Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Chapter 4 – Complex Variables

Objective
Upon completion of this chapter you will be able to:
 Analyze the function of complex variable.
 Understand the basics of analytic functions
 Determine the line integrals of complex functions.
 Determine the line integrals by Residue Method.
 Determine the singularities of complex functions.

Introduction
Complex Analysis, traditionally known as the theory of complex variables, is the branch of
mathematical analysis that investigates the functions of complex numbers. Complex
Numbers are ordered pairs of real numbers (x, y). Two complex numbers are said to be equal
if they are exactly same i.e. (x, y) = (u, v) which implies x = u and y = v. A complex function is
one in which the dependent as well as independent variables are complex numbers or we
can say that the domain and range of complex functions is the subset of complex plane.
Complex Number
If x, y are two real numbers and ‘i’ is an imaginary unit such that i2 = 1 or i  1 then the
number of the form z = x + iy is called complex number.

Therefore, z = x + iy where x  Re z & y=Im z 
If z = x + iy then z  x  iy

If z = x + iy is a complex number then z  x  iy  x 2  y 2 . This is called as the

magnitude of a complex number.
Complex exponential can be represented as, ei  cos   isin  . The magnitude of this
exponential is always 1.
To represent any general complex number, amplitude and phase terms can be combined
together as,
y
z  x  iy  rei  r cos   isin  , where r  x2  y 2 , =tan1  
x
 = argument of z = x + iy.
If z  x  iy and z 0  x 0  iy 0 are two complex numbers then the distance between z and z0
is given by z  z0 or z0  z

 z  z0  x  iy   x0  iy 0    x  x0   i  y  y 0   x  x   y  y 
2 2
0 0

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

The equation of circle in rectangular co-ordinates is,

x2  y 2  r 2 or r  x2  y 2
Here, ‘r’ represents distance of (x + iy) from origin.
This equation in complex form can be expressed as, z  r .
This equation represents locus of all the points which are
at a constant distance from the origin. Thus it is an equation
of circle with center at origin and radius r.
 
The equation of a circle with center at x0 , y 0 and radius ‘r’ is,

x  x   y  y 
2 2
0 0
 r2

x  x   y  y 
2 2
0 0
r
z  z0  r is the equation of circle with center at z0 and radius r.
z  z0  r represents a set of all points lying within the circle z  z0  r
z  z0  r represents set of all points lying outside the circle z  z0  r

Complex Function
If A and B are two sets of complex numbers and every element of the form z=x+iy in a set A
is associated with the unique element of the form w=u+iv in a set B the w=u+iv is called
complex function of a complex variable z=x+iy and it is denoted by w=f(z) where z=x+iy and
w=u+iv.

    
Therefore w  f z  f x  iy  u x, y  iv x, y  
 
w  f  z   f xei  u r,    iv r,  

Neighborhood of a z0

The set of all points within the circle having center at z0 but not
on the circle is called neighborhood of a point z0 and it is also
called open circular disc (region).
    
Therefore Nd Z 0  N d, Z 0  Z : z  z 0  d 
Analytic Function

If a complex function f(z) is differentiable at a point z0 and also differentiable at every point
in some neighbourhood of a point z0 and the point z0 then the function f(z) is called Analytic
function at a point z0 and the point z0 is called Analytic point of f(z).

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Singular Point
If a function f(z) is not defined or not differentiable or not analytic, at a point z0 is called
singular point f(z).

z4
Suppose a complex function is given as, f z   z 2
 z=2 is a singular point of f(z).

Let us take another function, f z    z4

This function is defined for all values of ‘z’. Consider derivative of the function

1
f 'z 
2 z4
1
z  5, f  2 
2
z  4,f  z  does not exist.

z=4 is a singular point of f(z) as f(z) is not analytic at z=4.

Entire Function
If a complex function f(z) is differentiable or analytic at every point throughout a complex
plane, then the function f(z) is called an entire function and it is also called integrable
function.

Euler’s Theorem
The trigonometric functions of real variables can be defined as,
eiy  eiy eiy  eiy
siny  ; cos y 
2i 2
Similarly, trigonometric functions of complex variables can be defined,
eiz  eiz eiz  eiz
sinz  ; cos z 
2i 2
Euler’s Theorem states that,
cosz  isinz  eiz

Exponential Function
Exponential Function of real variable is very well defined and similarly we can define the
exponential function of a complex variable.

ez  ex iy  exeiy  ex  cos y  i siny 

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

De Moivre’s Theorem
De Moivre’s Theorem states that,

cos z  isinz   e 
n n
iz
 einz  cosnz  isinnz

Hyperbolic Functions
Different hyperbolic functions are defined as,

ez  e z ez  e z
sinhz  ; coshz 
2 2
We can also define,

sinhz ez  e z
tanhz  
coshz ez  e z
coshz ez  e z
cothz  
sinhz ez  e z
1 2
sechz   z
coshz e  e z
1 2
cosechz   z
sinhz e  e z

Logarithmic Function of a Complex Variable

If z(=x + iy) and w(=u + iv) be so related that ew  z , then w is said to be a logarithm of z to
the base e and is written as w  loge z .

Also, ew2in  ewe2in  z

Therefore, log z = w + 2inπ
Thus, the logarithm of a complex number has an infinite number of values and is therefore a
multi-valued function.
The general value of logarithm of z is represented as Log z to distinguish it from principal
value which is written as log z.


In Cartesian co-ordinates, Log (x + iy) = 2inπ + log (x + iy) = 2in  log r cos   isin  
    
Log (x + iy) = 2in  log rei   2in  logr  i  log x2  y 2  i 2in  tan1 y / x 

The logarithm of a negative quantity is complex and can be evaluated as,

loge  x   loge x  loge  1  loge x  i

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Analyticity of a Complex Function

  
If f z  u x, y  iv x, y   is analytic function at a point z0, then ux ,uy , v x , v y exists and
satisfy the Cauchy Riemann equations.
ux  v y & v x  uy
At every point is some neighborhood of a point z0.
u u v v
ux  ; uy  ; vx  ; vy 
x y x y
  
Sufficient condition for a function f(z) to be analytic. If (i) f z  u x, y  iv x, y is defined 
at every point in same neighborhood of z0.
(ii) u and v satisfy the L-R equations at every point in some neighborhood of a point z0.
(iii) u, v, ux, uy, vx, vy are continuous at every point in some neighborhood of a point z0.
Then the function f(z) = u +iv is analytic at z0 and f’(z)= ux + ivx
Note: ex, sinx, cosx, sinhx, coshx and every polynomial of the form
a0  a1x  a2x  ......anx an  0 & n  N are everywhere defined, continuous, differentiable
2 n

and also integrable.

If f, g are two continuous functions, then

a) fg is also continuous
b) f.g is also continuous
c) f/g (g0) is also continuous

Solved Examples
x

Problem: Test the analyticity of the function: f z  x  e cos y  iy  ie siny
x

 
Solution: u  iv  f z  x  e cos y  i y  e siny
x x
  
u  x  ex cos y
v=y+ex sin y
u v
ux   1  ex cos y ; vx   ex sin y
dx y
u V
uy 
y

  ex sin y ;  vy 
y
 1  ex cos y

Here ux = vy and vx = -uy at entry point and u, v, ux, uy, vx, vy are continuous at every point.
 f(z) is an analytic function.

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Problem: Determine whether the following function is analytic: f z  z  


Solution: u  iv  f z  x  iy
u  x, v  y

ux  1,uy  0

v x  0, v y  1

ux  v y and v x  uy

 f(z) is not analytic function.

Note:
 
2
1. f z  z is differentiable only at the origin but not analytic at any point.

2. f  x   z is not differentiable and not analytic at any point.

Problem: If x  1 then xx = ?

Solution: x  1  i

  i
x  cos  isin  e 2
2 2
i
 i 2  

x   e   e
x 2

 

Note: C-R equations in polar form are given by.

1 1
ur  v  and v r  u
r r
The derivative formula in polar form is given by

f '  z   ur  ivr  ei

Determining an Analytic Function

1) Given v (or u). Find vx, vy (or ux, uy)

2) Consider f’(z) = ux + ivx =uy +ivy

3) Replace x by z and y by ‘0’ i.e. f’(z) = g(z)

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

  
4) f x  g x dx  c where c = c1 + ic2

Solved Examples

  
Problem: If v r,   3r sin2  2r sin   7 then find analytic function f z  u  iv where v
2

is an imaginary part of analytic function f(z).

Solution: vr  6r sin2  2sin & v   6r2 cos2  2r cos 

1 
   
Consider f ' z  ur  iv r ei   v   iv r  ei
r 

f 'z  6r cos2  2cos   i 6r sin2  2sin e  i

Replace ‘r’ by ‘z’ and ‘’ by ‘0’.

f '  z   6z  2

 f  z   3z2  2z  c where c  c1  ic2

 
f  z   3z2  2z  c1  ic2  3 rei  
 2 rei   c1  ic2 
2

 3r cos2  isin2  2r cos   isin   c1  ic2

2

  
 3r 2 cos2  2r cos   c1  i 3r 2 sin2  2r sin   c2 
Harmonic Conjugate Function

If ux ,uy ,uxx & uyy are continuous functions and uxx  uyy  0 or  u  0 then u(x, y) is called
2

Harmonic function.
Note:
1) If f(x) = u + iv is analytic function then u and v satisfy Laplace equations.
2) If u and v are harmonic functions then u+iv may or may not be analytic function.
If u and v are harmonic function as u+iv is also analytic function, then v is called harmonic
conjugate function of ‘u’. Similarly, ‘-u’ is the harmonic conjugate function of ‘v’.
Method
Step 1: If v(x, y) is given to find u(x, y) the consider

u u
du  dx  dy
x y

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

 
Step 2: du  uxdx  uy dy  v y dx  v x dy  
 ux  v y & v x  uy 
Step 3: u    v dx   terms not containing x in  v  dy   K
y x

Treating y as constant, K  real integral constant.

Solved Examples

 
Problem: If v(r, )  3r sin 4  4 , then find its harmonic conjugate function?
4

1 
   
Solution: Given du  ur dr  u d   v   dr  rv r d  
r 
1 
   
Consider du  ur dr  u d   v   dr  rv r d  
r 
 1 1 
 ur  v  & v r  u 
 r r 
du= 12r 3 cos  4  dr   12r 4 sin  4  d

u= 12r 3 cos  4  dr    12r 4 sin  4  d  K

 ur ,  6r 4 cos  4   K

Note:

f  z   u  x, y   iv  x, y  is analytic function.
  
Complex Velocity Stream
Potential Potential function
Function function
  
f(z) = (x, y) + i(x, y)

  
Problem: If f z  x  3xy   x, y where i 
3 2
1 & f  x  iy  is analytic function, then
find the stream function .

Solution: Given u  x  3xy v==

3 2

ux  3x2  3y2 uy  6xy

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Consider dv  v xdx  v y dy

dv  uydx  u x dy


dv  6xydx  3x2  3y 2 dy 

v    6y xdx   3y 2 dy  K 
v  3x2 y  y 3  K

Complex Integration

If a complex function f(z) is defined at every point on the curve C

from a point A to B, then the evaluation of integral of complex
function f(z) is called line integral of a complex function f(z)
and is denoted by  f  z  dz
C
where C is called path of integration.

The relation between real line integral and complex line integral.
If f(z) is given by f(z) = u + iv and dz = dx + idy where z = x + iy then
 f  z  dz   u  iv dx  idy    udx  vdy   i  vdx  udy 
C C C C

Parameterization of the Curve

The curve for line integral can be represented by a parametric representation as
z(t)  x(t)  iy(t)
The sense of increasing ‘t’ is called as positive sense on C, and we assume that C is a smooth

dz(t)
curve i.e. C has a continuous and non-zero derivative z  at each point.
dt

Solved Examples
1 i
Problem: Evaluate  zdz along a curve C where C is the curve y = x
0

Solution: Assume x =t and y = t

1i 1,1 1

 zdz    x  iy dx  idy     t  it dt  idt 

0  x,y 0,0 0

1 1
 t2  1 2i
 1  i  tdt  1  i     1  i     i
2 2
2

0  2 0 2 2

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

1 i

 x 
 iy dz along the curve C where C is (i) y = x
2
Problem: Evaluate (ii) y = x2?
0

Solution: (i) Assume x = t and y= t

1,1 1

 x 
 iy  dx  idy    t2  it  dt  idt   
2

0,0 0

1 i 1 1
 t3 t3 t 2 t 2  1 i i 1
 
x  iy dz   t dt  it dt  itdt  tdt    i  i      
2 2 2

0 0 3 3 2 2 0 3 3 2 2
1 i
1 1 5 i 5i

0

x2  iy dz  1  i  1  i   
3 2 6 6 6

1,1 1

 x  
 iy  dx  idy    t 2  it 2 dt  i2tdt  
2
(ii)
0,0  0

x  t ; y  t2
dx  dt
dy  2tdt
1,1 1

 
x2  iy  dx  idy    1 i t  dt 1  i  2t 
2

0,0 0

1,1 1 1
 t3 2t 4 
 x 
 iy  dx
2
 idy   
 1 i t dt  i2t dt    3 i 4 
1  i 2 3

0,0 0  0
1,1
1 i  5  i
 x 
 iy  dx  idy   1  i    
2

0,0 3 2  6

Note: If the integrant function is analytic, then the value of the integral depends only on the
end points of the paths not on the path.
B
i.e.  f  z dz   f  z dz
C A

1 i  2i  i 1i 2
1i
z2 
Eg. I   zdz   
z 0
2 0 2 2

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Parameterization of Circle

x  x   y  y 
2 2
x2  y 2  r 2  z  r 0 0

x  r cos  x  x 0  r cos 

y  r sin  y  y 0  r cos 

r  z  z0 z=z0  rei

Note: The parameter equation of a circle z  z0  r is z  z0  rei where   0 to 2 for

total circular path.

Solved Examples

2z  3
Problem: Evaluate 
C
z
dz along a curve C, where C is z  3 ?

Solution: C  z  3

z  3ei
dz  3ieid
Here  = 0 to 2
2
2z  3 2  3ei  3
I dz    i3eid
C
z 0 3ei

2 2
 6iei 
 
6ie  3i d    3i
i
I
0  i 0
  
I  6ei2   6i  6e0  0  6i 
Simple Connected Domain
Let f(z) be analytic in a simple connected domain D. A domain D is called simple connected if
every closed curve without self-intersections encloses points only in D. Then there exists an
indefinite integral of f(z) in the domain D, that is, an analytic function F(z) such that F’(z) =
f(z) in D and for all the paths in D joining two points z0 and z1 in D we have,
z1

 f(z)dz  F(z )  F(z

z0
1 0
)

1i 1i
1 1 2 2
Ex.  z dz  z 3  1  i    i
2 3

0
3 0 3 3 3

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Cauchy’s Integral Theorem

If a function f(z) is analytic at every point within and on a simple closed curve C, then integral
over C.

C
 f  z  dz  0
Where  f  z  dz represents integral of f(z) over a closed curve C.
C

This theorem is actually an extension of the fact that integral of an analytic function depends
only on the end points. In case of closed curve the initial and end points are same so integral
is zero.
If a function f(z) is analytic everywhere within and on a triply connected region R bounded by
3 simply closed curve C1, C2, C3 but not analytic within C1, C2 and analytic only in C3 , then

C
 f  z  dz   f(z)dz   f(z)dz   f(z)dz
C1 C2 C3

Since, f(z) is analytic in C3 ,

 f(z)dz  0
C3

Thus,  f  z  dz   f(z)dz   f(z)dz

C C1 C2

Cauchy’s Integral Formula

If f(z) is analytic at every point within and on a simple closed curve C and z0 is any point
within C then.

f z
1.  z  z dz  2if  z 
C 0
0

f z 2i n

2.  dz  f  z0 
z  z  n!
n1
C
0

Thus, if a function is analytic on the simple closed curve C then the values of function and all
its derivatives can be found at any point of C.
Method to use Cauchy’s Integral Formula,

 Let  f(z)dz  I , first find the singular points of f(z) i.e. points where f(z) goes to infinity
 Check which of these points lie inside the closed curve given.
 Apply CIF only at those points and if none of the points lie inside the given curve,

 f(z)dz  0
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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Solved Examples

2z  sinz  ex 3
Problem: Evaluate  dz where C is z  ?
z  4 z  6 2
10 100
C

2z  sinz  ez
Solution: Let f(z) 
z  4 z  6
10 100

Singular points: z = 4, 6

3
The given curve is, z 
2

Since the curve is a circle centered at origin and radius 3/2. Both the points lie outside the
circle.

  f(z)dz  0
C

2z  3
Problem: Evaluate  z
dz along C where C : z  3 ?

2z  3
Solution: g(z) 
z

Singular Point of this function is, z = 0

The given curve is z  3 . Since z = 0 lies inside the given curve.

2z  3 f(z) 2i
 By CIF  dz   dz   f  0   2i   2  0  3  6i
z 0 z 1

z 1
Problem: Evaluate  dz along curve C where C : z  2  ?
 z  1  z  2  2
2
C

z
Solution: g(z) 
 z  1 z  2 
2

Singular points: z= 1, 2

1
C: z 2 
2

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

If z  1
1
1  1  , so it lies outside the given circle.
2
z2
1
0 0 , so it lies inside the given circle
2
z
 z  1 f z z
 
where f z 
 z  2 z  z  z 1
2 n1
0

  z  1  z 
2i   2i 1  2i
 By CIF, we have  f(z)dz  f '  z   2i 
1!   z  1   
2 2
C
  z 2 2  1

ez  cos z
Problem: Evaluate c  z  3 z  2dz, C: z  5

ez  cos z
Solution: f(z) 
 z  3 z  2
1 1 1
 
 z  a z  b  a  b  z  a a  b  z  b 
Singular Point: z  2,3

ez  cos z ez  cos z
f(z)  
z 3 z 2

C : z  5 so both singularities lie inside the given curve

ez  cos z ez  cos z
    z  dz   dz    2 f  3  2if  2    2i f 3  f  2 
C C
z  3 C
z  2

   z  dz  2i e   
 cos3  e2  cos2 
3

C


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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

z
Problem: Evaluate  zdz along a unit circle?
C

z
Solution: Let  z    z

C: z 1

The singular point of the function is z=0

z f z
g(z)  
z  0 z  z0

Since, z is not analytic anywhere so we have to calculate this integral as given below,

Method 1:

z  ei
dz  ieid
For every : 0 to 2
2 2
2
z ei i ei
I   dz 
z 0 ei  
ie d  i  ei
d  i
i
 e0  ei2  1  1  0
C 0 0

Method 2:
2
z.z z

2 2
zz z 1
z   2  2 z 1
z z z z

1 f z
z 
 z  0 z  z 
2 n1
0

z 2i d 
 By Cauchy Integral Formula we have  z dz  f '  0   2i  f  z    0
C
1!  dz 

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

z
Problem: Evaluate  z  2dz
C
along a circle z  2

z f z
Solution: Let  z   
z  2 z  z0

Singular Point of this function is, z = 2

The given curve is, C : z  2

z  2ei
dz  2ieid
  0 to 2
2 2
z 2ei e2i
I dz  0 2ei  22ie d  2i 0 ei  1d
i

C
z 2
The Singular Point lies on the curve C. So then the function cannot be evaluated.

Complex Power Series

An infinite series of the form

     ......................  a0  z  z 0   .................
2 n
f(z) = a0  a1 z  z 0  a2 z  z 0

(or) f(z) =  a z  z 
n 0
n 0 n
is called complex power series.

In powers of z  z0   or about a point z 0

. In the above power series an is a real or complex
constant which is called coefficient. Of power series z is a complex variable and z0 is a fixed
complex constant which is called center of the power series.
 n

For an  1, f(z)  z  z 

n0
0

Region of convergence (ROC)

The set of all values of z for which the power series converges is called Region of
convergence.
 
1
Eg. 1  z  z  ......................  1  z ; z 1
2

Here z  1 is an ROC, z  1 is a circle of convergence (COC) and radius r = 1 is a radius of

convergence of the power series.

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

z 2 z3
Similarly, 1  z    ..............  ez , V z  C
2! 3!
Here an entire complex plane is an ROC of power series.


a z  z 
n
If f(z)  n 0
then
n 0

The radius of convergence of the above power series is given by

1
r 1/n
lt an
n

For an = (0)n
an
(or) r  Lt
n an1
The circle of convergence of above series is given by z  z0  r

The region of convergence ROC of above power series is given by z  z0  r

Solved Examples
Problem: Find the radius of convergence, COC and ROC of the given power series.


 n!z
n 0
n

a z  z 
n
Solution: Compare the given series with n!z 
n
n 0
n 0

Here an  n! & z 0  0

n! 1
 r= Lt  Lt 
n
n  1! n n  1
Here the above power series converges only at its center. z 0  0 and z 0  0 is called center
of convergence of a power series.

Problem: Find the radius of convergence, COC and ROC of the given power series.


 3  4i  z  2i
n n

n 0

 
n
Solution: an  3  4i  z 0  2i
1 1 1 1 1
r  Lt  Lt  
lt an
n
1/n n
3  4i
n
1/n n
3  4i 9  16 5

Circle of Convergence is, z  z0  r

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

1
z   2i 
5

Region of Convergence is given by, z  z0  r

1
z   2i 
5

Problem: Find the radius of convergence, COC and ROC of the given power series.

2n 
 z  3 with  a z  z 
n n

n0 n! n 0
n 0

2n
Solution: Here an  & z0  3
n!
an 2n n  1  ! 2n n  1  n! n 1
r  Lt  Lt . n1  Lt  Lt 
n an1 n n! 2 n n! 2 2
n n 2

Circle of Convergence: z  z0  r  z  3  

Region of Convergence: z  z0  r  z  3  

Note: i) If f(z) is an analytic function at z0 (not a Singular Point)  Taylor Series.

ii) If f(z) is not an analytic function at z0 (Singular Point)  Laurentz Series.

Taylor’s Theorem
If a function f(z) is analytic at every point within a circle C, then for every point z within the
circle C, the function f(z) can be expressed as a power series in +ve powers of z  z0 or  
about z  z 0 .

z  z  z  z 
2 n

   
i.e. f z  f z 0  z  z 0 f ' z   
2!
0
f "  z0   ........ 
n!
0
f n  z 0   ..................

z  z  f
n
 
 z0    an  z  z0 
n
f(z) = 
n 0 n!
0 n

n 0

f  z0 
n

Where an 
n!
The RHS of above is called Taylors series about z  z 0 . The ROC of Taylor series is given by
z  z0  r . Where the radius of convergence r is a distance from a center of the power
series z0 to its nearest singular point of the same function f(z).

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

1
Problem: Find the Taylor series expansion of f z   z 2
about a point z=1. Hence find

radius of convergence, C.O.C and R.O.C.

1
Solution: Given f z   z 2
,z  1

Here z 0  1 and singular point, z = 2

r  S.pt.  z0  2  1  1
COC : z  z0  r
i.e. z  1  1

ROC: z  z0  r => z  1  1
Expansion:
1
f z  , z 1
z 2
Let z  1  t then z  1  t
1
f z    1  t 
1
t 1
t 1
f(z)   1  t  t2  t3 ..................  tn  ........................ 

f(z)   1 1   z  1   z  1   z  1  ............... 

2 3

 

Laurent’s Theorem
If a function f(z) is analytic at every point within a ring shaped region R bounded by two
concentric circles C1, C2 having center at z0, with radii r1, r2 such that r2 < r1, then for every
point z within R, the function f(z) can be represented by a power series in both +ve and –ve
powered of z  z 0 or about z=z0.
 
   an  z  z0    bn  z  z0 
n n
i.e. f z 
n0 n1

1 f z
where an  
2i C1  z  z n1 dz
0

1 f z
and bn  
2i C2  z  z n1
dz
0

The RHS of the above is called Laurent’s series about z = z0 and the ROC of a Laurent’s series
is given by r2  z  z0  r1 .

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Solved Example
e2z
Problem: Expand f z    as an infinite series about z = 1 and also find ROC.
 z  1
2

Solution: Let z  1  t then z  1  t

  2t   2t  
2 3
e 
2 1 t
e2t e2 
f  z   2  e  2  2 1  2t 
2
  ...........
t t t  2! 3! 
 
1 2 4t 
f(z)  e2  2   2   ....................... 
t t 3 
 
1 2 22 23
f(z)  e 2
    z  1  .............. 
  z  12  z  1 2! 3! 
 
Therefore the above series is a Laurent’s series about z=1 and entire complex plane is an
ROC except z=1.

1
 
Problem: Expand f z  z  3 5n  as an infinite series about z  2 and also find
 z  2
ROC.
Solution: Let z  2  t  
Then z  t  2
1
f  z    t  5  sin
t
x 3
x5
sinx  x    ..........
5! 5!
 1 1 1  1 5 1  5 1 5
f  x    t  5   3      ............   1    3  ......................
 t t 3!  t  5!  t 3!t 3!t
2

5 1 5
1    .................
z  2 3!  z  2  3!  z  2 3
2

Therefore the above series is Laurent’s series.

z
Problem: Expand f z   as an infinite series about z  2
 z  1 z  2
 
Solution: Let z  2  t  z  t  2

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

t2 12 02

f z   
 t  1 t t  1 t  0
Pz  q Pa  q Pb  q
 
 z  a z  b  a  b  z  a a  b  z  b 
2 1 2 2
  1  t    1  t  t2  t3  .........................  t  1
1

t 1t t t

2
  1   z  2    z  2    z  2   ................. 
2 3
i.e. f z 
z  2  

Therefore, the ROC of above power series is 0  z  2  1

Zeros and Singularities of Complex Function

If f(z) is analytic at a point z0 and f(z0) then the point z0 is called zero of the function f(z).

  
4
Suppose, f z  z  3 . Here, the function is analytic at z = 3 and f(3)=0, z = 3 is a zero of
f(z).

   
If f(z) is an analytic function at z0 and f z0  0, f' z0  0, f" z0  0 and so on ………..  
f
m1 
 z   0 but f  z   0 then the point z
0
m
0 0 is called zero of order m.

Solved Examples

   
3
Problem: Find the order of zero z = 2 of the function f z  z  2
Solution: Here z = 2 is a zero of f(z).
f’  z   3  z  2  ; f '  2  0
2

f "  z   6  z  2 ; f "  2   0
f '''  2  6 f iii  2   0
Therefore z = 2 is a zero of order 3.

Problem: Determine the order z=n, n I for the function f z  sinz 

eiz  eiz
Solution: sinz 
2i
eiz  eiz
cos z 
2

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

f  z   sinz, z=n, n  I
f '  z   cos z  0 at z  n, n  I
 z  n, n  I are first order zeros.

Problem: Determine the order of zero z= 2n  1   2 ,n  I for the function f  z   cos z


Solution: f ' z  sinz  0 at z= 2n  1   2 ,n  I

z   2n  1 , n  I are simple zeros of f(z)
2
Similarly, f  z   sinhz, z  ni, n  I  simple zeros 

f  z   coshz, z  i  2n  1 , n  I  simple zeros 
2

Types of Singularities
Isolated Singular Point
If z0 is a singular point of f(z) and f(z) is analytic at every point except z 0 in at least 1
neighborhood of a root z0, then the point z0 is called isolated singular point of f(z).
z  4
3


Eg: f z 
z 2
z  2  Isolated Singular Point

 z  2  z  4 
3

Similarly, f  z  
 z  5  z  6 
2 3

Singular Point is z = 5, 6
At least one region exists, so 5, 6 are isolated Singular Points.
1
f z 
sinz
Singular Point: z  n, n  I  z  0, ,  2 .
Isolated point

We can’t find any other singular point in this region. So isolated Singular Point.

Removable Singular Point

If the principal part of Lorentz series expansion of f(z) about z – z0 does not exist then the
singular point z0 is called removable Singular Point of f(z).
sinz

Eg: f z 
z

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Pole (of order m)

If the principal part of Laurent’s expansion of f(z) about z - z0 contains finite number of –ve
powers of (z – z0) then the Singular Point ‘z0’ is called pole of order m i.e. say m terms.
ez

Eg: f z 
z
z = 0 is the singular point.
Now expand about this point.

z  0  z  0
2
ez 1  z 2 z3  1
f z   1  z    ...............   1    .................
z z 2! 3!  z  0 2! 3!
1 1 1
f(z)  0   0 
 z  0
2
 z  0   z  0 3
 z = 0 is a pole of order 1 (simple pole)

Essential Singular Points

If the principal part of Lorentz series expansion of f(z) about z – z0 contains infinite number
of negative powers of (z – z0) then the regular point z0 is called essential singular point of f(z).
 
 1   1 1 1 
f  z    z  4  sin    z  4     ...........
z4  z  4  z  4  3!  z  4  5!
3 5

1 1
f(z)  1    ..............
 z  4  3!  z  4  5!
2 4

Classification of Singular Points

Nr
 
1) Suppose f z 
Dr
2) Find the singular points of f(z) [i.e. zeros of Dr function].

  0  Poles
3) Nr (at singular points) 
 0  pole or removable Singuar point

4) If m > n  pole order = m – n

Else m  n  removable Singular Point

where n  order of zero of Nr

m  order of zero of Dr

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Solved Examples
Problem: Determine the type of singular points for the function
 z  4  z  6
3 2

f z 
 z  5  z  7 
10 5

Solution: Singular Points: z=5 (order = 10) and z=7 (order = 5)

Since, Numerator is non-zero at both these singular points, these are poles.

Problem: Determine the type of singular points for the function

sinz
f z 

z
2

Solution: Singular Point z = [order 1]
2
 
Since, numerator is non-zero at z   z pole of order 1 (simple pole)
2 2

Problem: Determine the type of singular points for the function

f  z   tanz
sinz
Solution: f(z) 
cos z

Singular Point: z =  2n  1  n  I
2
Thus, there are infinite number of singular points.


Since, Numerator is non-zero at all these points  z = 2n  1  2 is a pole of order 1.
Problem: Determine the type of singular points for the function
cos z
f z 

z
2
cos z z

Solution: f z  
  z  z m
m=1
z 0
2

Singular Point 
2

Since, numerator is zero at z  , this is a removable singularity or a pole.
2

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

To determine the order of zero of Nr


f(z)  cos z  0 at z 
2

f '(z)   sinz  0 at z=
2

Therefore z  is a pole of order 1.
2
n=1

 m  n  1 z  is a removable Singular Point
2

Problem: Determine the type of singular points for the function

1  cos z
f z 
z
Solution: Singular Point: z = 0
Since Nr = 0 at z = 0
1  cos z g(z)
f z   m=1
z  z  z0 
m

g(z)  1 cosz  0 at z  0
g'(z)  sinz  0 at z  0
g"(z)  cosz  0 at z  0
Thus, n = 2 i.e. z= 0 is a zero of numerator of order 2
Since n > m  z  0 is a removable singular point

Problem: Determine the type of singular points for the function

 2 
f  z    z  4  sin  
z4

 
2 23 25
 
Solution: f z  z  4  z  4   ............... 
3!  z  4  5!  z  4  
3 5

 

23 25
f(z)  2   ......................
3!  z  4  z  4
2 4
4!

Singular Point z = 4  Essential singular point.

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Residue of a Complex Function

1
If z0 is an isolated singular point of f(z), then the coefficient of in Laurent’s series of
z  z0
f(z) about z = z0 is called residue of f(z) and it is denoted by Res[f(z) : z = z0]
1
Therefore Res[f(z) : z = z0] = The coefficient of in Laurent’s series.
z  z0
1
f  z dz
2i 
The coefficient is given by, b1 

Cauchy’s Residue Theorem

If f(z) is analytic at every point within and on a simple closed curve X except at a finite
number of isolated singular points z, z2, ……… zn within C, then
 n 
C  
f z dz  2 i   R j  where Rj = Res[f(z) : z = zj]
 j1 
This theorem is useful in computing line integrals of complex functions over a closed curve.

Methods to find Residues

Removable Singular Point
If z0 is a removable Singular Point of f(z) then Res(f(z) : z = z0) = b1 = 0

Essential Singular Point

If the point z0 is an essential Singular Point of f(z) then expand f(z) as a Laurent’s series,
1
about z = z0 and collect the coefficient of in the Laurent’s series which gives the
z  z0
residue of f(z).

Pole
P z

a) If f z 
Q z
has simple pole at z0, then.

Res f z : z  z   Lt  z  z f z  
    0 z z0 
 0    
z
b) If f  z   has simple pole at z0
 z
   z0  

then Res f z : z  z 0 

  where   z0   0 and  '  z0   0
 '  z0  

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

gz
 
c) f z 
z  z0
has simple pole at z0, then

   
Res f(z) : z  z 0   g  z 0   where g z0  0

d) If f(z) has pole at z0 of order m, then

Res f  z  : z  z 0  
1  dm1
 
Lt  m1  z  z 0  f  z  
m  1! zz0  dz
m

Solved Examples
Problem: Find the residue of following function.
z
f z 
z 4
2

Solution: To determine the singular point

z2  4  0
z  2i  Singular Points, Simple poles.

 z  2i  z  2i  1
 
R1 : Res f  z  : z  2i  Lt  z  2i f  z    Lt
z 2i
   4i 2
z 2i z  2i z  2i

 z  2i z  2i  1
 
R 2 : Res f  z  : z  2i  Lt  z  2i f  z   
z 2i
 z  2i z  2i 2i  2i 2
Problem: Find the residue of following function.
cos z g  z 
f z  
z   z  z0
Solution: Singular Point z =   simple pole.
 
 Residue g   1

Problem: Find the residue of following function.

cos z   z 
f  z   cot z  
sinz   z 
Solution: Singular Point z = n n  I

 n  cosn

Res f  z  : z  z 0    ' n 

cosn
1

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Problem: Find the residue of following function.

cos z gz
f z   m=1
  z  z m
z 0
2

Solution: z   pole of order 1.
2

Nr=0 at z 
2
g(z)  cosz  0
g'(z)   sinz  0  n=1

m=n=1  z=  Removable Singular Point
2
 
 R1  Res f  z  : z    0
 2

Problem: Find the residue of following function.

f  z    z  2 e3/z 2
 
3! 32 33

Solution: f(z)  z  2 1     ............. 
z 2  z  2 3!  z  2  
2 3

 

z = 2 Essential S.P. ( number of negative powers of z)

32 9

 R1  Res f  z  : z  2  b1   
2! 2

Method to calculate Complex Integrals by Residue Method

1) Let f(z) = Integrand function

2) Find singular point of f(z)
3) C : R choose region
4) Check whether the Singular Point is within the region or not.

No Singular Point within the region  CIT  f  z  dz  0

One or more Singular Point within the region,
1. Classify the singular points.
2. Find the residues
3. Substitute residue in Cauchy Integral Theorem
 f  z dz  2i R
C
1
 R 2  ..............  R n 

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

Solved Examples

z 1
Problem: Evaluate  dz, C : z  2 
 z  1 z  2  2
2
C

z
Solution: Let f z   
 z  1  z  2 
2

Singular Point : z = 1, 2

1
C: z 2 
2
1
z  1 outside C 
2
1
z  2 inside C 
2
z  2  pole of order 2

Nr  0 at z = 2
 

R1  Res f  z  : z  2   2 11! Lt  dzd  z  2   z  1z z  2   Lt dzd  z z 1 
2

z 2 z 2
 
 
 1 
R1  Lt  1
 
z 0  2

z  1

 By C.R.T., we have  f  z dz  2iR

i
i
 2i  1  2i

 z e z dz along a unit circle z  1

2
Problem: Evaluate
C


Solution: f z  z 2e z

 1 1 1 
f(z)  z 2 1     ...................... 
 z 2!z 3!z
2 3


1 1 1
f(z)  z 2  z     ..........................
2 3!z 4!z 2

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 Engineering Maths (Complex Variables)

1 1
f(z)   z  0    z  0  
2
  ...................
2 3!  z  0 

Singular Point= z = 0  Essential Singular Point

C: z 1

z = 0 lies inside C

1 1
Coefficient of 
z  z0 3!

1 1

 R1  Res f  z  : z  0  
3! 6
i
 By C.R.T we have  f  z  dz  2i  R
C
1

3

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