Unit 3A

Features of Academic Language

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

- understand the general features and variations of
written academic language
- understand the similarities and differences in two types of academic writing: more
personal reflective writing and formal academic writing
- understand how the genre/audience affects our use of supporting evidence

Split-Class
During this class, your tutor will be 1) calling some small groups of students to the front of
the class to check they are ready and fully prepared for the first Portfolio Assessment and
2) may have some 1:1 consultations with students. While you are waiting to be called to
the front of the class, please complete Tasks 1-8. You were asked to read 1.1 and 1.2 before
class and these have been pasted below for your convenient reference.

1. Features of Academic Language

1.1 Academic and non-academic writing

Formal academic style is not used in all academic settings. For example, you may be asked at
university to write a ‘reflective journal’ or a more personal response which will use a less
formal style. However, a more formal academic style is generally needed for academic essays
and journal articles. Read the following table carefully and make sure you understand the
other different language features between formal academic writing and non-academic
writing.

1. Academic writing is more concise

Academic writers need to put a lot of information into short texts (e.g., journal articles). As a result,
the language is more compressed (Biber et al., 1999). It tends to use more noun-based phrases than
verb-based phrases. Academic writers avoid ‘redundancy’ (words that are not needed), giving
irrelevant information or needless repetition (Sowton et al., 2012).

LUE1002 University English II (Term 2, 2022-23) Page 1

 Formal Academic Writing Non-Academic Writing

Blackcurrant contains anthocyanins that could Blackcurrant is a small, woody, and berry-
reduce cardiovascular disease risk (Cook et al., producing shrub that grows widely in Europe
2017). and parts of Asia. Nutritionally speaking, these
small berries are a rich source of many good
things with high nutritional value and many
health benefits.
2. Academic writing uses specialised key terms

When academic writers know their audience are all in the same field and will understand specialised
vocabulary they use these key terms that the general public might not understand (Biber et al., 1999).

Formal Academic Writing Non-Academic Writing

Blackcurrant contains anthocyanins that could Blackcurrant is a small, woody, and berry-
reduce cardiovascular disease risk (Cook et al., producing shrub that grows widely in Europe and
2017). parts of Asia. Nutritionally speaking, these small
berries are a rich source of many good things
with high nutritional value and many health
benefits.
3. Academic writing is precise

Academic writers try to avoid ‘vague’ language that might be misunderstood. They must aim to be as
precise and explicit as possible (Hamp-Lyons & Heasley, 2006). You will rarely see academic writers
use ‘run on’ expressions such as ‘etc.’ or vague phrases such as ‘and so on’.

Formal Academic Writing Non-Academic Writing

Blackcurrant contains anthocyanins that could Blackcurrant is a small, woody, and berry-
reduce cardiovascular disease risk. producing shrub that grows widely in Europe and
parts of Asia. Nutritionally speaking, these small
berries are a rich source of many good things with
high nutritional value and many health benefits.
4. Academics are modest and hedge claims more tentatively

If you make a bold exaggerated claim at university, you will be asked ‘where is your evidence?’ or
‘what makes you so certain?’ This means that you often need to adjust the strength of the claims you
are making depending on your stance and availability of evidence (Hamp-Lyons & Heasley, 2006). This
is known as ‘hedging’ or ‘being more tentative’. Notice in the examples below that the non-academic

LUE1002 University English II (Term 2, 2022-23) Page 2

 writer has made a very bold claim (many health benefits) without hedging or citation. Meanwhile,
the academic writer uses ‘could’ (a hedge) to explain that the evidence they have read (shown in the
citation) in not conclusive.
Formal Academic Writing Non-Academic Writing

Blackcurrant contains anthocyanins that could Blackcurrant is a small, woody, and berry-
reduce cardiovascular disease risk (Cook et al., producing shrub that grows widely in Europe and
2017). parts of Asia. Nutritionally speaking, these small
berries are a rich source of many good things
with high nutritional value and many health
benefits.
5. Evidence

In academic writing you must be responsible for, and must be able to provide evidence and
justification for, any claims you make. You are also responsible for demonstrating an understanding of
any source texts you use (Hamp-Lyons & Heasley, 2006). In the example above the academic writer
gave a citation in APA citation style.
6. Organization

Academic writing is well organised. Good academic writing is easy to read because it is logically
organized (it has ‘coherence’) and flows easily from one sentence to the next (it has ‘cohesion’).

A business report will be very differently organized to a laboratory report. A logical organization must
follow audience genre expectations (Swales, 1990). That is to say that audiences in different subjects
have different expectations about the structure of common texts (genres) in their field and students
need to learn these typical structures.
7. Planning

Academic writing is well planned. It usually takes place after research and evaluation, according to a
specific purpose and plan (Hamp-Lyons & Heasley, 2006).

1.2 Formal academic and less formal writing – Stylistic features

Different genres have different stylistic variations in the use of language. The table below
probably oversimplifies these features, but many students find such generalisations helpful.
Read the following table carefully and make sure you understand the stylistic differences
between formal academic and less formal writing.

Formal academic writing Less formal writing

Full forms Contractions (short forms)

There is There’s

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 The students did not object The students didn’t object

Academic connectors Conversational connectors

The theory appears to provide an I’d learned the theory, but I found it
explanation for this phenomenon. difficult to do in reality.
However, this is not the case on a closer
examination of the facts.
The experimental design was weak. I felt my first study was badly designed.
Moreover, the methodology was faulty. Besides, the methodology was faulty.
Initial results were disappointing. I wasn’t happy with my performance. So I
Therefore, more resources were…. worked hard on these skills.

Use of nominal groups (verbs made into Use of verb phrases and personal
nouns) pronouns
The analysis (noun) of the results needed I needed to analyze the results quickly.
to be timely.

Greater use of passive voice Greater use of active voice

In recent years, several analyses of survey In recent years, researchers have
data have been published. published several analyses of survey data.

The interest of teachers has been raised I have read many interesting articles about
by claims published by these researchers. the claims that these researchers are
making.

Formal vocabulary Informal vocabulary

We received 150 responses. We got 150 responses. (idiomatic
language)
This issue was raised. (single verb)
This issue was brought up. (multiword
verbs)
Researchers assumed that…
Researchers thought that …
The results are encouraging.
The results are awesome!

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 The behaviour was acceptable. The behaviour was ok.

Impersonal tone Personal tone

Objective and impersonal, e.g. This essay Subjective and personal, e.g. In my essay I
attempts to… will attempt to …

Avoids addressing the reader, e.g. Conversational with the reader, e.g. You
Academic style is impersonal. should use an impersonal style.

Uses statements e.g. One possible reason Asks rhetorical questions, e.g. How can
may be… this be so?

Task 1

You will need your laptop/tablet and headphones to complete this task. If you
cannot access YouTube for any reason, you will find a version of the video on
Moodle. Most of the features of academic writing outlined above in 1.1 and 1.2
are discussed in the video below, even if some terminology differs. However,
the video mentions two extra features of academic writing not mentioned
above. Watch the video and make notes on any new aspects of academic style
in the box.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n9d9EXWIkuI

Further features of academic style:

Being precise and avoiding informal phrases, words such as ‘things’ as well as using formal verbs (discuss instead of ‘talk
about’), using less impersonal phrases

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Task 2
Decide whether the following sentences are ‘academic’ [A] or ‘non-academic’
[NA]. If it is non-academic, underline any language that makes it informal. The
first two are given as examples.
1. Blackberries are great for your health. [ NA ]
2. Fruit and vegetable intake is known to promote good health. [ A ]
3. English is widely spoken in Singapore, India, Malaysia, etc. [ ]
4. Researchers have been investigating the potential benefits of blackberries for many
years. [ ]
5. The implementation of computer assisted learning has brought about a lot of
improvements. And students think it is cool. [ ] NA
6. Computer-assisted learning has resulted in many positive impacts in education, most
notably in learning analytics (Chan & Lee, 2021; Johns, 2022). [ ]
7. Researchers have got some provisional findings. But we need more research. [ ] NA
8. Blackberry consumption may contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular disease
(Cook et al., 2017). [ ]
9. Researchers have been looking into these sorts of things for some years but don’t have
any conclusions yet. [ ] NA
10. Conclusive results won't be found out until more funding is given to researchers. [ ]

Task 3
The following seven sentences are not academic due to the informal verb choice.
Choose a more precise academic verb from the list that reduces the informality
of each sentence. Write your choice of verb in the gap next to the sentence,
making sure it is grammatical (you may need to change its tense/aspect for the
context of the sentence). The first one has been completed as an example.

create eliminate establish intervene investigate propose raise reduce

1 Researchers have been looking into the problem for 15 years now. __investigating____

2 This issue was brought up during the investigations. _______________

raised

3 The teacher acts as a 'facilitator', and will only step in if something goes wrong.
intervene
______________

4 Realistically, examination boards cannot altogether get rid of the possibility of errors
arising during testing. _______________
eliminate

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5 A poor classroom environment can cut down students' ability to learn.
_______________
reduce

6 It is very difficult to find out exactly how consultants help facilitate the introduction of
change. _______________
establish

7 After several years of trying, the head teacher decided to come up with a comprehensive
information programme to improve the quality of decisions. ______________
create/propose

Task 4
Which of the words in italics would be more suitable in an academic paper?

1 The government has made considerable/good progress in solving educational

problems.
2 We got/obtained unexpected results.
3 The results of a lot of/numerous different projects have been pretty
good/encouraging.
4 A loss of jobs is one of the consequences/the things that will occur if more computers
are used for distance learning.
5 Therefore, the relationship between teachers and parents is extremely/awfully
important.

1.3 Different types of academic writing

In reality, there are many types (genres) of academic writing at university level. The above
explanations oversimply stylistic issues because some assignments you do at Lingnan will
require very formal/impersonal style while others will allow informal writing and subjective
opinion. In fact, it is more useful to think of ‘Academic Style’ as a continuum, as shown in
Figure 1 overleaf. Being able to recognize the expectations of different tutors for
assignments and then produce an appropriate style for a relevant audience is very important
to success in academic writing (Swales, 1990).

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Figure 1: The Continuum of ‘Academic Style’.

Task 5
Read the following eight extracts of academic writing and try to guess the
genres 1-10 (from Figure 1) by reviewing the stylistic differences and use of
evidence. The first two have been completed for you as examples.

Genre
1 Social media usage around the world has increased during 7. LUE1002 Academic Essay
this pandemic by about 20-80% (Naeem et al., 2020).
2 From the arguments and examples given I firmly believe 4. IELTS Essay
that overall communication and mans’ sociability has been
advanced enormously due to the huge technological
progress of the past twenty years.

3 Fun fact: Hong Kong means “fragrant harbour” in Social Media Post
Chinese.
4 After receiving some poor feedback from my tutor about my
academic style I re-read the course materials from Week 3
and consulted the uefap.com website. My next assignment
achieved a higher grade.
5 A limitation of the small-scale corpus-based study
presented in this chapter is acknowledged to be the small Post Graduate Disseration
number of participants.
6 I’ve demonstrated that I won’t get flustered when given
responsibility in both of my internships. So I’m now
looking for a global company to start my career.

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 7 In conclusion, this essay has shown that social media
influences people’s daily lives and self-esteem negatively
as people often become addicted and have become used to
comparing themselves with others.
8 In view of the problem of the high operating costs in the
Hong Kong startup ecosystem, three solutions will be Business Report
provided in this proposal
9 Thus far, there is a lack of clarity in the terminology and
definition of reflection, its antecedent conditions, its
processes, teaching strategies and outcomes (see Moon
2006; Procee 2006; Rogers 2001; Russell 2005).

Task 6 – Making personal response more academic (writing practice)

In a student’s academic essay assignment, her tutor has asked her to rewrite
her work with a more formal academic style. Rewrite the extract below with
any adjustments required. After you have finished re-writing the extract,
upload your version to Moodle to show your peers.

What is academic English writing?

I believe academic writing and general English writing are different in many ways. In a book I read
recently (Swales, 1990), he said that we’ve got to think about the audience we’re writing for. So in other
words, we’ve got to match our writing style to the audience’s expectations in the genres we write.
Swales says that another difference is the amount of jargon and technical terms that the audience can
understand in different sorts of text. Thirdly, this book said that it’s about the sort of evidence we
present to back up our ideas. It’s ok to use anecdotal stories and feelings in reflective journals, but
should we really be doing this in academic writing? Wouldn’t academic readers prefer to see citations
to published evidence?

Another book I read by an author called Sowton (2012) thinks there are 4 different things between
standard writing and academic writing. Sowton says that in academic writing:

• You should be objective

• You should be concise and write texts that are short as possible
• You should use technical terms and academic phrases
• Your text should have more structure

First, rewrite here and then submit to the Moodle Forum.

Academic writing and general english are dissimilar in various ways. Swales conveys the significance of being aware of the
demographic during writings as well as the audience’s writing expectations in particular genres. Additionally, Swales illustrates the
technical terms audiences can understand in multiple academic texts. The author presents evidence being vital to support ideas
and avoiding anecdotes as academic readers prefer citations along with published evidence. Moreover, Sowton had stated four
distinctions between standard writing and academic writing. Sowton demonstrates academic writing possessing structured text,
academic phrases as well as being objective within essays. The importance of being concise is a feature of academic writing as well.

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Task 7 – Making academic writing more personal/informal

In a student’s reflective writing assignment, his tutor has asked him to rewrite
his work with a less formal style (reflective writing is normally 'semi-formal').
In particular, the student’s attempt to avoid using ‘I’ and refer to themselves in
the third person is unnatural and unnecessary. Rewrite the extract below with
a less academic style.

The author of this reflection was told that his note-taking skills were ineffective. Thus it
was decided he should complete an online note-taking skills course. On the
aforementioned course he was instructed to better focus on the main ideas and cease
attempting to record every single detail. After finishing the course, his notes were taken
using these new skills in the next lecture. Moreover, following the class the author also
found them useful when writing his post-lecture summary. He now reports growing
confidence in this skillset. In future, he has the intention to work further with the Visiting
English Tutor (VET) service and ameliorate his note-taking when reading longer texts

First, rewrite here and then submit to the Moodle Forum.

1.5 Similar internal structure of Excerpts A, B & C

Although different genres of writing at university are very different in style, they all exhibit
a very similar internal structure: Claim > Evidence > Discussion. This can be regarded as
the key components of all academic writing.

Read these 3 samples and pay attention to the internal structure as highlighted:
Claim à Evidence àDiscussion

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Excerpt A: Personal essay

The Real Me
Creativity is hard to define, but it’s easy to recognize. Some people express their creativity
by painting, others through cooking, fishing, playing basketball, or any number of activities
that require special skill and devotion. My choice is choreography.

Choreographing dance routines challenges my creative skills in exciting ways. Through the
entire process I visualize the dance routine, hear the music and see the reaction of the
audience. Because choreographing often requires a great deal of research and hours of
planning and practice, only a person with an intense dedication to the performing arts would
enjoy it.

Claim Choreographing dance routines challenges my creative skills in exciting ways.

Evidence Through the entire process I visualize the dance routine, hear the music and
see the reaction of the audience.
Discussion Because choreographing often requires a great deal of research and hours of
planning and practice, only a person with an intense dedication to the
performing arts would enjoy it.
(Source: Building Bridges to Academic Writing, Eppley, G. & Eppley, A. D., 1997)

Excerpt B: Reflective writing

Why I would recommend this course

This course has helped me improve my reading skills significantly. Before the course, I
always wasted a lot of time vocalizing words in my head and had no strategies to read more
quickly. I became quite frustrated because it took me hours to even begin to understand a
longer text in English and many of my friends seemed to finish their reading before me. It
really helped to turn that internal voice off and stop worrying about every word. I now read
in English more strategically, skimming and scanning before taking notes. I now read in the
same way I read in my native language and I’m feeling more confident. In a recent IELTS test
I finally managed to complete the reading paper in the allotted time.

On the one hand, my reading speed is still limited by lack of vocabulary. On the other hand, I
have already greatly improved my academic reading skills thanks to this course. In future, I
plan to read more regularly for pleasure in order to improve my vocabulary further.

Claim This course has helped me improve my reading skills significantly.

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 Evidence Before the course, I always wasted a lot of time vocalizing words in my head
and had no strategies to read more quickly... In a recent IELTS test I finally
managed to complete the reading paper in the allotted time.
Discussion On the one hand, my reading speed is still limited by lack of vocabulary. On
the other hand, I have already greatly improved my academic reading skills
thanks to this course. In future, I plan to read more regularly for pleasure in
order to improve my vocabulary further

Excerpt C: Academic essay

A clear problem in academic writing is that of the assessor or ‘assignment setter’, as

described by Ivanic and Simpson (1992:146): ‘This person is posing a challenge and a threat
to the student, and positioning him as a writer, and exercising control over him. However
stimulating the assignment may be … it is also face-threatening because it will be judged.’
Students’ knowledge that the work they have written will be assessed may oblige them to
consider their writing from different perspectives, namely what they seem acceptable and
what their tutors deem acceptable. This is often difficult for students to achieve.

Claim A clear problem in academic writing is that of the assessor or ‘assignment

setter’, as described by Ivanic and Simpson (1992:146):
Evidence ‘This person is posing a challenge and a threat to the student, and positioning
him as a writer, and exercising control over him. However stimulating the
assignment may be … it is also face-threatening because it will be judged.’
Discussion Students’ knowledge that the work they have written will be assessed may
oblige them to consider their writing from different perspectives, namely
what they seem acceptable and what their tutors deem acceptable. This is
often difficult for students to achieve.
(Source: Inside Track to Successful Academic Writing. Gillett, A. et al, 2009)

Task 8 – Match the evidence to the likely genre of writing

Match the following types of evidence to their genre (LUE1002 Academic Essay
or LUE1002 Reflective writing.
LUE1002 Academic LUE1002 Reflective
essay writing

I have noticed that the longer I spend on

social media, the more anxious and irritable e.g. ü
I become.
Delegating responsibility for meeting
minutes to interns has been shown to be a
good way of helping them understand the

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 corporate engineering world (Trevelyan,
2014).
I initially felt offended because it seemed I
was being asked to do something trivial to
me; I had never taken minutes at team
meetings at university. But after discussing
the task with my industry supervisor, I
began to understand how critical it is to
maintain a clear record of the meaningful
details raised during meetings.
Last week’s LUE1002 class focused on
several models of reflective thinking that I
found very interesting, in particular, Jasper’s
(2013) ERA Reflection Cycle.
Woods & Scott (2016) pointed out that the
more time people spend on social media, the
higher levels of anxiety and depression
people will suffer.
The ERA Reflection Cycle (Jasper, 2013)
requires students to discuss their
experience, reflection and action.

LUE1002 University English II (Term 2, 2022-23) Page 13

 References

Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., Finegan, E. (1999). ‘Longman grammar of
spoken and written English’. Tesol Quarterly, 34, p.1203.

EAPFoundation.com (Jan 1, 2020). Academic Style. [Video]. Youtube.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n9d9EXWIkuI

Gillet, A., Hammond, A., & Martala, M. (2009). Successful Academic Writing. London.

Hamp-Lyons, L., & Heasley, B. (2006). Study writing: A course in written English for
academic purposes. Cambridge University Press.

Sowton, C. (2012). 50 steps to improving your academic writing. Garnet Education.

Swales, J. M. (1990). Genre analysis: English in academic and research settings. Cambridge
University Press.

LUE1002 University English II (Term 2, 2022-23) Page 14

Suggested answers.

Task 1

You will need your laptop/tablet and headphones to complete this task. If you
cannot access YouTube for any reason, you will find a version of the video on
Moodle. Most of the features of academic writing outlined above in 1.1 and 1.2
are discussed in the video below, even if some terminology differs. However,
the video mentions two extra features of academic writing not mentioned
above. Watch the video and make notes on any new aspects of academic style
in the box.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=n9d9EXWIkuI

Further features of formal academic style:

1. Use words for numbers one – ten and then numbers (11, 12, 13). Exception: when the
number is part of a measure, e.g., 5kg, $2 etc.,
2. Avoid adverbs that show your strong feelings (remarkably, luckily).

Tentative – not correct. This concept is reviewed in section 1.1 and 1.2), albeit with the heading
Academic Modesty/Hedging.

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Task 2
Decide whether the following sentences are ‘academic’ [A] or ‘non-academic’
[NA] and highlight any language that makes it informal. The first two are given
as examples.
11. Blackberries are great for your health. [NA]
12. Fruit and vegetable intake is known to promote good health. [A]
13. English is widely spoken in Singapore, India, Malaysia, etc. [NA]
14. Researchers have been investigating the potential benefits of blackberries for many
years. [A – this is likely a general topic sentence before more explicit details are
given]
15. The implementation of computer assisted learning has brought about a lot of
improvements. And students think it is cool. [NA]
16. Computer-assisted learning has resulted in many positive impacts in education, most
notably in learning analytics (Chan & Lee, 2021; Johns, 2022). [A]
17. Researchers have got some provisional findings. But we need more research. [NA]
18. Blackberry consumption may contribute to the prevention of cardiovascular disease
(Cook et al., 2017). [A]
19. Researchers have been looking into these sorts of things for some years but don’t have
any conclusions yet. [NA]
20. Conclusive results won't be found out until more funding is given to researchers. [NA]

Task 3
The following 7 sentences are not academic due to the informal verb choice.
Choose a more precise academic verb from the list that reduces the informality
of each sentence. Write your choice of verb in the gap next to the sentence,
making sure it is grammatical (you may need to change its tense/aspect for the
context of the sentence). The first one has been completed as an example.

create eliminate establish intervene investigate propose raise reduce

1 Researchers have been looking into the problem for 15 years now. investigating

2 This issue was brought up during the investigations. raised

3 The teacher acts as a 'facilitator', and will only step in if something goes wrong. intervene

4 Realistically, examination boards cannot altogether get rid of the possibility of errors
arising during testing. eliminate

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5 A poor classroom environment can cut down students' ability to learn. reduce

6 It is very difficult to find out exactly how consultants help facilitate the introduction of
change. establish

7 After several years of trying, the head teacher decided to come up with a comprehensive
information programme to improve the quality of decisions. create

Task 4
Which of the words in italics would be more suitable in an academic paper?

1 The government has made considerable/good progress in solving educational

problems.
2 We got/ obtained unexpected results.
3 The results of a lot of/numerous different projects have been pretty
good/encouraging.
4 A loss of jobs is one of the consequences/the things that will occur if more computers
are used for distance learning.
5 Therefore, the relationship between teachers and parents is extremely/awfully
important.

LUE1002 University English II (Term 2, 2022-23) Page 17

Figure 1: The Continuum of ‘Academic Style’.

Task 5
Read the following 8 extracts of academic writing and try to guess the genres
1-10 (from Figure 1) by reviewing the stylistic differences and use of evidence.
The first two have been completed for you as examples.
Genre
1 Social media usage around the world has increased during 7. LUE1002 Academic Essay
this pandemic by about 20-80% (Naeem et al., 2020).
2 From the arguments and examples given I firmly believe 4. IELTS Essay
that overall communication and mans’ sociability has
been advanced enormously due to the huge technological
progress of the past twenty years.

3 Fun fact: Hong Kong means “fragrant harbour” in 1. Social Media Post
Chinese.
4 After receiving some poor feedback from my tutor 3. LUE1002 Reflective style
about my academic style I re-read the course
materials from Week 3 and consulted the uefap.com
website. My next assignment achieved a higher
grade.
5 A limitation of the small scale corpus-based study 9.PhD thesis or 10. Journal
presented in this chapter is acknowledged to be the small Article
number of participants.

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 6 I’ve demonstrated that I won’t get flustered when given 2.Personal statement
responsibility in both of my internships. So I’m now or 3. Reflective
looking for a global company to start my career. writing
7 In conclusion, this essay has shown that social media 7. LUE1002 Academic Essay
influences people’s daily lives and self-esteem (this is clearly the
negatively as people often become addicted and have conclusion – referring to
become used to comparing themselves with others. evidence already
presented)
8 In view of the problem of the high operating costs in 6. Business Report
the Hong Kong startup ecosystem, three solutions will
be provided in this proposal
9 Thus far, there is a lack of clarity in the terminology and 8, 9 or 10 (Most likely to be
definition of reflection, its antecedent conditions, its 10).
processes, teaching strategies and outcomes (see Moon Note: students in LUE1002
2006; Procee 2006; Rogers 2001; Russell 2005). should not discuss
definitions at length.

LUE1002 University English II (Term 2, 2022-23) Page 19