M.Sc.

Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department

Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

CHAPTER THREE
Solar Photovoltaic System
3.1 Introduction
Photovoltaic power generation is a method of producing electricity, using
solar cells. A solar cell is a device that /converts solar optical energy (solar
radiation) directly into electrical energy. It is essentially a semiconductor
device fabricated in a manner which generates a voltage when solar radiation
falls on it.
3.2 Semiconductor Materials and Doping
A few semiconductor materials such as silicon (Si), cadmium sulphide, (CdS)
and gallium arsenide (GaAs) can be used to fabricate solar cells.
Semiconductors are divided into two categories: intrinsic (pure) and
extrinsic, An intrinsic semiconductor has negligible conductivity, which is of
little use. To increase the conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor, a
controlled quantity of selected impurity atoms is added to it to obtain an
extrinsic semiconductor. The process of adding the impurity atoms is called
doping.
a pure semiconductor, electrons can stay in, one of the two energy bands the
conduction band and the valence band, The conduction band has electrons at
a higher energy level and is not fully occupied, while the valence band
possesses electrons at a lower-energy level but is fully occupied (Figure 3-1).
The energy level of the electrons differs between the two bands and this
difference is called the band gap energy.

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

Figure (3-1): Energy bands in materials

The Fermi energy level, Ef, is the energy position which exists at the mid-
point of the energy gap for an intrinsic semiconductor (see figure 3-2a)
A semiconductor when doped by a donor impurity (phosphorus, arsenic,
antimony) increases electrons in the conduction band and become n-type
material. When a semiconductor is doped by an acceptor impurity (boron,
gallium, indium) it becomes the p-type material with excess holes. Both n
and p-type doped semiconductors (called extrinsic semiconductors) have
higher electrical conductivity than the pure (intrinsic) material.
Fermi energy level moves closer to Ec (i.e., increases) in n-type
semiconductors (see figure 3-2(b)) where Ed represents the level of electrons
from donor impurities ; similarly in a p-type semiconductor the Fermi level
will lie close to Ev (see figure 3-2(c)) where Ea represents the level of excess
holes provided by acceptor impurities.

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

Figure (3-2): Diagram of energy levels in semiconductors

3.3 P-N Junction
When n-type and p-type materials joined, a junction is formed as detailed in
figure 3.3. The number of elections in the n-type material is large; so when an
n-type material is brought into contact with a p-type material, electrons on
the n-side flow into holes of the p-material. Thus, in the vicinity of the
junction, the n-material becomes positively charged and the p-material
negatively charged. The process of diffusion of carriers continues till the
junction potential reaches an equilibrium value at the time of equal flow of
electrons and holes from both directions. This is known as the unbiased
condition of the p-n junction. In this condition, V is the contact potential (i.e.,
not an externally imposed potential) developed between the p-n junction. The
contact potential so developed is a property of the junction itself.

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

Figure (3-4): A p-n junction

When there is no illumination (dark) the flow of junction current Ij with
imposed voltage V in a p-n junction is expressed by:

(3-1)
Where Io is the saturation current (also called the dark current) under and e is
the electronic charge, and the other variables carry usual meanings.
3.4 Photon Energy
Sunlight is composed of tiny energy capsules called photons. The number of
photons present in solar radiation depend upon the intensity of solar radiation
and their energy content on the wavelength band. The solar spectrum
constitutes three main regions which are Ultraviolet region, Visible region and
Infrared region. The distribution of extraterrestrial solar energy (1367 W/m2)
in three different wavelength ranges (UV, Visible, and IR) is given in Table
3-1.
Table (3-1): Distribution of extraterrestrial solar energy (1367 w/m2) in
three different wavelength ranges

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

3.5 Photovoltaic Effect

The interface between the two layers (P and N) produces an electric field and
forms the so-called a “cell junction”. When the solar cell (p-n junction) is
exposed to sunlight, a certain percentage of the incoming photons are
absorbed in the region of the junction, freeing electrons in the silicon crystal
(see figure 3-5).

Figure (3-5) Semiconductor band structure.

If the photons have enough energy, the electrons will be able to overcome the
electric field at the junction and are free to move through the silicon and into
an external circuit. The direction of the electric current is opposite to its
direction if the device operates as a diode (see figure 3-6).

Figure (3-6) Solar cell operation

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

The electric current obtained I is the difference between the solar light
generated current I and the diode dark current Ij, i.e.,

(3-2)

(3-3)
This phenomenon is known as the photovoltaic effect
3.6 Efficiency of Solar Cells
Electrical characteristics of a solar cell are expressed by the current-voltage
curves plotted under a given illumination and temperature conditions as
shown in Figure 3-7. The significant points of the curve are short-circuit
current Isc. And open circuit voltage Voc. Maximum useful power of the cell
is represented by the rectangle with the largest area.

Figure (3-7): Current (I)-voltage (V) characteristic of a solar cell.

The open circuit voltage, Voc, occurs on a point of the curve where the
current is zero, so that Voc is equal to:
kT  I L 
Voc  ln   1 (3-4)
q  I 

Where kT/q, is the equivalent thermal voltage, I L , I  , are photocurrent

and reverse saturation current, respectively.

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

The short circuit current, Isc, occurs on a point of the curve where the
voltage is zero. At this point, the power output of the solar cell is zero. The
series resistance Rsi of the solar cell contributes highly on power loss as the
current reaches its maximum limits. The point, Pm, on the knee of the curve,
marks the value of current and voltage at which the module delivers the
greatest power for a given level of sunlight. Under standard test conditions
(Irradiance 1000 W/m², air mass (AM 1.5), angle of incidence (AOI 0°) and
Temperature 25°C), the maximum current (Im) and maximum voltage (Vm)
at maximum output power (Pm) defined the rated power of the module. The
other characteristics of solar module are conversion efficiency and Fill factor.
The conversion efficiency is defined as the ratio of output electrical power to
incident optical power. For maximum power output, we can write :
Pm I V
  100%  m m  100% (3-5)
Pin Pin

And the Fill factor, FF, is the ratio of the maximum output power to
the product ISC.VOC:
I mVm
FF  (3-6)
I SCVOC

Example : A solar cell (0.9 cm2) receives solar radiation with photons of 1..8
eV energy having an intensity of 0.9 mW/cm2. Measurements show open-
circuit voltage of 0.6 V/cm2, short-circuit current of 10 mA,/cm2, and the
maximum current ts 50% of the short-circuit current. The efficiency of cell is
25%. Calculate the maximum voltage that the cel1 can give and find the fill
factor.

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

3.7 Limits to Cell Efficiency

Photovoltaic cel1s have low efficiency of 15%-only about 1/6th of the
sunlight striking the cell generates electricity. The low efficiency is due to the
following major losses:
(i) When photons of light energy from the sun strike the cell, some of them
are reflected (since reflectance from semiconductors is high).
(ii) Photons of quantum energy hν < Eg cannot contribute to photoelectric
current production. This energy is converted into thermal energy and lost.
(iii) Excess energy of active photons (hν > E) given to the electrons beyond
the required amount to cross the band gap cannot be recovered as useful
electric power. It appears as heat and is lost.
(iv) Photovoltaic cells are exposed directly to the sun. As the temperature
rises, leakage across the cell increases, consequently, there is reduction in
power output relative to input of solar energy. For silicon, the output decrease
by 0.5% per oC.
(v) limitations of absorbing photons by solar cell materials.
(vi) a mesh of metal contacts cover a definite area which reduces the active
surface and prove an obstacle to incident solar radiation.
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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

(vii) The far end of the infrared region. i.e., greater than 1.15 µm, has a big
part of solar irradiance and this energy is not utilized by solar cells.
The band gap of a semiconductor is required to match the solar spectrum, and
for obtaining a high efficiency, the band gap range is from 1.1 to 1.4 eV. Cells
need to have absorptance so as to absorb the maximum number of photons in
solar spectrum. This can be achieved by using series of solar cells with varying
band gaps planned in a multilayer structure.

3.8 Types of Solar Cells

1. Single crystal silicon

Figure (3-8) Cross section of a silicon cell.

2. Polycrystalline Silicon Cells

Figure (3-9): Cross section of a polycrystalline silicon cell.

3. Amorphous Silicon Cells

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

Figure (3-10) (a) Schematic of a three-layer tandem cell, and (b) spectral
response of a tandem cell'
Table(3-2): Comparison between types of solar cell
Single crystalline Si Polycrystalline Si Amorphous Si

the products have been Lower space- Low space-efficiency

widely used for space efficiency.
and ground facilities
Monocrystalline solar solar panels live less solar panels live the
panels live the longest. than Monocrystalline shortest.
Most solar panel
manufacturers put a 25-
year
High temperatures haveHigh temperatures have High temperatures have
more impact on solar less impact on solar less impact on solar
panel performance. panel performance than panel performance.
monocrystalline.
shading have more shading have less shading have less
impact on solar panel impact on solar panel impact on solar panel
performance. performance. performance.
Its efficiency 14-17% its efficiency 12% Its efficiency 5-7%

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

The production cost is The production cost is The production cost is

quite high less than single lower than single and
crystalline silicon cell poly crystalline
There is no grain Cells are made with There is no crystal
boundaries care so that the grain properties
boundaries cause no
major interference with
the flow of electrons
and grains are larger in
size , than the thickness
of the cell

3.9 Components of a PV system

The primary components of PV system consist of :
 PV module
 Energy storage (Battery)
 Charge regulator
 Inverter
 Load
Components other than PV module are collectively known as Balance of
System (BOS) which includes storage batteries, an Charge regulator and an
inverter

Figure (3-11): The components of a PV system

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

3.9.1 PV module
The solar cell is the basic unit of a PV system. An individual solar cell
produces direct current and power typically between 1 and 2 W. in case of
crystalline silicon solar cells with a typical area of 10 × 10 cm an output power
is typically around 1.5 Wp, with Voc ≈ 0.6 V and Isc ≈ 3.5 A. For actual usage,
the solar cells are interconnected in series/parallel combinations to form a PV
module. In the outdoor environment the magnitude of the current output
from a PV module directly depends on the solar irradiance and can be
increased by connecting solar cells in parallel. The voltage of a solar cell does
not depend strongly on the solar irradiance but depends primarily on the cell
temperature. PV modules can be designed to operate at different voltages by
connecting solar cells in series. The modules are manufactured in various
sizes and are able to deliver power ranging from 5 to 240 W. For large-scale
generation of solar electricity the solar modules are connected together into a
solar array (see figure 3-12).

Figure (3-12): PV cells, modules and arrays

Table 3-3 contains typical parameters that are used in module
specification sheets to characterize PV modules. Electrical parameters are

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

determined at standard test conditions, i.e. 1000 W/m2 solar irradiance, 25°C
cell temperature and AM1.5 solar radiation.

Table (3-3): specification sheets to characterize PV modules

Module type Shell SM50-H

Solar cell type Mono c-Si
Rated Power Pmax (W) 50
Rated current Immp (A) 3.15
Rated voltage Vmpp (V) 15.9
Short circuit current Isc (A) 3.4
Open circuit voltage Voc (V) 19.8
Cells per module 36
Dimensions (mm) 1219×329
3.9.2 Energy Storage (Battery)
Batteries are charged during the day and supply power to loads during periods
of cloudy day and during nights. The capacity of a battery is expressed in
ampere-hours (Ah). Most of batteries used in PV systems are lead-acid
batteries. In some applications, for extreme climate conditions nickel-
cadmium batteries are used which is the relative high cost.
3.9.3 Charge regulators
Charge regulators are the link between the PV modules, battery and
load. They protect the battery from overcharge or excessive discharge by
regulate the input and the output currents. Charge and discharge voltage limits
should be carefully selected to suit the battery type and the operating
temperature.
3.9.4 Inverters
The inverter's main functions are: transformation of DC electricity
into AC, wave shaping of the output AC electricity, and regulation of the
effective value of the output voltage.

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

3.9.5 Load
The appliances, lights and equipment being powered by a PV solar
system constitute electric loads of the PV system. Energy-efficient loads
contribute to overall system efficiency and economy.
3.10 Types of PV Systems
Three main types of PV systems: stand-alone (off-grid), grid-
connected, and hybrid.
3.10.1 Stand-Alone Systems (off-Grid PV Systems)
Stand-alone systems rely on PV power only. These systems can
comprise only PV modules and a load or can include batteries for energy
storage. When using batteries charge regulators are included, which switch
off the PV modules when batteries are fully charged, and switch off the load
in case batteries become discharged below a limit. The batteries must have
enough capacity to store the energy produced during the day to be used at
night and during periods of poor weather.
Solar street light as shown in figure (3-13) describes a standalone PV power
generating device. It comprises a compact fluorescent lamp, two 35 watt solar
modules and an 80 Ah tubular cell battery.

Figure (3-13) An SPV street light installation

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

Individual farmers typically use an 1800 watt PV array to operate a 2 hp DC

motor pump set as shown in Figure.(3-14). It can give water discharge of
140,000 liters per day from a depth up to 7 meters.

Figure (3-14) An SPV water Pump set

3.10.2 Grid-Connected Systems
A grid-connected photovoltaic power system is connected with the state
electric grid and do not require batteries. The system operates to supplement
the grid power during the daytime when a substantial quantum of solar energy
is extracted from the sunlight. During night the grid power alone feeds the
load. This system also supplies emergency power during any short period of
grid failure as shown in Figure (3-15). This system requires additional
equipment to control voltage, Frequency and waveform so as to conform to
conditions for feeding the power into the grid.

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

Figure (3-15) Grid-connected PV system.

3.10.3 Hybrid Systems
Hybrid systems consist of combination of PV modules and a
complementary means of electricity generation such as a diesel and gas or
wind generator. Schematically is a hybrid system shown in Figure 3-16. In
order to optimize the operations of the two generators, hybrid systems
typically require more sophisticated controls than stand-alone PV systems.
For example, in the case of PV/diesel systems, the diesel engine must be
started when battery reaches a given discharge level and stopped again when
battery reaches an adequate state of charge.

Figure (3-16): Schematic principle of a hybrid system with PV, wind, and
diesel generators

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

3.11 PV System Design Guide

An estimate of the sizing of a PV array and batteries can be calculated using
the following design rules.
1. Determine the total load current and operational time
2. Add system losses
3. Determine the solar irradiation in daily equivalent sun hours
4. Determine total solar array current requirements
5. Determine optimum module arrangement for solar array
6. Determine battery size for recommended reserve time
1. Determine the total load current and operational time
 Determining the nominal operational voltage of the PV system.
Usually, one can choose between 12V or 24V nominal voltage.
 Express the daily energy requirements of loads in terms of current and
average operational time expressed in Ampere-hours [Ah].
 In case of DC loads the daily energy [Wh] requirement is calculated
by multiplying the power rating [W] of an individual appliance with
the average daily operational time [h].
 Dividing the Wh by the nominal PV system operational voltage, the
required Ah of the appliance is obtained.
EXAMPLE: A 12 V PV system has two DC appliances A and B requiring 15
and 20 W respectively. The average operational time per day is 6 hours for
device A and 3 hours for device B. Calculate the daily energy requirements of
the devices expressed in Ah.
Ans.) Device A: 15W×6h = 90Wh
Device B: 20W×3h = 60Wh
Total: 90Wh+60Wh = 150Wh 150Wh/12V = 12.5 Ah

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

In case of AC loads, The DC equivalent of the energy use of an AC load is

determined by dividing the AC load energy use by the efficiency of an
inverter, which is typically 85%. By dividing the DC energy requirement by
the nominal PV system voltage the Ah is determined

EXAMPLE: An AC computer (device C) and TV set (device D) are

connected to the PV system. The computer, which has rated power 40W, runs
2 hours per day and the TV set with rated power 60W is 3 hours per day in
operation. Calculate the daily energy requirements of the devices expressed
in DC Ah.
 Device C: 40W×2h = 80Wh
 Device D: 60W×3h = 180Wh
 Total: 80Wh+180Wh = 260Wh
 DC requirement: 260Wh/0.85 = 306Wh 306Wh/12V = 25.5 Ah
2. Add system losses
Some components of the PV system, such as charge regulators and batteries
use energy to perform their functions. We denote the use of energy by the
system components as system energy losses. Therefore, the total energy
requirements of loads, which were determined in step 1, are increase by a
factor of 20 to 30% in order to compensate for the system losses.
EXAMPLE: The total DC requirements of loads plus the system losses (20%)
are determined as follows: (12.5Ah + 25.5Ah) × 1.2 = 45.6Ah
3. Determine the solar irradiation in daily equivalent sun hours (EHS)
the average annual solar irradiation can be expressed in 221000 kWh/m2 =
1000 equivalent sun hours, which means 1000 h/356 days = 2.8 h/day..
EXAMPLE: in PV system, the daily ESH is 3 hours.
4. Determine total solar array current requirements

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

The current that has to be generated by the solar array is determined by

dividing the total DC energy requirement of the PV system including loads
and system losses (calculated in step 2 and expressed in Ah) by the daily
equivalent sun hours (determined in step 3).
EXAMPLE: The total DC requirements of loads plus the system losses are
45.6Ah. The daily ESH is 3 hours. The required total current generated by the
solar array is 45.6Ah/3h = 15.2A.
5. Determine optimum module arrangement for solar array
The number of modules in parallel is calculated by dividing the total current
required from the solar array (determined in step 4) by the current generated
by module at peak power (rated current in the specification sheet). The
number of modules in series is determined by dividing the nominal PV system
voltage with the nominal module voltage (in the specification sheet under
configuration). The total number of modules is the product of the number of
modules required in parallel and the number required in series.
EXAMPLE: The required total current generated by the solar array is 15.2A.
We have Shell SM50-H modules available. The rated current of a module is
3.15A. The number of modules in parallel is 15.2A/3.15A = 4.8 < 5 modules.
The nominal voltage of the PV system is 12V and the nominal module voltage
is 12V. The number of modules in series is 12V/12V = 1 module. The total
number of modules in the array is 5 × 1 = 5 modules.
6. Determine battery size for recommended reserve time
This reserve capacity is referred to a period of time that the system is not
dependent on energy generated by PV modules, and is rated in days which
depends on the type of loads. For residential use it is usually 5 days or less.
The capacity [Ah] of the batteries is calculated by multiplying the daily total
DC energy requirement of the PV system including loads and system losses

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M.Sc. Course, Renewable Energy college of Education, Physics Department
Ass.Proff. Dr. Alaa H. Shneishil 2018-2019 Ch.(3) Solar Photovoltaic System

(calculated in step 2 and expressed in Ah) by the number of days of

recommended reserve time. In order to prolong the life of the battery it is
recommended to operate the battery using only 80% of its capacity. Therefore,
the minimal capacity of the batteries is determined by dividing the required
capacity by a factor of 0.8.
EXAMPLE: The total DC requirements of loads plus the system losses are
45.6Ah. The recommended reserve time capacity for the installation side is 5
days. Battery capacity required by the system is 45.6Ah × 5 = 228Ah. The
minimal battery capacity for a safe operation is 228Ah/0.8=285Ah.

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