UNIT 1

1.Write an 8051 ALP to create a square wave of 66% duty cycle on bit 3 of port 1.

To create a square wave of 66% duty cycle on bit 3 of port 1 using an 8051 microcontroller
assembly language program, you can use timer interrupts. Below is an example assembly
language program:

EXPLANATION:

• ORG 0H: This directive sets the origin of the program counter to the start of program
memory.
• MOV TMOD, #01H: Configures Timer 0 in Mode 1, which is 16-bit auto-reload mode.
• MOV TH0, #0CH and MOV TL0, #0CH: Load the initial values into Timer 0. These values are
chosen to generate a 66% duty cycle.
• MOV P1, #0FFH: Initializes port 1 with all bits set to high.
• SETB TR0: Starts Timer 0.
• SETB EA and SETB ET0: Enable global interrupts and Timer 0 interrupt respectively.
• MAIN:: The main loop of the program.
• SJMP MAIN: Infinite loop to keep the program running.
• TIMER0_ISR:: Timer 0 interrupt service routine.
• CPL P1.3: Toggles bit 3 of port 1.
• RETI: Returns from the interrupt.
2.How does one interface a 16 x 2 LCD display using 8051 microcontroller.

Interfacing a 16x2 LCD display with an 8051 microcontroller involves connecting the LCD
to the microcontroller's GPIO pins and sending commands and data to the LCD using a
suitable communication protocol, usually either 4-bit or 8-bit parallel communication mode.
Here's a basic overview along with a diagram:

Hardware Connections:
Here's a diagram illustrating the connections between the 16x2 LCD and the 8051
microcontroller:

• LCD Pin Connections:

1. VSS (Ground) --> Ground
2. VDD (Power) --> +5V
3. V0 (Contrast)--> Connect to a potentiometer to adjust contrast
4. RS (Register Select) --> P1.0 (or any GPIO pin)
5. RW (Read/Write) --> Ground (for write mode)
6. E (Enable) --> P1.1 (or any GPIO pin)
7. D0-D7 (Data Lines) --> P2.0 to P2.7 (or any 8 GPIO pins)
8. A (Anode) --> +5V through a current-limiting resistor (usually not used)
9. K (Cathode) --> Ground
• 8051 Microcontroller Pin Connections:
1. P1.0 (RS) --> RS pin of the LCD
2. P1.1 (E) --> Enable pin of the LCD
3. P2.0-P2.7 (or any 8 GPIO pins) --> D0-D7 pins of the LCD
4. Ground (GND) --> Ground pin of the LCD
5. +5V --> VDD pin of the LCD

Initialization Sequence:
The initialization sequence for the LCD typically involves sending specific commands to
configure the display. These commands can vary depending on the specific LCD controller
used (e.g., HD44780). Common initialization commands include setting the display mode
(number of lines, font), clearing the display, setting the cursor position, etc.

Sending Data/Commands:
To send data (characters to be displayed) to the LCD, set the RS pin to 1 to indicate data
mode, and then send the data byte on the data lines (D0-D7). To send commands (e.g., clear
display, set cursor position), set the RS pin to 0 to indicate command mode, and then send
the command byte on the data lines.
Writing a Display Function:
Write functions in your code to interact with the LCD. These functions should encapsulate
the necessary commands to perform actions such as writing characters to the display,
positioning the cursor, clearing the display, etc.

UNIT 2

1.With Neat Diagram, describe the functional blocks for one ARM microcontroller.

Advanced RISC Machine (ARM) Processor is considered to be a family of Central

Processing Units that are used in music players, smartphones, wearables, tablets, and other
consumer electronic devices.
Advanced RISC Machines create the ARM processor architecture, hence the name ARM. This
needs very few instruction sets and transistors. It has very small in size. This is the reason that
it is a perfect fit for small-size devices. It has less power consumption along with reduced
complexity in its circuits.
They can be applied to various designs such as 32-bit devices and embedded systems. They
can even be upgraded according to user needs.

Features of ARM Processor

• Multiprocessing System
• Tightly Coupled Memory
• Memory Management
• Thumb-2 Technology
• One-Cycle Execution Time
• Pipelining
 • A large number of Registers
1. Multiprocessing Systems: ARM processors are designed to be used in cases of
multiprocessing systems where more than one processor is used to process information. The
First AMP processor introduced by the name of ARMv6K could support 4 CPUs along with
its hardware.
2. Tightly Coupled Memory: The memory of ARM processors is tightly coupled. This has a
very fast response time. It has low latency (quick response) that can also be used in cases of
cache memory being unpredictable.
3. Memory Management: ARM processor has a management section. This includes Memory
Management Unit and Memory Protection Unit. These management systems become very
important in managing memory efficiently.
4. Thumb-2 Technology: Thumb-2 Technology was introduced in 2003 and was used to
create variable-length instruction sets. It extends the 16-bit instructions of initial Thumb
technology to 32-bit instructions. It has better performance than previously used Thumb
technology.
5. One-Cycle Execution Time: ARM processor is optimized for each instruction on the CPU.
Each instruction is of a fixed length that allows time for fetching future instructions before
executing the present instructions. ARM has CPI (Clock Per Instruction) of one cycle.
6. Pipelining: Processing of instructions is done in parallel using pipelines. Instructions are
broken down and decoded in one pipeline stage. The channel advances one step at a time to
increase throughput (rate of processing).
7. A large number of Registers: A large number of registers are used in ARM processors to
prevent large amounts of memory interactions. Records contain data and addresses. These act
as a local memory store for all operations.

2.Write an ARM 7 assembly language program to perform z= (x+y)+(a*b)

3.Write an ARM 7 assembly language program to perform z= (x+y)2

4.Write a Assembly Language Program in ARM to Perform 32 bit Multiplication

Timer of ARM processor

Timer is a specific type of clock which is used to measure the time intervals. It
provides/measures the time interval by counting the input clocks. Every timer needs a clock to
work. We can provide/measure any time interval if we know the time of one clock period.

e.g. Let’s say we have 1 kHz input clock frequency for the timer unit, then,
We can calculate time of one clock period as,

Time of one clock period = 1 / clock frequency

= 1 / 1000

= 1milliSecond

i.e. 1000 clock counts provide a time interval of 1 second, and hence we can provide 1 second
delay with these 1000 clock counts.

Now, once we have the time period of one clock, we can use this time period to generate delays
that are integer multiples of it. We can also use the time period to measure the time interval
between specific events of a received signal.

Counter is the unit which is similar to Timers but works in a reverse manner to the timers. It
counts the external events or we can say external clock ticks. It is mostly used to measure
frequency from the counts of clock ticks.

e.g. Let’s say Counter is measuring counts of external clock ticks, and frequently its count
reaches 2000 in one second i.e. 2000 clock ticks/second.

Then, we can calculate external clock frequency as,

External clock frequency = count of clocks / one second

= 2000 / 1

= 2 kHz

Hence, we can measure such external clock/event frequencies using counter.

There are many applications for which we can use these timers and counters in real world.

LPC2148 Timer& Counter

LPC2148 has two 32-bit timers/counters:Timer0/Counter0 & Timer1/Counter1.

• LPC2148 Timer has input of peripheral clock (PCLK) or an external clock. It counts the
clock from either of these clock sources for its operation.
• LPC2148 Timer/Counter can generate an interrupt signal at specified time value.
• LPC2148 has match registers that contain count value which is continuously compared
with the value of the Timer register. When the value in the Timer register matches the
 value in the match register, specific action (timer reset, or timer stop, or generate an
interrupt) is taken.
• For information about LPC2148 compare and match operation refer Timer Compare
Mode.
• Also, LPC2148 has capture registers which can be used to capture the timer value on a
specific external event on capture pins. For information about LPC2148 capture operation
refer Input Capture Mode.

Here, we will see how to use timer 0 registers to configure the timer 0. Timer 1 can be used in a
similar manner by using its corresponding registers.

Let’s see the various registers of timer 0.

Timer0 Registers

1. T0IR (Timer0 Interrupt Register)

• It is an 8-bit read-write register.

• Consists of 4 bits for match register interrupts and 4 bits for compare register interrupts.
• If interrupt is generated, then the corresponding bit in this register will be high, otherwise
it will be low.
• Writing a 1 to any bit of this register will reset that interrupt. Writing a 0 has no effect.

T0IR (Timer0 Interrupt Register)

2. T0TCR (Timer0 Timer Control Register)

• It is an 8-bit read-write register.

• It is used to control the operation of the timer counter.

T0TCR (Timer0 Timer Control Register)

 • Bit 0 – Counter Enable
0 = Counters are disabled
1 = Timer counter and Prescale counter are enabled for counting
• Bit 1 – Counter Reset
0 = Counter not reset
1 = Timer counter and Prescale counter are synchronously reset on next positive edge of
PCLK

3. T0CTCR (Timer0 Counter Control Register)

• It is an 8-bit read-write register.

T0CTCR (Timer0 Counter Control Register)

• Used to select between timer counter mode.

• When in counter mode, it is used to select the pin and edges for counting.
• Bits 1:0 – Counter/Timer Mode
This field selects which rising edges of PCLK can increment Timer’s Prescale Counter
(PC), or clear PC and increment Timer Counter (TC).
00 = Timer Mode: Every rising edge of PCLK
01 = Counter Mode: TC is incremented on rising edge on the capture input selected by
Bits 3:2.
10 = Counter Mode: TC is incremented on falling edge on the capture input selected by
Bits 3:2
01 = Counter Mode: TC is incremented on both edges on the capture input selected by
Bits 3:2
• Bits 3:2 – Count Input Select
When bits 1:0 in this register are not 00, these bits select which capture pin is sampled for
clocking.
00 = CAP0.0
01 = CAP0.1
10 = CAP0.2
11 = CAP0.3
 • Note : If counter mode is selected for a certain capture (CAP) input, then the
corresponding 3 bits in the T0CCR register must be programmed as 000. Capture and/or
interrupt can be selected for other CAP inputs.

1. T0TC (Timer0 Timer Counter)

· It is a 32-bit timer counter.

· It is incremented when the Prescale Counter (PC) reaches its maximum value held by
Prescaler Register (PR).

Note : When TC overflow occurs, it does not generate any overflow interrupt. Alternatively, we
can use match register to detect overflow event if needed.

4. T0PR (Timer0 Prescale Register)

• It is a 32-bit register.
• It holds the maximum value of the Prescale Counter.

5. T0PC (Timer0 Prescale Counter Register)

• It is a 32-bit register.
• It controls the division of PCLK by some constant value before it is applied to the Timer
Counter.
• It is incremented on every PCLK.
• When it reaches the value in Prescale Register, the Timer Counter is incremented and
Prescale Counter is reset on next PCLK.

6. T0MR0-T0MR3 (Timer0 Match Registers)

• These are 32-bit registers.

• The values stored in these registers are continuously compared with the Timer Counter
value.
• When the two values are equal, the timer can be reset or stop or an interrupt may be
generated. The T0MCR controls what action should be taken on a match.

7. T0MCR (Timer0 Match Control Register)

• It is a 16-bit register.
 • It controls what action is to be taken on a match between the Match Registers and Timer
Counter.

T0MCR (Timer0 Match Control Register)

• Bit 0 – MR0I (Match register 0 interrupt)

0 = This interrupt is disabled
1 = Interrupt on MR0. An interrupt is generated when MR0 matches the value in TC
(Timer Counter)
• Bit 1 – MR0R (Match register 0 reset)
0 = This feature is disabled
1 = Reset on MR0. The TC (Timer Counter) will be reset if MR0 matches it
• Bit 2 – MR0S (Match register 0 stop)
0 = This feature is disabled
1 = Stop on MR0. The TC (Timer Counter) and PC (Prescale Counter) is stopped and
Counter Enable bit in T0TCR is set to 0 if MR0 matches TC
• MR1, MR2 and MR3 bits function in the same manner as MR0 bits.

UNIT 4

1.Explain BACNet Protocol in detail

A data communication protocol that is used to build an automated control network, is

known as BACnet or Building Automation Control Network. This data communication protocol
is both an ISO & ANSI standard used for interoperability between cooperating building
automation devices. Bacnet Protocol includes a set of rules for governing the data exchange on a
computer network that simply covers all from what type of cable to utilize, to form a particular
command or request in a normal way.

Why is Bacnet Protocol required?

The BACnet protocol’s importance is to define typical techniques that manufacturers

can execute to build components as well as systems that are interoperable through other
components & systems of BACnet.
 It also specifies how data is signified on the network as well as the services that are
utilized to transmit data from one node of BACnet to another node. It also has messages that
recognize network & data nodes.

BACnet is used as a tool by owners of buildings & system specifiers for the specification
of the interoperable system. This protocol does not change the need for indicating what a
consumer needs. So, it provides simply some consistent tools to assist the creation &
specification of systems that can interoperate.

BACnet protocol is used in all types of automated building systems. So, there are
interoperable products available within different categories like security, fire, lighting, elevators,
HVAC, etc. This protocol simply addresses the interoperability goal through simply defining a
general working model of automation devices, a technique used for defining the data that they
include, & also a technique used for explaining protocols that a single device can utilize to
inquire one more device to execute some preferred action.

Bacnet Protocol Architecture

The BACnet protocol architecture is predominately restricted to lighting controls, HVAC

& gateways. This protocol highlights lightweight and efficient communication which is
optimized for short messages, small networks, and inter-networks.

BACnet protocol architecture is a collapsed architecture that matches to 4-layers of

the OSI model. The four layers in the BACnet architecture mainly include Application, Network,
Data Link & Physical. Even though, just the Network layer & Application layer are simply
BACnet.
The above architecture is the BACnet protocol stack which includes different layers as shown in
the diagram. This protocol is a collapsed version of the OSI stack. The transport and session
layers are not used. The application layer takes on the functions of these two layers.

BACnet Physical Layer

The upper layers of BACnet do not depend on the physical layer. So the Physical layer of
BACnet makes it feasible for BACnet to be executed on different networks. The physical layers
of BACnet have been specified with ARCNET, Ethernet, IP tunnels, BACnet/IP, RS-232,
RS485, and Lonworks/LonTalk. RS232 is for point-to-point communication. RS485 supports up
to 32 nodes with a distance of 1200 m at 76Kbps.

BACnet Protocol Link Layer

BACnet protocol is implemented directly with LonTalk or IEEE802.2 link layers. So it

specifies Point to Point (PTP) data link layer for RS232 connections. It specifies MS/TP data link
layer intended for RS-485 connections. The standard simply specifies BVLL (BACnet Virtual
Link Layer) which states all the services required through the BACnet device at this link layer.

IP BACnet Virtual Link Layer encapsulates required control data in a header of BACnet
virtual link control information. Because of IP, BVLL, and BACnet protocol devices can directly
communicate over IP networks without the requirement of any router device.

BACnet protocol utilizes BBMD (BACnet broadcast management device) concept which
executes the required broadcast for the preferred link layer. So, the BACnet broadcast message is
changed into IP-based broadcast or multicast messages

BACnet Network Layer

This layer simply specifies the required addresses of the network for routing. BACnet
network includes a minimum of one or above segments that are connected with bridges once
they utilize similar LAN technologies. If they utilize various LAN protocols then they are
connected through routers.

Application Layer

BACnet does not separate presentation as well as application layers. So it takes care of
reliability & sequencing or segmentation mechanisms generally connected with both the session
& transport layers. BACnet includes devices like objects to exchange service primitives which
are described with ASN.1 syntax & serialized with ASN.1 BER.
BACnet Security Layer

The concept of BACnet security can be understood easily with an example say when BACnet device-A
requests a session key from the key server for establishing secure communication through device-B, then
this key is transmitted to both the device-A & device-B through the key server which is known as ‘SKab’.
BACnet protocol uses 56-bit DES encryption.

MODbus
Modbus is a request-response protocol implemented using a master-slave relationship. In a
master-slave relationship, communication always occurs in pairs—one device must initiate a
request and then wait for a response—and the initiating device (the master) is responsible for
initiating every interaction. Typically, the master is a human machine interface (HMI) or
Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) system and the slave is a sensor,
programmable logic controller (PLC), or programmable automation controller (PAC). The
content of these requests and responses, and the network layers across which these messages are
sent, are defined by the different layers of the protocol.

Layers of the Modbus Protocol

In the initial implementation, Modbus was a single protocol built on top of serial, so it could not
be divided into multiple layers. Over time, different application data units were introduced to
either change the packet format used over serial or to allow the use of TCP/IP and user datagram
protocol (UDP) networks. This led to a separation of the core protocol, which defines the
protocol data unit (PDU), and the network layer, which defines the application data unit (ADU).

Protocol Data Unit

The PDU and the code that handles it comprise the core of the Modbus Application Protocol
Specification. This specification defines the format of the PDU, the various data concepts used
by the protocol, the use of function codes to access that data, and the specific implementation
and restrictions of each function code.

The Modbus PDU format is defined as a function code followed by an associated set of data. The
size and contents of this data are defined by the function code, and the entire PDU (function code
and data) cannot exceed 253 bytes in size. Every function code has a specific behavior that
slaves can flexibly implement based on their desired application behavior. The PDU
specification defines core concepts for data access and manipulation; however, a slave may
handle data in a way that is not explicitly defined in the specification.

Difference between IIOT and IOT

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Industrial Internet of Things is a part or we can say a subset of the Internet of Things, i.e.,
IIOT comes under IOT, which mainly focuses on industrial applications. Intelligent devices
plays an important role in IIOT which helps in communicating important information in a better
way and also to analyze and capture data in real time. Using IIOT, business decisions can be
made faster and more accurately and it also helps to grow companies by understanding their
business process in a more better way so that their processes become more efficient.
2. Internet of Things (IOT) :

It is all about connecting devices that have their own unique identities, as well as network & are
connected to the Internet, embedded with sensors, electronics, & software which allow it to
collect & exchange data over the Internet without any human interaction.
Main goal of IOT is to convert a dumb device that has no processing capabilities, into a
smarter device that has its own computing capability so that they can exchange data over the
internet and also allowing the device to communicate real-time data without involving a human
being. Using IOT you can connect objects which you use in your daily life, such as thermostats,
irrigation pumps, kitchen appliances, television to the internet. Example, A light bulb that can be
switched ON using a smartphone application is an IoT device.
S.no IIOT IOT
1. It focuses on industrial applications such as It focuses on general applications
manufacturing, power plants, oil & gas, etc. ranging from wearables to robots &
machines.
2. It uses critical equipment & devices Its implementation starts with small
connected over a network which will cause a scale level so there is no need to worry
life-threatening or other emergency situations about life-threatening situations.
on failure therefore uses more sensitive and
precise sensors.
3. It deals with large scale networks. It deals with small scale networks.
4. It can be programmed remotely i.e., offers It offers easy off-site programming.
remote on-site programming.
5. It handles data ranging from medium to high. It handles very high volume of data
6. It requires robust security to protect the data. It requires identity and privacy.
7. It needs stringent requirements. It needs moderate requirements
8. It having very long life cycle. It having short product life cycle.
9. It has high- reliability. It is less reliable.

IoT System Management with NETCONF

• Management system
The operator uses a Management system to send NETCONF messages to configure the
IOT devices and receives the state information and notifications from the device as
NETCONF messages.
• Management API
Management API allows management applications to start NETCONF sessions, read and
write configuration data, read state data, retrieve configurations and invoke ROCs,
programmatically in the same way as an operator can
• Transaction Manager:
Transaction Manager executes all the NETCONF transactions and ensures that the ACID
properties hold true for the transactions. Atomicity property ensures that a transaction is
executed either completely or not at all. Consistency property ensures that a transaction
brings the device configuration from one valid state to another. Isolation property ensures
that concurrent execution of transaction results in the same device configuration as if
transactions were executed serially in order. Durability property ensures that a transaction
once committed will persist.
• Rollback Manager:
Rollback manager is responsible for generating all the transactions necessary to rollback
a current configuration to its original state.
• Data Model Manager:
The Data Model Manager keeps track all of the YANG data models and the
corresponding managed objects. The Data Model Manager also keeps track of the
application which provide data for each part of a data model.
• Configuration Validator:
Configuration Validator checks if the resulting configuration after applying a transaction
would be a valid configuration.
• Configuration Database:
This database contains both the configuration and operational data.
• Configuration API:
Using the configuration API the applications on the IoT device can read configuration
data from the configuration database and write operational data to the operational
datastore.
 • Data Provider API:
Applications on the IoTdevice can register for callbacks for various events using the data
provider API. Through the data provider API,the Application can report statistics and
operational data
Challenges in IoT:
Security challenges in IoT :

1. Lack of encryption –
Although encryption is a great way to prevent hackers from accessing data, it is also
one of the leading IoT security challenges.
These drives like the storage and processing capabilities that would be found on a
traditional computer.
The result is an increase in attacks where hackers can easily manipulate the
algorithms that were designed for protection.
2. Insufficient testing and updating –
With the increase in the number of IoT(internet of things) devices, IoT
manufacturers are more eager to produce and deliver their device as fast as they can
without giving security too much of although.
Most of these devices and IoT products do not get enough testing and updates and
are prone to hackers and other security issues.
3. Brute forcing and the risk of default passwords –
Weak credentials and login details leave nearly all IoT devices vulnerable to
password hacking and brute force.
Any company that uses factory default credentials on their devices is placing both
their business and its assets and the customer and their valuable information at risk
of being susceptible to a brute force attack.
4. IoT Malware and ransomware –
Increases with increase in devices.
Ransomware uses encryption to effectively lock out users from various devices and
platforms and still use a user’s valuable data and info.
Example –
A hacker can hijack a computer camera and take pictures.
By using malware access points, the hackers can demand ransom to unlock the
device and return the data.
5. IoT botnet aiming at cryptocurrency –
IoT botnet workers can manipulate data privacy, which could be massive risks for
an open Crypto market. The exact value and creation of cryptocurrencies code face
danger from mal-intentioned hackers.
The blockchain companies are trying to boost security. Blockchain technology itself
is not particularly vulnerable, but the app development process is.
6. Inadequate device security : Inadequate device security refers to the lack of proper
measures to protect electronic devices such as computers, smartphones, and IoT
devices from cyber attacks, hacking, data theft, and unauthorized access. This can
happen due to outdated software, weak passwords, unpatched vulnerabilities, lack
of encryption, and other security risks. It is important to regularly update the
software and implement strong security measures to ensure the security and privacy
of sensitive information stored on these devices. Many IoT devices have weak
security features and can be easily hacked.
7. Lack of standardization: Lack of standardization refers to the absence of agreed-
upon specifications or protocols in a particular field or industry. This can result in
different systems, products, or processes being incompatible with each other,
leading to confusion, inefficiency, and decreased interoperability. For example, in
the context of technology, a lack of standardization can cause difficulties in
communication and data exchange between different devices and systems.
Establishing standards and protocols can help overcome this and ensure uniformity
and compatibility. There is a lack of standardization in IoT devices, making it
difficult to secure them consistently.
8. Vulnerability to network attacks: Vulnerability to network attacks refers to the
susceptibility of a network, system or device to being compromised or exploited by
cyber criminals. This can happen due to weaknesses in the network infrastructure,
unpatched software, poor password management, or a lack of appropriate security
measures. Network attacks can result in data theft, loss of privacy, disruption of
services, and financial loss. To reduce vulnerability to network attacks, it’s
important to implement strong security measures such as firewalls, encryption, and
regular software updates, as well as educate users on safe internet practices. IoT
 devices rely on networks, making them vulnerable to attacks like denial-of-service
(DoS) attacks.
9. Unsecured data transmission: Unsecured data transmission refers to the transfer
of data over a network or the internet without adequate protection. This can leave
the data vulnerable to interception, tampering, or theft by malicious actors.
Unsecured data transmission can occur when data is transmitted over an
unencrypted network connection or when insecure protocols are used. To protect
sensitive data during transmission, it is important to use secure protocols such as
SSL/TLS or VPN, and to encrypt the data before sending it. This can help to ensure
the confidentiality and integrity of the data, even if it is intercepted during
transmission. IoT devices often transmit sensitive data, which may be vulnerable to
eavesdropping or tampering if not properly secured.
10. Privacy concerns: Privacy concerns refer to issues related to the collection,
storage, use, and sharing of personal information. This can include concerns about
who has access to personal information, how it is being used, and whether it is
being protected from unauthorized access or misuse. In the digital age, privacy
concerns have become increasingly important as personal information is being
collected and stored on an unprecedented scale. To address privacy concerns,
individuals and organizations need to implement appropriate security measures to
protect personal information, be transparent about how it is being used, and respect
individuals’ rights to control their own information. Additionally, privacy laws and
regulations have been established to provide guidelines and protections for
individuals’ personal information. The vast amount of data generated by IoT
devices raises privacy concerns, as personal information could be collected and
used without consent.
11. Software vulnerabilities: Software vulnerabilities are weaknesses or flaws in
software code that can be exploited by attackers to gain unauthorized access, steal
sensitive information, or carry out malicious activities. Software vulnerabilities can
arise from errors or mistakes made during the development process, or from the use
of outdated or unsupported software. Attackers can exploit these vulnerabilities to
gain control over a system, install malware, or steal sensitive information. To
reduce the risk of software vulnerabilities, it is important for software developers to
follow secure coding practices and for users to keep their software up-to-date and
properly configured. Additionally, organizations and individuals should implement
robust security measures, such as firewalls, antivirus software, and intrusion
detection systems, to protect against potential threats. IoT devices often have
software vulnerabilities, which can be exploited by attackers to gain access to
devices and networks.
12. Insider threats: Insider threats refer to security risks that come from within an
organization, rather than from external sources such as hackers or cyber criminals.
These threats can take many forms, such as employees who intentionally or
unintentionally cause harm to the organization, contractors who misuse their access
privileges, or insiders who are coerced into compromising the security of the
organization. Insider threats can result in data breaches, theft of intellectual
property, and damage to the reputation of the organization. To mitigate the risk of
insider threats, organizations should implement strict access controls, monitor
 employee activity, and provide regular training on security and privacy policies.
Additionally, organizations should have a plan in place to detect, respond to, and
recover from security incidents involving insiders. Employees or contractors with
access to IoT systems can pose a security risk if they intentionally or
unintentionally cause harm
Design challenge in IoT :
Design challenges in IoT (Internet of Things) refer to the technical difficulties and trade-offs
involved in creating connected devices that are both functional and secure. Some of the key
design challenges in IoT include:
• Interoperability: Interoperability refers to the ability of different systems, devices,
or components to work together seamlessly and exchange data effectively. In the
context of the Internet of Things (IoT), interoperability is a critical challenge, as a
large number of diverse devices are being connected to the internet. The lack of
standardization in the IoT can lead to difficulties in communication and data
exchange between devices, resulting in an fragmented and inefficient system. To
overcome this challenge, organizations and industry groups are working to establish
standards and protocols to ensure interoperability between IoT devices. This
includes the development of common communication protocols, data formats, and
security standards. Interoperability is important for enabling the full potential of the
IoT and allowing connected devices to work together effectively and efficiently.
Ensuring that different IoT devices can work together seamlessly and exchange data
effectively.
• Security: Security is a critical concern in the Internet of Things (IoT) as it involves
the protection of sensitive data and systems from unauthorized access, theft, or
damage. IoT devices are often vulnerable to cyber attacks due to their increased
exposure to the internet and their limited computing resources. Some of the security
challenges in IoT include:
1. Device security: Ensuring that IoT devices are protected from malware and
unauthorized access.
2. Network security: Protecting the communication between IoT devices and the
network from cyber attacks.
3. Data security: Securing the data collected and transmitted by IoT devices from
unauthorized access or tampering.
4. Privacy: Protecting the privacy of individuals whose personal information is
collected and transmitted by IoT devices.
To address these security challenges, organizations should implement robust
security measures such as encryption, firewalls, and regular software updates.
Additionally, they should conduct regular security audits and assessments to
identify and address potential security risks. By prioritizing security, organizations
can help to protect the sensitive data and systems involved in IoT and reduce the
risk of cyber attacks.Protecting IoT devices and the sensitive data they collect and
transmit from cyber threats and unauthorized access.
• Scalability: Scalability refers to the ability of a system to handle increasing
workloads or numbers of users without a significant decline in performance. In the
context of the Internet of Things (IoT), scalability is a major challenge as the
 number of connected devices is rapidly growing, leading to an increased volume of
data and communication. Scalability challenges in IoT include:
1. Data management: Effectively managing and storing the large amounts of data
generated by IoT devices.
2. Network capacity: Ensuring that networks have sufficient capacity to handle the
increased volume of data and communication.
3. Device management: Efficiently managing the growing number of IoT devices and
ensuring that they can be easily configured and maintained.
To address these scalability challenges, organizations should adopt scalable architectures,
such as cloud computing, that can accommodate the growing number of IoT
devices and the data they generate. Additionally, they should implement efficient data
management and storage solutions, such as distributed databases and data lakes, to
handle the increased volume of data. By prioritizing scalability, organizations can ensure that
their IoT systems can handle the growing number of connected devices and continue
to deliver high performance and efficiency. Designing systems that can accommodate large
numbers of connected devices and manage the resulting data flow effectively.
• Reliability: Reliability refers to the ability of a system to perform its intended
function consistently and without failure over time. In the context of the Internet of
Things (IoT), reliability is a critical concern, as the failure of even a single IoT
device can have significant consequences. Some of the reliability challenges in IoT
include:
1. Device failure: Ensuring that IoT devices are designed and built to be reliable and
function correctly even in harsh environments.
2. Network connectivity: Maintaining stable and reliable connections between IoT
devices and the network, even in the face of hardware or software failures.
3. Data accuracy: Ensuring that the data collected and transmitted by IoT devices is
accurate and reliable.
To address these reliability challenges, organizations should implement robust and
reliable hardware and software designs for IoT devices, and conduct regular testing and
maintenance to identify and resolve any issues. They should also implement redundant systems
and failover mechanisms to ensure that the system continues to function in the event of a
failure. By prioritizing reliability, organizations can help ensure that their IoT systems perform
consistently and without failure, delivering the intended benefits and results. Ensuring that IoT
systems remain functional and accessible even in the face of hardware or software failures.
• Power consumption: Power consumption refers to the amount of energy that a
system or device uses. In the context of the Internet of Things (IoT), power
consumption is a critical challenge, as many IoT devices are designed to be small,
low-power, and operate using batteries. Some of the power consumption challenges
in IoT include:
1. Battery life: Ensuring that IoT devices have sufficient battery life to operate without
frequent recharging or replacement.
2. Energy efficiency: Making sure that IoT devices are designed to use energy
efficiently and reduce the overall power consumption of the system.
 3. Power management: Implementing effective power management techniques, such as
sleep modes, to reduce the power consumption of IoT devices when they are not in
use.
To address these power consumption challenges, organizations should adopt low-power
technologies and energy-efficient designs for IoT devices. They should also implement
effective power management techniques, such as sleep modes, to reduce the power
consumption of IoT devices when they are not in use. By prioritizing power consumption,
organizations can help ensure that their IoT systems are energy efficient, reducing costs and
environmental impact. Minimizing the power consumption of IoT devices to extend battery life
and reduce costs.
• Privacy: Privacy is a critical concern in the Internet of Things (IoT), as IoT devices
collect, store, and transmit large amounts of personal and sensitive information.
Some of the privacy challenges in IoT include:
1. Data collection: Ensuring that only the necessary data is collected and that it is
collected in a way that respects individuals’ privacy rights.
2. Data storage: Ensuring that the data collected by IoT devices is stored securely and
that access to it is strictly controlled.
3. Data sharing: Controlling who has access to the data collected by IoT devices and
ensuring that it is not shared without proper authorization.
To address these privacy challenges, organizations should implement robust privacy
policies and procedures, such as data protection, data minimization, and data retention. They
should also educate users on the privacy implications of using IoT devices and encourage them
to take steps to protect their privacy. Additionally, organizations should adopt privacy-
enhancing technologies, such as encryption and anonymization, to protect the privacy of
individuals whose information is collected by IoT devices. By prioritizing privacy,
organizations can help to ensure that individuals’ rights and freedoms are respected, and that
sensitive information is protected from unauthorized access or misuse. Protecting the privacy
of individuals whose personal information is collected and transmitted by IoT devices.

• Battery life is a limitation –

Issues in packaging and integration of small-sized chip with low weight and less
power consumption. If you’ve been following the mobile space, you’ve likely see
how every yr it looks like there’s no restriction in terms of display screen size. Take
the upward thrust of ‘phablets’, for instance, which can be telephones nearly as
huge as tablets. Although helpful, the bigger monitors aren’t always only for
convenience, rather, instead, display screen sizes are growing to accommodate
larger batteries. Computers have getting slimmer, but battery energy stays the same.
• Increased cost and time to market –
Embedded systems are lightly constrained by cost.
The need originates to drive better approaches when designing the IoT devices in
order to handle the cost modelling or cost optimally with digital electronic
components.
Designers also need to solve the design time problem and bring the embedded
device at the right time to the market.
 • Security of the system –
Systems have to be designed and implemented to be robust and reliable and have to
be secure with cryptographic algorithms and security procedures.
It involves different approaches to secure all the components of embedded systems
from prototype to deployment.
Designers and engineers must carefully balance these design challenges to create IoT systems
that are functional, secure, and scalable.
Deployment challenges in IoT :
The deployment of Internet of Things (IoT) systems can present several challenges, including:
1. Connectivity –
It is the foremost concern while connecting devices, applications and cloud
platforms.
Connected devices that provide useful front and information are extremely valuable.
But poor connectivity becomes a challenge where IoT sensors are required to
monitor process data and supply information.
2. Cross platform capability –
IoT applications must be developed, keeping in mind the technological changes of
the future.
Its development requires a balance of hardware and software functions.
It is a challenge for IoT application developers to ensure that the device and IoT
platform drivers the best performance despite heavy device rates and fixings.
3. Data collection and processing –
In IoT development, data plays an important role. What is more critical here is the
processing or usefulness of stored data.
Along with security and privacy, development teams need to ensure that they plan
well for the way data is collected, stored or processed within an environment.
4. Lack of skill set –
All of the development challenges above can only be handled if there is a proper
skilled resource working on the IoT application development.
The right talent will always get you past the major challenges and will be an
important IoT application development asset.
5. Integration: Ensuring that IoT devices and systems integrate seamlessly with
existing technology and infrastructure.
6. Network infrastructure: Building and maintaining the network infrastructure
needed to support the large number of connected IoT devices.
7. Device management: Efficiently managing and maintaining the large number of
IoT devices in a deployment.
8. Data management: Managing and analyzing the large amounts of data generated
by IoT devices, and integrating it with existing data systems.
9. Security: Ensuring that the IoT deployment is secure from threats such as cyber
attacks, data breaches, and unauthorized access.
10. Cost: Balancing the cost of deploying and maintaining an IoT system with the
benefits it delivers.
Main design principles and needed capabilities of IoT

• architecture relies on the separation of resources providing sensing and actuation

from the actual devices, a set of contextual and real world entity-centric services,
and the users of the services.

• SENSEI further relies on an open-ended constellation of providers and users, and

also provides a reference model for different business roles.
• A number of design principles and guidelines are identified, and so is a set of
requirements.
• Finally, the architecture itself contains a set of key functional capabilities.
• IoT-A refers to as the Architectural Reference Model (ARM).
• The vision of IoT-A is, via the ARM, to establish a means to achieve a high
degree of interoperability between different IoT solutions at the different system
levels of communication, service, and information.
• IoT-A provides a set of different architectural views, establishes a proposed
terminology and a set of Unified Requirements.

1. The overall design objective of IoT architecture shall be to target a horizontal

system of real-world services that are open, service-oriented, secure, and offer
trust.
2. Design for reuse of deployed IoT resources across application domains.
3. Design for a set of support services that provide open service-oriented capabilities
and can be used for application development and execution.
4. Design for different abstraction levels that hide underlying complexities and
heterogeneities.
5. Design for sensing and actors taking on different roles of providing and using
services across different business domains and value chains.
6. Design for ensuring trust, security, and privacy.
7. Design for scalability, performance, and effectiveness.
8. Design for simplicity of management.
9. Design for different service delivery models.
10. Design for lifecycle support.

M2M ARCHITECTURE

Machine to machine, or M2M, is a term that refers to systems in which machines interact with
one another autonomously and without the need for human involvement, regardless of the
devices or communication channels involved.

Application layer Service layer Network layer

The M2M IoT architecture primarily focuses on IoT services, apps, and networks, facilitating
their interoperability by providing a variety of application programming interfaces (APIs),
allowing them to communicate with one another.

Application Layer:

It is the oneM2M architecture's top layer. IoT applications and services reside in this layer. IoT
applications may take many different forms, from industrial monitoring to smart home
automation. To access and manage IoT resources and data, the application layer communicates
with the services layer. The role of the IoT M2M Application Layer is to integrate IoT devices
with apps, such as connecting smart devices to your phone. Additionally, it ensures that these
gadgets can exchange data with other crucial systems, such as business intelligence tools.

Services Layer :

The service layer acts as a connecting layer between IoT devices and communication networks.
It is essential for abstracting away the difficulties of device connectivity and data transfer. This
layer standardizes data formats and communication protocols, providing interoperability across
IoT platforms and devices. We can also say this layer functions as the background control hub. It
manages the logical parts of the network and the rules they follow to work together efficiently.

Network Layer :

All devices, or "things," connect at the network layer. It also includes the physical network
connections, such as cellular or Wi-Fi networks that link them. The network layer manages the
connectivity and data transmission between IoT devices. It ensures that data is sent quickly and
securely between devices, the cloud, and other data processing facilities.