switch off the electrical supply in a circuit when the
current flowing is greater than its current rating. Without circuit breakers, a surge of current can
actually damage home appliances or even cause a fire.

Two types
Miniature Circuit Breakers (MCB)
Earth Leakage Circuit Breakers (ELCB)

MCB ELCB

Deals with small current leakages (between 10mA

Deals with large current
and 30mA) from live wire to earth wire. Current in live
surge(between 5A to 20A)
wire will thus be greater than neutral wire.

Trip and cut off electrical

supply to the part of house Trip and cut off electrical supply to the whole house
circuit

Due to overloading or a short

circuithas occurred Due to poor insulation of old electrical appliances
somewhere in the system
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Without ELCB, a person touching the metal case of

an electrical appliance with current leakage will
get electrical shock.

(1) Circuit breakers can be easily reset but it should be done only after the electric fault is corrected.
If no, it will cause the circuit breakers to trip again.

(2) Circuit breakers must be connected to live wire.

Reason:
When the current flowing exceeds the current rating, a circuit breaker on live wire will trip and cut off
the electrical supply to the home circuit.

Fuse
A fuse is safety device to prevent excessive current flow and hence protect wires and electrical
appliance from overheating and damaged. It has the same function as circuit breaker. However,
unlike a circuit breaker that can be reset after it trips, a fuse must be replaced after it blows.
A fuse is actually a short thin piece of wire (alloy of tin and lead). If the current flowing through it is too large
the wire heats up and melts. This causes the circuit to be open.

Points to take note:

(1) Fuse Rating

All fuses have a rated value. The value (fuse rating) indicates the maximum current that can flow
through a fuse before it blows. The fuse should be chosen at a rating slightly higher than the
current the electrical appliance draws under normal working conditions.
If a fuse with a much higher rating is chosen, it will allow a current much greater than the current
drawn by the appliance to pass. This large current will cause the appliance to overheat and be
damaged before the fuse blows.
If a fuse with a lower rating is chosen, the fuse will melt very quickly and break the circuit. The
appliance might not work.

Common fuse rating: 1A, 2A, 3A, 5A, 10A, 13A, 15A and 30A

(2) A fuse must be connected to live wire.

Reason:
When the current flowing exceeds its current rating, the fuse will melt and disconnect the high
potential of 240 V from the appliance if the fuse is connected to live wire. If fuse is
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connected to the neutral wire, the high potential of the live wire is not being cut off and the
user might get electric shock when touched although the fuse is melt.
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Switch
Switches are designed to break or complete an electric circuit.
Switches must be fitted to the live wire so that switching off disconnects the high potential from the
appliance.

Three-pin Plug
Three-pin Plug is also known as a safety plug.

Safety features:
The cartridge fuse protects the appliance when there is an electrical fault.
The earth wire protects the user from electric shocks in the event that an
electrical fault causes the appliance to be live.

Earthing
The Earth wire is a low-resistance wire. It is usually connected to the metal casing of the appliance
and is used to protect the user from electric shock.
Scenario 1: No earth wire 62

When a fault occurs and the live wire touches the metal casing, the metal casing becomes “live”, i.e. at high
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Since circuit is not completed, there is no current flow and the fuse does not blow.

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If a user accidentally touches the metal casing, the user completes the circuit and a large current flow
through him. The user gets electrocuted.

Our body resistance is very high (dry skin about 100 kΩ, wet skin about 100Ω), current less than fuse
rating, fuse will not blow
Scenario 2: With earth wire

When a fault occurs and the live wire touches the metal casing, a surge of current flows from live
wire, through metal casing, to the ground via the earth wire creates a short circuit. Current
exceeds the fuse rating, so the fuse melts and opens the circuit. When a user
accidentally touches the metal casing, he is protected as the “live” has already been cut off.

Double Insulation
Some electrical plugs have only two pins. These appliances do not have an earth wire. Instead, they
have double insulation to protect users from electric shocks.

Two levels of insulation

The electric cables are insulated from the internal components of the appliance.
The internal components are insulated from the outer casing.
Appliances with this feature normally have non-metallic casings (like plastic casing).
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Properties of Magnet
(1)All magnets have two poles: North-seeking pole and South-seeking pole. The magnetic effect is
strongest at the poles.
North-seeking pole (North Pole, N) is the end of the magnet that points to the northern end of the
Earth.
South-seeking pole (South Pole, S) is the end of the magnet that points to the southern end of the
Earth.
Note that when a magnet is cut into pieces, each piece itself is a small magnet with a North pole and
a South pole.
(2) A freely suspended magnet always comes to rest in a North-South direction.
(3) Law of Magnetism: Like poles repel, unlike poles attract.
(4) Magnets attract magnetic materials.
Magnetic Materials are materials that can be magnetized or attracted by magnets. For example: iron,
steel, cobalt, nickel
Non-Magnetic Materials are materials that cannot be magnetized or attracted by magnets. For
example:
copper, aluminum and non-metals
(5) Repulsion is the only test to determine if a given object is a magnet as attraction can occur
between two magnets or between a magnet and a magnetic material

Magnetic Induction
Magnetic induction is a process where a magnetic material becomes an induced magnet when it is
brought
near to or in contact with a magnet.
The magnetic material (i.e iron bar) becomes an induced magnet with the end nearer the magnet
having opposite pole to that of the magnet. Thus, it is attracted to the magnet as unlike poles attract.
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Note
Magnetic induction has to occur before the attraction of magnetic material by a magnet.
Induced magnetism is a temporary process. If the permanent magnet is removed, the magnetic
material will usually lose its induced magnetism.

Types of Magnetic Material

Soft Magnetic Material Hard Magnetic Material

i.e Iron i.e Steel

Easy to be magnetized and demagnetized Hard to be magnetized and demagnetized

Do not retain its magnetism Retain its magnetism

To make temporary magnets like To make permanent magnets like

electromagnets used in a scrapyard. magnetic door catch

Magnetic Domain
A magnet is made up of many magnetic domains.
Magnetic domain is a group of atomic magnets pointing in the same direction.
Atomic magnet is represented by an arrow with arrowhead as a North pole and tail as a South Pole.

In a magnetized bar, the magnetic domains are all pointed in the same direction as shown above.
The North and South poles of adjacent domains cancel each other out except the poles at the both
ends,
and hence producing North and South poles at the ends.
Note that every magnet has a maximum strength. We say it is magnetically saturated and cannot be
any stronger. This occurs when all the magnetic domains pointed in one direction.
However, in an unmagnetized bar, the magnetic domains are pointed in the random directions such
that the magnetic effects of the atomic magnets are cancelled out. Thus, the bar is not magnetized.
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Method of Magnetisation

Stroking Method

Procedure:
The steel bar is stroked with the same pole of the permanent magnet from one end to the other end in
one direction.
The stroking magnet has to be lifted sufficiently high above the steel bar between successive strokes.
The steel bar will become a magnet with pole produced at the end where the strokes finish is
opposite to
the stroking pole used as the atomic magnets in the domain are attracted to the stroking pole.
Note:
When using two magnets, the stroking pole used in each magnet has to be opposite, and they stroke
the
steel bar in opposite direction.
Using two magnets to stoke is faster than that using one magnet.
Stroking method only produces weak magnets.

Electrical Method using a direct current

Procedure:
Connect the solenoid to a direct current (d.c) supply.
Place the steel bar inside the solenoid.
Switch on the d.c supply.
When current flows through the solenoid, a strong magnetic field is produced which magnetise the
steel bar.
The pole of the magnetized steel bar is determined by Right Hand Grip Rule.
Note:
Solenoid is made up of several hundred turns of copper wire.
Electrical method is the most effective method of magnetization. It is much quicker than stroking
method
and produces strong magnets.
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Right Hand Grip Rule

Right hand grip rule is used to determine the pole of a permanent magnet produced using electrical
method.
Thumb represents the North pole of a magnet;
Curling fingers represents the direction of current flow.
How?
Step 1: Grip the solenoid with right hand such that the fingers are curled in the direction of current
flow.
Step 2: The thumb represents the North pole of a magnet.

Method of Demagnetisation
The main idea of demagnetization is to cause the magnetic domain to point in random directions.

Heating
When heated with Bunsen burner, the atoms of the magnet will vibrate vigorously and cause the
magnetic domains to lose their alignment. Letting the magnet cool in the East−West direction will
ensure that the domains will not realign.

Hammering
Hammering a magnet in the East−West direction alters the alignment of the magnetic domains and
causes
the magnet to lose its magnetism.

Electrical Method using an Alternative Current (a.c)

Procedure:
Connect the solenoid to an alternating current (a.c) supply.
Place the magnet inside the solenoid
Switch on a.c supply
Slowly withdraw the magnet in East-West direction until it is some distance away from the solenoid
while a.c. current still on.
Electrical method is the most effective method of demagnetization.
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Magnetic Field
A magnetic field is the region around a magnet where a magnetic material experiences a magnetic
force.
Magnetic field is a vector quantity! It can be graphically represented by magnetic field lines which
indicate
its strength and direction.
Using Iron Filings
Procedure:
Step 1: Place a hard thin piece of plastic on the magnet;
Step 2: Sprinkle iron filings around it;
Step 3: Tap the plastic gently and the iron filings will arrange themselves in a pattern that is similar to
the magnetic field pattern.
Step 4: Use a plotting compass to find the direction of the magnetic field lines.

Using Plotting Compass

Procedure:
Step 1: Trace out the magnet at the center of the paper;
Step 2: Start by positioning the compass near one pole of the magnet.
Step 3: Mark out two dots, A and B that are aligned with the direction of compass needle.
Step 4: Move the compass so that the end of the needle is now directly over B and mark out third dot
C.
Step 5: Repeat the process until the compass comes back to another pole of magnet.
Step 6: Join all the dots and this will give the pattern of magnetic field line.
Step 7: Repeat the whole process by starting at different points of magnet, a magnetic field pattern
will be obtained.

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Note:
Magnetic field pattern is not just 2-dimension. It occurs in 3-dimension. This means when we place a
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compass above or below the magnet, it will still point from N pole to S pole of the magnet.
Without a magnet (external force), the compass always points to N pole of Earth.
With a magnet, under the influence of magnetic effect from the magnet, the compass will align and
point along the direction of the magnetic field lines from the magnet at that point where it placed.

Magnetic Field Pattern between Magnets

Note that point X is a neutral point where the magnetic fields from both magnets cancel out each
other. There is no magnetic effect at X

Magnetic Field Pattern between Flat Magnets

Arc only occurs at the edge of flat magnets.
The magnetic field between two flat magnets are uniform, thus parallel magnetic field lines. 69
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Effect of Magnetic Material on Field Lines
Magnetic materials like iron concentrate the magnetic field lines.

Magnetic Shielding
As mentioned above, magnetic materials like iron concentrate the magnetic field lines and divert them
out from the ends. Using this principle, these magnetic materials can act as magnetic shielding.
Magnetic shielding is to prevent surrounding magnetic field lines from reaching the magnetic sensitive
equipments (like MRI scanner) whose operation may be affected by the fields.

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Magnetic Effect of a Current
A current-carrying conductor produces a magnetic field around it.
A straight current-carrying wire produces a concentric circular magnetic field lines around it.
The magnetic field is stronger when closer to the wire. Thus, the field lines near the wire are closer
together.
The direction of magnetic field is again determined by the Right Hand Grip Rule. However, now
the thumb is the direction of current and curling fingers represents the direction of magnetic field.

For solenoid (in Magnetism) For a single wire

Diagram

Thumb North pole Current

Curling Fingers Current Magnetic field

Example:
Compass A is below the wire;
Compass B and C are besides the wire;
Compass D is above the wire.
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When switch is open, all compasses point to North.

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When switch is closed, by Right Hand Grip Rule, the compasses point to respective directions as shown.

Note that B and C still point to North instead of pointing downwards or upwards as the needle of the
compass wont “stand up” in that way as shown

Field Pattern around One Wire

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Note that the stronger the current flowing, the stronger the magnetic field strength produced.

Field Pattern between Two Wires

Flowing current in each wire produces its own magnetic field lines and interact with those produced
by another wire, which resulting in a combined magnetic field lines.

Concepts for combined magnetic field:

 Magnetic field lines must not cross each other.
 Magnetic field strength decreases with increasing distance from the wire.
 Magnetic field lines at same direction => strengthen the magnetic effect
 Magnetic field lines at opposite direction => weaken the magnetic effect

Wires with like current

Like current means the current in the wires flow in the same direction.

① Field lines at opposite direction and equidistant from wires

=> Complete cancellation

② Field lines at opposite direction but not equidistant from wires

=> Weaken
=> Field lines are further from the wire

③ Field lines at same direction

=> Strengthen
=> Field lines are closer to the wire

Likewise for unlike current where current in the wires flow in the opposite direction.
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Field Pattern around a Flat Coil

It is same as the field pattern for unlike current.

Field Pattern around a Solenoid

Solenoid is several hundred turns on a coil.

By combining each field pattern formed by a flat coil, we will get a field pattern around a solenoid as
shown below.

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Its pattern is quite similar to that of a bar magnet. Thus, we can say that it acts like an electromagnet
with two poles. The polarity of solenoid can be determined by Right Hand Grip Rule. However, unlike
magnet, there are no field lines coming out from the side of solenoid.

To increase magnetic field strength in a solenoid, we can

 Increase the current flowing through it;
 Increase the number of turns on the coil per unit length;
 Insert a soft iron core into the solenoid.

Note
The magnetic field is stronger inside the solenoid.
The magnetic field lines are parallel inside the solenoid, which means the magnetic field strength is
uniform inside the solenoid.
Like Magnet, the direction of magnetic field is from South pole to North pole within the solenoid while
the direction of magnetic field is from North pole to South pole outside the solenoid,

Application of Electromagnet

Circuit Breaker

When the circuit breaker is at ‘ON’ position, current is below the limit and magnetic field produced by
the solenoid is too weak to attract the iron lever. Springy metal are still in contact with the contact and
the circuit is completed. Current flows normally through the circuit.
When there is a sudden surge of current (electric fault like short circuit), the magnetic field produced
by the solenoid now is very strong. Iron lever will be attracted to it and spring will be able to pull the
springy metal out such that the springy metal is no longer in contact with the contact and the circuit is
open. The electromagnet then loses its magnetism and no longer attract the iron lever, which in turn
falls back.
After the electric fault is repaired, the user can reset the circuit breaker by pushing in the reset button,
which pushes the springy metal to be in contact with the contact again and close the circuit.
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Electric Bell

When the bell button is pushed down, the circuit is closed and current starts to flow. The
electromagnet becomes magnetized and attracts the iron armature towards it, which causes the
hammer to hit the gong.

At the moment the hammer moves towards the gong, the circuit is open as armature is no longer in
contact with the contact. The electromagnet then loses its magnetism such that the springy metal is
able to pull back the iron armature to be in contact with the contact and closes the circuit
again. The cycle repeats when the user presses the button again.

Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor

When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the conductor will experience a
force. This effect on the conductor is called the Motor Effect.

How? Interaction between magnetic fields

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Magnetic field from magnet interacts with the magnetic field due to current in the wire. A combined
magnetic field is produced which is stronger at region A and weaker at region B. A
force then acts on the wire from the stronger field to the weaker field.

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Force between Two Current-Carrying Wires

Like current Unlike current

(currents in similar direction) (currents in opposite direction)

Magnetic fields due to currents in both Magnetic fields due to currents in both
wires will interact resulting in a wires will interact resulting in a
combined magnetic field. A weak field combined magnetic field. A strong field
exists between the two wires while exists between the two wires while
a strong field exists on the left and right a weak field exists on the left and right
of each wire. A force is thus produced of each wire. A force is thus produced
on each wire from the stronger field to on each wire from the stronger field to
weaker field. Thus the wires attract. weaker field. Thus the wires repel.

Like currents attract, Unlike currents repel.

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Besides using the Interaction between magnetic field method, we can actually determine the direction
of force easily by means of Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
Fleming’s Left Hand Rule states that the direction of force (indicated by Thumb) is perpendicular to
both the direction of magnetic field from North pole to South pole (indicated by Index Finger) and the
direction of current (indicated by Middle Finger).

Fleming’s Left Hand Rule

Note
 We have to hold the Thumb, Index Finger and Middle Finger at right angles to each other as
shown in the below diagram.
 We must not mix up the fingers and their represented terms. To help us remember this rule
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better, we can memorize it as Father, Mother, Child, where F is Force (thumb), M is Magnetic
Field (index finger), C is Current (middle finger).
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From Fleming's Left Hand Rule, we can clearly see that the direction of force depends on
 the direction of magnetic field, and
 the direction of current.

If the direction of current is parallel to direction of magnetic field, there will be NO force produced. The
magnitude of force is maximum when the direction of current is perpendicular to the
direction of magnetic field.

Force on a Moving Charge

In Current Electricity, we have learnt that current is defined as the rate of flow of charge.
The direction of movement of positively charged particle is same as the direction of current while the
direction of movement of negatively charged particle is same as electron flow, which is opposite to
the direction of current.

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Force on a Current-Carrying Coil

By Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, current in coil section AB causes an upward force to act on AB and
current in CD causes a downward force to act on CD. This produces a clockwise turning effect.

Note
These two forces are same in magnitude but opposite in direction.
No force acting on BC and AD as the direction of current is parallel to the direction of magnetic field.

When the coil has rotated through 90°, opposing forces ‘cancel’ each other out and the coil continues
to rotate pass through the vertical position due to inertial.
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When the coil passing through vertical position, the force acting on AB is still upward while that acting
on CD is still downward. Hence, the coil rotates anticlockwise now.

As a result, the coil would reverse its direction of rotation whenever it passes through the vertical
position until it stops as it always experiences an opposing moment when passing through vertical
position.

Disadvantage:

 The coil does not rotate continuously.

 The wires are entangled while rotating.

d.c Motor

A d.c. motor makes use of the turning effect of a current-carrying coil in a magnetic field to convert
electrical energy into mechanical energy.

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Features Function Moving/Fixed

Magnet To provide a magnetic field Fixed

To reverse the direction of the current in the

coil every half a revolution (or whenever it
Split Ring
changes contact from one brush to another). This Moving
Commutator
ensures that the coil always rotates in the same
direction.

To make good electrical contact with

Carbon Brush Fixed
theexternal and internal circuits.

Axle Supports the coil during motion Fixed

How does it work?

Current flows from Q to Y, goes through the coil ABCD and out through X to P.
Using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, a downward force acts on AB and an upward force on CD. The coil
thus rotates clockwise about axle until it reaches the vertical position.
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When coil is at vertical position, no current flows as neither X nor Y is in contact with P or Q.

The momentum of the coil, however, carries it past the vertical position.

The half ring Y now touches P and X touches Q. Current flows from Q to X, goes through the coil
DCBA and out through Y to P. (Current is reversed in the coil).
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Use Fleming’s Left Hand Rule, a downward force acts on CD and an upward force on AB. The coil
continues to rotate in clockwise direction.
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Factors affecting d.c motor

The turning effect of coil can be increased by

 Increasing the current in the coil

 Increasing the number of turns on the coil per unit length
 Using a stronger magnet
 Inserting a soft iron core into the coil

Faraday’s Solenoid Experiment

When magnet is stationary inside or outside the solenoid, no deflection of galvanometer pointer.

When magnet is inserted into the solenoid, the galvanometer pointer deflects in one direction.

When magnet is withdrawn from the solenoid, the galvanometer pointer deflects in opposite direction.

When there is a relative motion between the solenoid and the magnet, there is an induced emf, which
drives an induced current such that the galvanometer pointer deflects.

Note:
The deflection of pointer is momentary deflection, which means the pointer kicks to a value then
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come back to central position (value of 0).

There is an induced current ONLY when the circuit is CLOSED! But emf is always induced whenever
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there is a relative motion.

Also, there are two ways to do this experiment:
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 Fixing solenoid and moving magnet
 Fixing magnet and moving solenoid

Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Faraday’s Law of Induction

Faraday's Law of Induction states that the magnitude of the induced e.m.f. in a circuit is directly
proportional to the rate of change of magnetic field lines cutting it.

The “rate” here is associated with the speed of the movement of magnet / coil. When the speed
changes, the magnitude of induced emf will change accordingly.

Note that when the question does not mention about speed, we do not need to explain the question
with the “rate”. An explanation with “a change in magnetic field lines cutting the coil” is sufficient.

The below illustration shows the meaning of a CHANGE in magnetic field lines cutting the coil.

From position 1 to position 2, the number of magnetic field lines cutting the coil changes from 1 to 5,
hence, there is an increase (change) in the magnetic field lines cutting the coil when the magnet
moves from position 1 to position 2. Thus, an emf is induced during this movement.

Note that when we know the change (either increase or decrease), we have to state so.

The magnitude of induced emf can be increased by

 Increasing the number of turns in the solenoid per unit length
 Increasing the strength of magnet
 Move the magnet into or out the solenoid faster (look at question to see whether magnet or
solenoid is moving. Also, whether it moves in or out. Then, change this factor
accordingly.)
 Insert soft iron core into the solenoid

Lenz’s Law
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Lenz's law states that the direction of the induced e.m.f. (and hence induced current in a closed
circuit) is always such that its magnetic effect opposes the change producing it.
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By Lenz’s Law, when magnet is inserted into the solenoid, a North pole will be induced on the right
side of coil to oppose the incoming North pole. By Right Hand Grip Rule, the induced current will flow
anticlockwise so that pointer deflects to right.

By Lenz’s Law, when magnet is withdrawn from the solenoid, a South pole will be induced on the
right side of coil to oppose the outgoing North pole. By Right Hand Grip Rule, the induced current will
flow clockwise so that pointer deflects to left.

Note that although the direction of induced emf opposes the change producing it, it still occurs. This
means the magnet will still go into the solenoid or leave the solenoid but it takes a little bit longer due
to opposing force.

The following analogy might help to understand the Lenz’s Law better.
 For example, your class is very united and close. Suddenly one student wants to study
overseas, you will try to oppose this and wish him to stay. Nevertheless, he will still go
overseas.
 Likewise, when another student suddenly transfers into your class, you try to against this
initially, and yet the student still joins your class.
Note:
 Faraday’s Law gives the magnitude of induced emf while Lenz’s Law gives the direction of the
induced emf.
 Lenz’s Law is an example of principle of Conservation of Energy. Mechanical work is done to
against the opposing force experienced by the moving magnet, and this work is converted into
electrical energy as indicated by induced current flowing in the circuit.
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Fleming's Right Hand Rule

For a straight conductor (i.e wire) moves at an angle in a magnetic field, an e.m.f (and hence current)
is induced. The direction of induced current can be determined by Fleming’s Right Hand
Rule. However, if the direction of movement is parallel to the direction of magnetic field, no
e.m.f (and hence current) is induced.

Fleming’s Right Hand Rule states that the direction of induced current (indicated by Middle Finger) is
perpendicular to both the direction of magnetic field from North pole to South pole (indicated by
Index Finger) and the direction of movement or motion (indicated by Thumb).

Note:
We have to hold the Thumb, Index Finger and Middle Finger at right angles to each other as shown in
the above diagram. We must not mix up the fingers and the represented terms.

From Fleming's Right Hand Rule, we can clearly see that the direction of induced current depends on
 the direction of magnetic field, and
 the direction of movement or motion.

If the direction of movement is parallel to direction of magnetic field, there will be NO induced current
produced. The magnitude of induced current is maximum when the direction of movement is
perpendicular to the direction of magnetic field.

Fleming's Right Hand Rule v.s Fleming's Left Hand Rule

As we have also learnt Fleming’s Left Hand Rule in previous chapter Electromagnetism, many
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students have problems in deciding which rule to use. The following guide would help you in this.
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Force is produced such that the coil moves or

rotates.
Use Fleming’s Left Hand
Rule

Current is supplied by power source.

Force is applied to move or rotate the coil.

Use Fleming’s Right Hand

Rule
Current is induced.
No power source.

a.c Generator

An a.c generator makes use of electromagnetic induction to convert mechanical energy into useful
electrical energy.

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Features Function

Magnet To provide a magnetic field.

To transfer the alternating induced current in the coil

to the external circuit.
Slip Rings
Note that it is not to reverse the direction of induced
current every half a revolution.

Carbon To make good electrical contact with

Brush the externaland internal circuits.

The coil cuts the magnetic field of the magnets as it

Coil
rotates and thus induced current flows.

How does it work?

As the coil is rotating clockwise, when coil is horizontal, by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, the induced
current will flow in the direction of ABCD in the coil and exit from Q to external circuit and
then back to internal circuit at P.
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When coil rotates 90° (at vertical position), no current induced in the coil.

When coil rotates 180° (again at horizontal position), by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, the induced
current will flow in the direction of DCBA in the coil and exit from P to external circuit and
then back to internal circuit at Q.
Note that the direction of induced current reverses its direction every half a cycle.

When coil rotates 270° (at vertical position), no current induced in the coil.

When coil rotates 360°, it backs to its starting position.

Note:
 Unlike d.c motor, the shorter wire AB is always in contact with Slip Ring P while longer wire CD
is always in contact with Slip Ring Q during rotation.
 For position 1 and 5, Slip Ring P is negative while Q is positive. However, for position 3, Slip
Ring P is positive while Q is negative.

Reason:
a.c generator works as a power supply. For position 1 and 5, by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule, induced
current flows out from Slip Ring Q and back to coil from Ring P. Since current flows out
from positive terminal to negative terminal, the Slip Ring Q must be positive. Likewise for
position 3, Ring P must be positive.
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Graph of magnitude of induced emf (or current)

Note that the graph is a sine graph or cosine graph depends on the starting position.
When the coil starts from horizontal position, it is a cosine graph;
When the coil starts from vertical position, it is a sine graph.

Factors affecting a.c Generator

 The magnitude of induced emf can be increased by

 Increasing the number of turns on the coil per unit length
 Increasing the strength of magnet
 Insert soft iron core into the coil
 Increasing the frequency of rotation of the coil
Note that first three factors only affect the magnitude of induced emf while frequency of rotation
affects both the magnitude and frequency of induced emf.
d.c Motor v.s a.c Generator

d.c motor a.c generator

Both have carbon brushes, magnets, copper coil, and rotating shaft.

Both involve energy conversion from one form to another.

Electrical energy to mechanical energy Mechanical energy to electrical energy

Need power source No power source

Use Split Ring Use Slip Rings

Use Fleming’s Left Hand Rule Use Fleming’s Right Hand Rule
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Faraday’s Iron Ring Experiment

From Electromagnetism, we know that

When switch is open, there is no current flowing in coil A, and hence no magnetic field in coil A linking
coil B.
When switch is closed, there is a current flowing in coil A, and hence a magnetic field in coil A linking
coil B.

Therefore,
At the moment when switch is closed, current in coil A increases from 0 to maximum which produces
an increasing magnetic field in coil A linking coil B. By Faraday’s Law, there is an induced emf and
hence induced current, thus, the pointer deflects momentarily.
When switch remains closed, current in coil A is the same and hence there is no change in the
magnetic field in coil A linking coil B. Thus, there is no induced emf.

At the moment when switch is open, current in coil A decreases from maximum to 0 which produces a
decreasing magnetic field in coil A linking coil B. By Faraday’s Law, there is an induced emf and
hence induced current, thus, the pointer deflects momentarily in opposite direction.

Conclusion:
In order for induced current to flow continuously, we have to keep on opening and closing the switch
to cause a change in magnetic field in coil A linking coil B. However, this is very troublesome and
impractical. Therefore, we have to use an alternating current (a.c) supply to produce a continuous
changing magnetic field and this leads us to the construction of transformers.

Transformer

A transformer is a device that can change a high alternating voltage to a low alternating voltage, or
vice verse.

A transformer consists of two coils of wire:

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 Primary coil that connects to an a.c supply;

 Secondary coil that connects to a load.
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How does it work?

Ns = number of turns in secondary coil

Np = number of turns in primary coil
Vs = secondary output voltage
Vp = primary input voltage
Is = current in secondary coil
Ip = current in primary coil
① The primary coil is connected to an alternating voltage Vp.
② The alternating current in primary coil produces a continuous changing magnetic field in the
laminated soft iron core.
③ Since this is linked to secondary coil, an e.m.f Vs is induced in the secondary coil and induced
current Is flows through the load.

Types of Transformer

Step-up Transformer Step-down Transformer

To increase the output voltage Vs To decrease the output voltage Vs

Ns > Np Ns < Np
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Vs > Vp Vs < Vp
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Is < Ip Is > Ip

Efficiency of Transformer

For an ideal transformer (100% efficient),

However, in practical, there is always a power loss in transformer.

Causes of power loss Ways to minimize it

Use thicker coils to reduce the

Resistance of the coils resistance of the coil as R=
(ρL)/A

Eddy current induced in the soft iron core Use laminated soft iron core

Loss of magnetic field lines between

-
primary and secondary coils

Hysteresis loss caused by the flipping of

magnetic poles in the soft iron core due to -
a.c supply

For a non-ideal transformer,

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Input power in primary coil = power loss in transformer + output power in secondary coil
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Use of Transformer

 Electrical power transmission from power stations to households and industries.

 Regulating voltages for the proper operation of electrical appliances.

Transmission of Electricity

During the transmission of electricity from power plant to households and industries, there is always a
power loss in the form of heat (Joule heating = I2R) due to the resistance in the
transmission cables.

There are two ways to minimize this power loss:

 Use thicker cables to reduce the resistance of the cables as R = pL / A. However, thicker
cables increase the cable and construction costs.
 Transmit the power at high voltage so that the current flowing in the cables is lower. Thus,
power loss is lower as Ploss = I2R. This can be easily done by using a step-up transformer.

The below diagram shows how transmission of electricity happens in real life.

① Electricity produced in power plant is stepped up by a step-up transformer;

② High voltage electricity is transmitted through transmission cables;
③ Step-down transformers then step down the voltage to suitable values for use.

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Radioactivity
Isotopes of an atom can be stable or unstable (radio-isotopes). A nucleus is unstable IF it contains
too many neutrons and/or protons. The unstable nuclei will try to become more stable by ejecting
particles. The process of ejecting the particles is called radioactivity. Radioactive emission of particles
from the nucleus of mass is in the form of alpha particles or beta particles, sometimes accompanied
by the emission of energy in the form of gamma rays.

Radioactive decay is a random and spontaneous process in which an unstable nucleus will
disintegrate into a more stable configuration by the emission of alpha-particles (helium nuclei), beta-
particles (electrons) and/or gamma radiation (short-wavelength electromagnetic waves).

Henri Becquerel (1896) accidentally discovered that a double salt of uranium and potassium give off
sub-atomic particles and/or radiation energies, when it is exposed to a photographic plate. Soon
thereafter it was found that all uranium compounds and the metal itself were similarly radioactive.

Radiation Detectors
Geiger-Muller Tube
[Can detect: Alpha, Beta and Gamma]

 A GM-tube is the most useful radiation detector used for determining the intensity of a beam of
radiation or for counting individual charge particles.
 The tube contains argon gas at low pressure.
 The end of the tube is sealed by a mica 'window' thin enough to allow alpha particles to pass
into the tube as well as beta and gamma radiation.
 When a charged particle or gamma-radiation enters the tube, the argon gas becomes ionized.
This triggers a whole avalanche of ions between the electrodes.
 For a brief moment, the gas conducts and a pulse of current flows in the circuit.
 The circuit includes either a scaler or a ratemeter. A scaler counts the pulses and shows the
total on a display.
 A ratemeter indicates the number of pulses or counts per second. The complete apparatus is
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often called a Geiger counter.

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The actual reading of a GM tube is calculated as follow:

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Background reading is produced by radioactive materials from Earth and the surroundings such as
stones, sand, soils, etc and also from the cosmic rays in the sunlight.

The GM tube can detect alpha particles, beta particles and gamma rays

Types of Radioactive Emission

Alpha Particle

 carries positive charge.

 most strongly ionizing of the nuclear radiations.
 least penetrating. Range in air is only a few centimetres, and can be stopped by a thick sheet
of paper.

Beta Particle

 carry a negative charge.

 much less ionizing than alpha emission.
 more penetrating than alpha emission..
 have a range of a metre or so in air,
 can be stopped by a few millimetres of Perspex or aluminium.
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Gamma Radiation

 often emitted at the same time as an alpha or beta particle.

 least ionizing of the nuclear radiations,
 most penetrating.
 their intensity is greatly reduced by several centimetres of lead, but they are never completely
absorbed.

Ionising Effect

 All alpha, beta and gamma emission can cause ionising effect.
 Alpha particle has high ionizing power. Beta particle has low ionizing power.
 Gamma ray has very low ionizing power.
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Penetrating Power

Deflection in Electric Field

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Deflection in Magnetic Field

 Alpha and beta emission can be deflected by a magnetic field.

 The direction of deflection can be determined by using Fleming’s Left Hand Rule.
 Beta particle deflected more compare to alpha particle due to its much smaller mass.

Summary

Characteristic Alpha Particle Beta Particle Gamma Ray

Symbol α β γ
Nature Nucleus of Helium High speed electron Electromagnetic wave
Charge +2 -1 Neutral
Ionizing Effect strong weak Very weak
Absorbed by Sheet of writing paper About 5mm of Never fully absorded.
aluminium 25mm of lead reduces
intensity to half
Deflection in Can be deflected Can be deflected Not deflected
Electric Field
Deflection in Can be deflected Can be deflected Not deflected
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magnetic Field
Speed Up to 10% of the Up to 90% of the Speed of light
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Alpha Decay

𝐴 𝐴−4 4
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍−2𝑌 + 2𝐻𝑒

 During an alpha decay, a radioactive atom X decay and emits an alpha particle.
 Atom X losses 2 neutron and 2 proton and become atom Y.

Beta decay
𝐴 𝐴 0
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍+1𝑌 + −1𝑒

 A beta particles is an electron emitted from a nucleus.

 The beta particles are very small and move with very high speed.
 During a beta decay, a radioactive atom X decay and emits a beta particle.
 One of the neutron is disintegrated to become proton and electron. The electron is emitted out
from the nucleus whereas the proton stay in the nucleus.
1 1 0
0𝑛 → 1𝑝 + −1𝑒

Therefore proton number increase by 1 and the nucleon number remain unchanged.

Gamma Emission

Gamma emission causes no change in nucleon number or proton number.

𝐴 𝐴
𝑍𝑋 → 𝑍𝑋 + 𝛾

Half-life
The half-life ( T1/2 ) of a quantity subject to exponential decay is the time required for the quantity
(mass, number of atom or activity) to decay to half of its initial value.
The decay curve of a radioactive source can be found experimentally - provided the activity of the
source decreases over a practicable time period (minutes, hours or days for example).
The corrected count-rate is then plotted against time to give the decay curve. The half-life of the
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Nuclear Reaction
In a nuclear reaction, the mass of the parent particles will become less (know as mass defect). The
defected mass is then converted into energy called the nuclear energy.
In short, nuclear energy is the energy released owing to the defect of mass in a nuclear reaction.
There are 2 types of nuclear reaction
 nuclear fission
 nuclear fusion

Nuclear Fission
 Nuclear fission is a process involving the splitting of a heavy nucleus into two nuclei of roughly
equal mass and shooting out several neutrons at the same time.
 Nuclear fission seldom occurs spontaneously. Usually, it occurs when the heavy nucleus is
bombarded by a neutron.
 Fission reaction resulting from neutron absorption is called induced fission. Nuclei that undergo
fission without initial neutron absorption are undergoing spontaneous fission.

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Chain Reaction
If neutrons from the fission of uranium-235 continue to split other nuclei causing further fission, a
chain reaction has occurred.
The number of nuclei which undergo fission multiplies rapidly.
In order for a chain reaction to take place, a minimum of one neutron from each fission must trigger
further fission.
At the same time, the mass of fission material must exceed a certain minimal mass known as
the critical mass. If the material is less than this value, too many neutrons escape without hitting
nuclei, preventing a chain reaction from happening.

Nuclear Fusion
In nuclear fusion, two or more small and light nuclei come together to form a heavier nucleus.

This process is accompanied by the release of a huge amount of energy.

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Below are two examples of fusion reactions:

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Fusion is much more difficult to achieve than fission because the hydrogen nuclei repel each other.
Therefore, the nuclei must be heated to 108 K or more so that the nuclei will have
enough of kinetic energy to overcome the electrical repulsion between the nuclei.

Example

The Sun get its energy from the fusion of hydrogen nuclei.
A hydrogen bomb uses the principle of nuclear fusion for its design.

Uses of Radioisotope

Uses of Radioisotope in Industry

Monitoring Content of Food

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Monitoring Thickness of Steel/paper Sheet

Detecting Underground Leakage

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Uses of Radioisotope in Medical
Radiotherapy
Gamma rays of cobalt-60 can be used to destroy cancer cells in patients. This treatment is known as
radiotherapy.

Tracer to Detect Blood Clots or Tumour

A small amount of sodium-24 is injected into the patient's body. Radioactive imaging is then used to
detect accumulation of sodium-24 and therefore detect tumours and blood clots before they become
dangerous.

Sterilising Medical Instrument

Gamma ray emitted from radioactive cobalt-60 can kill germs such as bacteria and fungus.
Medical instruments such as surgical equipment, syringes and bandages can be sterilised by using
gamma rays.

Heart Pacemaker
A heart pacemaker is a medical device which uses electrical pulses to contract the heart muscles,
and hence to regulate the beating of the heart. Plutonium-238 in a nuclear battery is used to produce
small electric shocks in the heart pacemaker. People with irregular heartbeats need to have
a heart pacemaker implanted inside their chest.

Tracer to Investigate Activities of Thyroid Glands

A radioactive tracer is a substance containing a radioisotope that is used for tracking purposes.
In medicine, radioactive substances are introduced into the body of patients and the radiation emitted
is detected by using a gamma camera. This diagnostic process is known as radioactive imaging.
In medicine, radioactive iodine-123 or iodine-125 is introduced into patient's body.
The rate of accumulation of radioactive iodine in thyroid glands is measured through radioactive
imaging. This is used to evaluate the function of the thyroid gland.

Carbon Dating

Radiocarbon or Carbon-14 dating is a technique used by scientist to date bones, wood, paper and
cloth.
Carbon-14 is a radioisotope of Carbon. It is produced in the Earth’s upper atmosphere when
Nitrogen-14 is broken down to form the unstable Carbon-14 by the action of cosmic rays. The
unstable Carbon-14 is transported down to the lower atmosphere by atmospheric activity such as
storms.
Carbon-14 reacts identically to Carbon-12 and is rapidly oxidised to form (Carbon-14)Dioxide. Since
all living organisms on Earth are made up of organic molecules that contain Carbon atoms derived
from the atmosphere, they therefore contain Carbon-14 atoms. The Carbon-14 within a living
organism is continually decaying, but as the organism is continuously absorbing Carbon-14
throughout its life the ratio of Carbon-14 to Carbon-12 atoms in the organism is the same as the ratio
in the atmosphere. Once an organism dies it stops taking in Carbon in any form.
The unstable Carbon-14 within the organism begins to decay to form Nitrogen-14 by emitting a beta
particle. Over time there is a gradual decrease in the amount of Carbon-14 and the ratio of Carbon-14
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atoms to other Carbon atoms declines.

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The half life for Carbon-14 is 5730 years. Therefore half of the Carbon-14 has decayed after 5730
years. Half of the remaining Carbon-14 then decays over the next 5730 years leaving one fourth of
the original amount. By measuring the ratio of Carbon-14 in a sample and comparing it to the amount
in a recently deceased sample its date can be determined.
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