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Industrial Instrumentation
Lecture – 01
Introduction to Industrial Instrumentation

- Let us begin with one simple question;

o How do you control a motorbike?
o What elements you need to control your bike?

- Obviously a bike – first of all.

- With break, clutch, accelerator and gearbox (it may be optional).
- That’s all? No, don’t forget the Rider.
- Rider must have eyesight, hands and legs. That’s all? No, don’t forget his
brain.

- In this example, Process is bike riding.

- Plant is Motorbike.
- Rider’s brain is the controller.
- Eyes and ears are transducers or sensors.
- Hand and legs are control elements.

Instrumentation is the science of automated measurement and control.

In a Process Industry following physical parameters may be required to measure

and control the process. pysical parameters required to measure and control process are :
● Fluid pressure
● Fluid flow rate
● Temperature
● Fluid Level
● Chemical concentration
● Machine position, motion, or acceleration
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● Physical dimension(s) of an object
● Count (inventory) of objects
● Electrical voltage, current, or resistance
. etc, etc.
why is transducer required ?
These are known as Process Variables.
Now a day modern controllers are Computer based or we can say controllers are
electronic in nature therefore Sensors or Transducers should convert above
mentioned Physical Parameters in electrical signals, so that those signals could
be understand and processed by the electronic circuitry of computer.

Followings are common transducers for above physical parameters;

1. Fluid Pressure: Quartz crystal vs. Hg column.

2. Fluid flow rate: Turbine vs. Venturi meter

3. Temperature: Thermocouple vs. Thermometer

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4. Fluid Level: Level gauge vs. Ultrasonic level sensor

5. Chemical Concentration: Conductivity probe vs. Titration

Example: wastewater disinfection

Treatment of wastewater before releasing it into the natural environment is to kill
any harmful bacteria in it. This is called disinfection, and chlorine gas is a very
effective disinfecting agent.

However, just as it is not good to mix too little chlorine in the outgoing water
(effluent) because we might not disinfect the water thoroughly enough, there is also
danger of injecting too much chlorine in the effluent because then we might begin
poisoning animals and beneficial microorganisms in the natural environment.
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Chlorine gas coming through the control valve mixes with the incoming water
(influent), and then has time to disinfect in the contact chamber before exiting out to
the environment.
Transmitter signal current Chlorine concentration
4 mA 0% (no chlorine)
8 mA 25%
12 mA 50%
16 mA 75%
20 mA 100% (Full concentration)

Terms and Definitions

Process: The physical system we are attempting to control or measure. Examples:
water filtration system, molten metal casting system, steam boiler, oil refinery unit,
power generation unit.

Process Variable: The specific quantity we are measuring in a process. Examples:

pressure, level, temperature, flow, electrical conductivity, pH, position, speed,
vibration.

Set point: The value at which we desire the process variable to be maintained at. In
other words, the “target” value of the process variable.

Primary Sensing Element: A device that directly senses the process variable and
translates that sensed quantity into an analog representation (electrical voltage,
current, resistance; mechanical force, motion, etc.).
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Examples: thermocouple, thermistor, bourdon tube, microphone, potentiometer,
electrochemical cell, accelerometer.

Transducer: A device that converts one standardized instrumentation signal into

another standardized instrumentation signal, and/or performs some sort of
processing on that signal.

Examples: I/P converter (converts 4-20 mA electric signal into 3-15 PSI pneumatic
signal), P/I converter (converts 3-15 PSI pneumatic signal into 4-20 mA electric
signal).

Transmitter: A device that translates the signal produced by a primary sensing

element (PSE) into a standardized instrumentation signal such as 3-15 PSI air
pressure, 4-20 mA DC electric current.

Controller: A device that receives a process variable (PV) signal from a primary
sensing element (PSE) or transmitter, compares that signal to the desired value for
that process variable (called the
setpoint), and calculates an appropriate output signal value to be sent to a final
control element (FCE) such as an electric motor or control valve.

Final Control Element or FCE: A device that receives the signal from a controller
to directly influence the process. Examples: variable-speed electric motor, control
valve, electric heater.

Automatic mode: When the controller generates an output signal based on the
relationship of process variable (PV) to the set point (SP).

Manual mode: When the controller’s decision-making ability is bypassed to let a

human operator directly determine the output signal sent to the final control
element.
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Reactor Temperature Control

Lecture – 02
Types of Instruments
1. Null and Deflection type
● Null type of instrument generates an equitant and opposite effect to
nullify the physical effect caused by the quantity being measured.
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2. Monitoring and Transmitting Instruments
● It will yield a visual readout e.g. a glass – mercury thermometer.
● This instrument (mercury) can not transmit signal to a controller.
resistance temprature detector
● On the other hand thermocouple or RTD is a transmitting instrument that
can convert the temperature in electrical signal (usually 4 – 20mA) and
can transmit it to a controller.

3. Analog and Digital Instruments

● Analog instruments gives continuous (step less) output on the other hand
Digital instruments yields discrete (step wise) output.

● No indication for the value of process variable less then the least count for
digital instrument.

4. Active and Passive Instruments

● Passive instruments are “self power generating” type in nature.
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● They meet their energy requirements from the input signal only and do not
require any other external power source.
● In contrast, active instruments need an external power source.
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Dynamic and Static Characteristics of Instruments
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primary and secondary variables Industrial Instrumentation
Lecture – 03
Sensors for Pressure
● In many cases pressure is the primary variable for other secondary
variables such as;
Flow (Pressure dropped across a restriction)
Liquid level (Pressure created by a vertical liquid column)
Liquid density (Pressure difference across a liquid column)
Weight (hydraulic load cell)
● Even temperature may be inferred from pressure measurement, as in the
case of a fluid-filled thermometer.
1. Manometers
● A fluid-filled tube where an applied gas pressure causes the fluid height to
shift proportionately.
● A manometer is a fundamentally differential pressure measurement,
instrument.

● The most common type is the U-tube, well, raised well, and inclined;
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U-tube manometers are inexpensive, and are generally made from clear plastic.

For U-tube Manometer

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2. Mechanical pressure elements

● Mechanical pressure-sensing elements include the bellows, the diaphragm,
and the bourdon tube.
● They convert a fluid pressure into a force.
● If unrestrained, the natural elastic properties of the element will produce a
motion proportional to the applied pressure.
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● Bellows, diaphragms, and bourdon tubes may be used to measure
differential and/or absolute pressure.

3. Electrical pressure elements

These devices are designed to measure fluid pressure and transmit the signals in the
form of 4 – 20 mA current.

(a). Piezo-resistive (strain gauge) sensors

● Piezoresistive means “pressure-sensitive resistance,” or a resistance that
changes value with applied pressure.
● The strain gauge is a classic example of a Piezoresistive element.

● Modern piezo-resistive instruments are silicon strain gauge.

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working of capacitance pressure transducer
(b). Differential Capacitance Sensors
● It works on the principle of differential capacitance.
● A metal diaphragm located equidistant between two stationary metal
surfaces, forming a complementary pair of capacitances.
● An electrically insulating fill fluid (liquid silicone compound) acting as dielectric
transfers motion from the isolating diaphragms to the sensing

diaphragm.

● A capacitance detector circuit measures the different in capacitance between

the two halves, translating that into a DC signal representing pressure.
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A Differential Capacitance Sensor

Lecture – 04
(c). Mechanical Adaptations
● Modern electronic pressure sensors convert very small diaphragm motions
into electrical signals.
● For linear response diaphragm-based pressure sensor must be designed in
such a way that the diaphragm stretches very little over the normal range
of operation.
● This restriction on the displacement of a diaphragm requires highly sensitive
motion-detection techniques such as strain gauge sensors, differential
capacitance cells, and mechanical resonance sensors to convert that
diaphragm’s very slight motion into an electronic signal.
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Front and rear views of C-shaped bourdon tube

4. Force-balance pressure transmitters

● Differential pressure is sensed by a liquid-filled diaphragm “capsule,”
which transmits force to a “force bar.”
● Movement of the force bar is sensed by a highly sensitive “baffle” and
“nozzle” mechanism.
● In case of pressure rise sensed by capsule, baffles moves closer to
nozzle resulting increase in air pressure inside the bellows.
● Expansion of Bellow will force the baffle to its equilibrium position and
the air pressure inside the bellows will be a direct, linear
representation of the process fluid pressure applied to the diaphragm
capsule.
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● With minor modifications we may convert it from pneumatic to electronic

force-balancing.
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5. Differential Pressure Transmitters

● This device senses the difference in pressure between two ports and outputs a
signal representing differential pressure.
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● Two more models of electronic differential pressure transmitter are

shown in the photograph.

● We may use the DP transmitter to measure an actual difference of pressure

across a fluid device such as a filter.

Application Considerations
When installing pressure sensors, care should be taken to select the correct pressure
sensor for the application.
pressure transducer
1. Selection
i. Selection criteria may be pressure range, overload requirements,
accuracy, temperature operating range, and response time.
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ii. In special cases parameters, such as hystersis and stability, should also be
considered.
iii. For industrial use Bourdon tube is a good choice for direct visual readings
and the silicon pressure sensor for the generation of electrical signals.

2. Installation
1. Distance between sensor and source should be minimum.
2. Sensors should be connected via valves for ease of replacement.
3. Over range protection devices should be included at the sensor.
4. To eliminate errors due to trapped gas in sensing liquid pressures, the
sensor should be located below the source.
5. To eliminate errors due to trapped liquid in sensing gas pressures, the
sensor should be located above the source.
6. When measuring pressures in corrosive fluids and gases, an inert medium
is necessary between the sensor and the source or the sensor must be
corrosion resistant.
7. The weight of the liquid in the connection line of a liquid pressure sensing
device located above or below the source will cause errors in the zero, and a
correction must be made by the zero adjustment, or otherwise compensated
for in measurement systems.
8. Resistance and capacitance can be added to electron circuits to reduce
pressure fluctuations and unstable readings.
3. Calibration
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1. Low-pressure devices can be calibrated against a liquid manometer.
High-pressure devices can be calibrated with a dead-weight tester.
2. In a dead-weight tester the pressure to the device under test is created by
weights on a piston. High pressures can be accurately reproduced.

Problems
1. A tank is filled with pure water. If the pressure at the bottom of the tank is 17.63
psig, what is the depth of the water?

2. What is the pressure on an object at the bottom of a fresh water lake if the lake is
123 m deep?

3. An instrument reads 1038 psf. If the instrument was calibrated in kilopascals,

what would it read?

4. What will be the reading of a mercury barometer in centimeters if the atmospheric

pressure is 14.75 psi?

5. A tank 2.2 ft × 3.1 ft × 1.79 ft weighs 1003 lb when filled with a liquid. What is
the specific gravity of the liquid if the empty tank weighs 173 lb?

6. An open tank 3.2 m wide by 4.7 m long is filled to a depth of 5.7 m with a liquid
whose SG is 0.83. What is the absolute pressure on the bottom of the tank in
kilopascals?

7. Two pistons connected by a pipe are filled with oil. The larger piston has 3.2 ft
diameter and has a force of 763 lb applied to it. What is the diameter of the smaller
piston if it can support a force of 27 lb?

8. A block of wood with a density of 35.3 lb/ft3 floats in a liquid with three-fourths of
its volume submersed. What is the specific gravity of the liquid?

9. A 15.5-kg mass of copper has an apparent mass of 8.7 kg in oil whose SG is 0.77.
What is the volume of the copper and its specific weight?

10. A dam is 283 m high when it is full of water. What is the pound per square inch
absolute at the bottom of the reservoir?
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11. A liquid has a SG of 7.38. What is its specific weight in pound per cube foot
andkilogram per cubic meter?

12. What is the equivalent of 25, 49, and 83 kPa in pounds per square inch?

13. The cabin pressure in a spacecraft is maintained at 14.3 psia. What will be the
force on a window 2.9 ft wide and 1.7 ft high when the craft is in outer space?

14. A U-tube manometer uses glycerin as the measuring fluid. What will be the
differential pressure if the distance between the levels of glycerin is 103 in?

15. An open tank contains 1.9 m of water floating on 10.3 cm of mercury. What is
the pressure in pounds per square foot absolute on the bottom of the tank?

16. Oil (SG = 0.93) is pumped from a well. If the pump is 11.7 ft above the surface
of the oil, what pressure must the pump be able to generate to lift the oil up to the
pump?

17. A piston 8.7-in diameter has a pressure of 3.7 kPa on its surface. What force in
SI units is applied to the piston?

18. The water pressure at the base of a water tower is 107.5 psi. What is the head
of water?

19. A U-tube manometer reads a pressure of 270 torr. What is the pressure in
pounds per square inch absolute?

20. Each of the three circular containers in Fig.5.13 contains a liquid with a SG of
1.37. What is the pressure in Pascal gauge acting on the base of each container and
the weight of liquid in each container?
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Lecture – 05
Sensors for Temperature
1. Temperature scale

2. Heat Units Conversion

3. Temperature Conversion
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1. Bi-metal temperature sensors

● Solids tend to expand when heated.
● The expansion depends on the size, material and the amount of
temperature rise.
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● Since the value of (α) is very small therefore, resulting motion can be amplify
by joining two strips of dissimilar metals, such as copper and iron.
● We would see bending of composite strip as the copper strip lengthens
slightly more than the iron strip.
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2. Filled-bulb temperature sensors

● It works on the principle of fluid expansion to measure temperature.
● Class I and Class V systems use a liquid fill fluid (class V is mercury).
● Class III systems use a gas fill fluid instead of liquid. Here, the change in
pressure is associated with temperature.
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● Class II is a fundamentally different class of filled-bulb system, which uses a

volatile liquid/vapor combination to generate a temperature-dependent
fluid expansion.
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1. The tube must be of minimal volume, so the fluid expansion is mainly due to
changes in temperature at the bulb rather than the tube itself.

2. It should be noted that the fluid contained by the bellows (or bourdon) is also
subject to expansion and contraction due to temperature changes at the
indicator. This is not desirable.

3. Various methods of compensation exist for this effect such as a bi-metal

spring inside indicator to offset this effect of temperature change.

4. Hydrostatic pressure resulting from difference in height between bulb and the
indicator causes calibration related problem. Class III (gas-filled) and Class
IIB (vapor-filled) systems, of course, suffer no such problem because there is
no liquid in the capillary tube to generate a pressure.

3. Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs)

● Temperature change causes variation in electrical resistance. With
RTD a simple ohmmeter is able to function as a thermometer.

● RTD is either a metal film deposited on a former or is wire-wound

resistors.
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● The device is then sealed in a glass-ceramic composite material.
● The electrical resistance of pure metals is positive, increasing
linearly with temperature.
● These devices are accurate and range from -170 to 780°C.
● In a RTD the variation of resistance with temperature is given by;

Table 8.5 gives the temperature coefficient of resistance of some common metals
used in resistance thermometers.
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● Platinum has the optimum characteristics for service over a wide

temperature range.
● Although platinum is a noble metal and does not oxidize, it is subject to
contamination at elevated temperatures by some gases, such as carbon
monoxide.
● A Wheatstone bridge type of system is used to measure the resistance of
RTD.

Lecture – 06
4. Thermistor
● Thermistors are metal oxide (semiconductor material) which typically have a
high negative temperature coefficient of resistance, but can also be
positive.
● Thermistor has high sensitivity which can be up to 10% per °C, making
them the most sensitive temperature elements.
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● But they have very nonlinear characteristics.
● The typical response time is 0.5 to 5 s with an operating range from -50 to
typically 300°C.
● Devices are available with the temperature range extended to 500°C.
● Thermistors are low cost, wide range of shapes & sizes.
● Care should be taken to minimize the effects of internal heating.
● Thermistor materials have a temperature coefficient of resistance (α) given
by;

Where ΔR is the change in resistance due to a temperature change ΔT

and RS the material resistance at the reference temperature.
● The nonlinear characteristics are as shown in Figure and make the device
difficult to use as an accurate measuring device without compensation.
● But its sensitivity and low cost makes it useful in many applications.

5. Thermocouples
● RTDs are passive sensing elements, requiring the application of an
externally-sourced electric current in order to function as temperature
sensors.
● Thermocouples, however, generate their own electric potential.
● The self-powering nature of thermocouples also means they do not suffer
from the same “self-heating” effect as RTDs.
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● In other ways, thermocouple circuits are more complex than RTD circuits.
● Though they are not as accurate as RTDs, thermocouples are more rugged,
have greater temperature spans, and are easier to manufacture in
different physical forms.

● Thermocouples exist in many different types, each with its own color codes.

Dissimilar metal junctions

● Two dissimilar metals joined together produces voltage proportional to
temperature.
● This form of electrical temperature sensor is called a thermocouple.

● Note that junction J2, is also a dissimilar-metal junction which will generate a
voltage related to temperature.
● The third junction J3 is of identical metal therefore does not generate a
temperature-dependent voltage.

Reference junction compensation

● One technique is to physically fix the temperature of that junction at
some constant value so it is always stable.
● This may be accomplished by immersing the reference junction in a bath of
ice and water.
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● However, this is not a very practical solution for dealing with the reference
junction’s voltage.
● Instead, we could apply an additional electrical circuit to counter-act the
voltage produced by the reference junction.
● This is called a reference junction compensation or cold junction
compensation circuit.

● This technique uses some other temperature sensing device such as a

thermistor or RTD to sense the local temperature.
● Having canceled the effect of the reference junction, the voltmeter now only
registers the voltage produced by the measurement junction J1.

● A more modern technique for reference junction compensation is called

software compensation. This is applicable only where the indicating device
is microprocessor-based, and where an additional analog input channel exists.
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Problems
1. Convert the temperatures to Fahrenheit: 115°C, 456 K, and 423°R.
2. Convert the temperatures to Rankine: -13°C, 645 K, and -123°F.
3. Convert the temperatures to Centigrade: 115°F, 356 K, and 533°R.
4. Convert the temperatures to Kelvin: -215°C, -56°F, and 436°R.
5. How many calories of energy are required to raise the temperature of 3 ft3 of
water 15°F?
6. A 15-lb block of brass with a specific heat of 0.089 is heated to 189°F and then
immersed in 5 gal of water at 66°F. What is the final temperature of the brass and
water? Assume there is no heat loss.
7. A 4.3-lb copper block is heated by passing a direct current through it. If the
voltage across the copper is 50 V and the current is 13.5 A, what will be the increase
in the temperature of the copper after 17 min? Assume there is no heat loss.
8. A 129 kg lead block is heated to 176°C from 19°C, how many calories are
required?
9. One end of a 9-in long × 7-in diameter copper bar is heated to 59.4°F, the far end
of the bar is held at 23°C. If the sides of the bar are covered with thermal insulation,
what is the rate of heat transfer?
10. On a winter’s day the outside temperature of a 17-in thick concrete wall is
-29°F, the wall is 15 ft long and 9 ft high. How many BTUs are required to keep the
inside of the wall at 69°? Assume the thermal conductivity of the wall is 0.8 BTU/h
ft°F.
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Lecture – 07
Sensors for Flow
● Fluid flow may be measured volumetrically or by mass.
● Volumetric flow is expressed in liters/ sec.
● Mass flow is expressed in kg/sec.

1. Pressure-based Flow meters

● ΔP at (l) distance will indicate the rate of acceleration (a).

● Since (a) is direct function of fluid flow therefore the ΔP indicates flow rate.
● Acceleration (a) can be caused by fluid flow through restricted area or elbow.
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● Another way of introducing acceleration is to reduce the velocity of a portion
of fluid to zero.
● The pressure generated by this deceleration is called the stagnation
pressure.
● It is indication of flow rate. A few devices working on this principle are shown
below.

Venturi tubes and basic principles

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● Based on conservation of energy expressed in Bernoulli’s Equation.

● A constant sum of datum, pressure, and velocity “heads”.

Assumptions for venturi tube system,

● No energy lost or gained in the venturi tube.

● No mass lost or gained in the venturi tube.
● Fluid is incompressible.
● Venturi tube centerline is level (no height changes to consider)

Let us assume that there is no change in level, datum head is nullified.

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expression for flow rate in venturimeter
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Lecture – 08
Orifice Plate
● The most common and simple is the orifice plate.
● This is simply a metal plate with a hole in the middle.
● Typically sandwiched between two flanges of a pipe joint.

● The point where the fluid flow profile has a minimum cross-sectional area is
called the vena contracta.
● And it is the area of minimum fluid pressure.
● The vena contracta corresponds to the narrow throat of a venturi tube.

● Beta ratio ( ) is defined as the ratio of bore diameter (d) to inside pipe
diameter (D).

● Square-edged, concentric orifice contains a straight hole in the middle of

a thin metal plate.
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● Label printed on the “paddle”, identifies the upstream side of that plate.

● If the orifice plate is relatively thick (1/8” or more), it may be necessary to

bevel the downstream side of the hole to further minimize contact with the
fluid stream.

● Orifice plates with offset holes are designed to address the problem of
entrapped gas bubbles or suspended solid particles, known as eccentric
orifice plate.
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● For gas flows, the hole should be offset downward, so any liquid droplets or
solid particles may easily pass through.

● For liquid flows, the hole should be offset upward to allow gas bubbles to
pass through and offset downward to allow heavy solids to pass through.

Location of Pressure Tap

● Ideally, the upstream pressure tap will detect fluid pressure at a point of
minimum velocity.

● The downstream tap will detect pressure at the vena contracta (maximum
velocity).

● In reality, this ideal is never perfectly achieved.

types of taps all pictures

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1. Flange taps are the most popular tap location for orifice meter runs on large
pipes.
2. Vena contracta taps offer the greatest differential pressure for any given
flow rate, but require precise calculations to properly locate the downstream
tap position.
3. Radius taps are an approximation of vena contracta taps for large pipe
sizes.

Other differential producers

differtial pressure measuring devices all pictures below
● Pitot tube, senses pressure as the fluid stagnates against its open end.

● A shortcoming of Pitot tube is its sensitivity to just one point in the pipe.
Since flow in pipe has parabolic velocity profile leading to variation of flow
rate across the radius of pipe.

● Averaging Pitot tube consists of several stagnation holes sensing velocity

at multiple points across the width of the flow gives better result.
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● A drag disk inserted into the flow stream, transmit the thrust to a force
transducer and the outputs signal correspond to flow rate.

● A “flow nozzle”, designed to be clamped between the faces of two pipe

flanges in a manner similar to an orifice plate.

● The goal is to achieve simplicity of installation while improving performance

(less pressure loss) of orifice plates.

Segmental wedge elements

● They are special pipe sections with wedge-shaped restrictions built in.
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● These devices are useful for measuring the flow rates of slurries.

Proper Mounting Conditions

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Lecture – 09
High-accuracy flow measurement

Many assumptions were made in formulating flow equations. Suffice it to say, the
flow formulae you have seen so far in this chapter are only approximations of reality.

● However, in the real world we must often do the best we can with
imperfect technologies. Orifice plates, despite being less than perfect as
flow-sensing elements, are convenient and economical.

● In applications such as custody transfer, where the flow of fluid represents

product being bought and sold, accurate measurement of flow is needed.

● If we compare the true flow rate against the theoretical flow rate
predicted by an idealized equation, we may notice a substantial discrepancy.
Causes of this discrepancy are;

Energy losses due to turbulence and viscosity

Energy losses due to friction against the pipe and element surfaces
Unstable location of vena contracta with changes in flow
Uneven velocity profiles caused by irregularities in the pipe
Fluid compressibility
Thermal expansion (or contraction) of the element and piping
Non-ideal pressure taps location(s)
Excessive turbulence caused by rough internal pipe surfaces.

● The ratio between true flow rate and theoretical flow rate is known as the
discharge coefficient (C). for any real pressure generating flow element will
be less than 1;

● For gas and vapor flows, true flow rate may be more than theoretical. It is
because of compressible nature of gases and vapors.
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● A gas expansion factor (Y) may be calculated by comparing the discharge
coefficient for gases against its discharge coefficient for liquids.

● Value of Y will be less than 1.

● Neither the discharge coefficient (C) nor the gas expansion factor (Y)
will remain constant across the entire measurement range.

● However, if we know the values of C and Y for typical flow conditions, we may
achieve good accuracy most of the time.

● The above equation implies the continuous measurement of gas pressure

(P1) and temperature (T) in addition to the differential pressure (P1 -
P2).

● These measurements may be taken by three separate devices, their signals

routed to a gas flow computer.
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Variable-area Flow meters

● A Variable-area flowmeter is one where the fluid must pass through a

restriction whose area increases with flow rate.
● The simplest example of a variable-area flowmeter is the rotameter.
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Lecture – 10
Sensors for Level

Level gauges (sight glasses)

● Direct visual indication of process level.
● In its simplest form, a level gauge is nothing more than a clear tube through
which process liquid may be seen.

Float
Float is a device that rides on the surface of the fluid or solid within the storage
vessel.
● The float itself must be lesser in density than the substance of interest.
● Should not corrode or react with the substance.
● Spring-reel is used to create constant tension in the cable holding the float.
●
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Hydrostatic Pressure
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Fluid exerts a pressure due to the column’s weight.
Fluid pressure at bottom and level of fluid can be correlated.

Where;
P = Hydrostatic pressure
ρ = Mass density of fluid in (kg/m3)
g = Acceleration of gravity (m/s2)
γ =Weight density of fluid in (N/ m3).
h = Height of vertical fluid in column (m).

Pressure transducers can be used to sense the pressure and resulting electrical
signal can be manipulated in terms of height of liquid in tank.
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Bubbler systems
● Bubbler system is an interesting variation of direct hydrostatic pressure
measurement.
● It uses a purge gas to measure hydrostatic pressure in a liquid-containing
vessel.
● Eliminates the need for direct contact of the process liquid and
pressure-sensing element, which can be advantageous if the process liquid
is corrosive.
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● If the purge gas flow is not too great, gas pressure in the tube system
downstream of the needle valve will be equal to the hydrostatic pressure of
the process liquid.

● In other words, the purge gas acts to transmit the liquid’s hydrostatic
pressure to some remote point where a pressure-sensing instrument is
located.

Effect of Transmitter’s Location (Suppression and Elevation)

Most of the time level transducer is not located at the same level as shown in figure
below.
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● The transmitter’s impulse line contains a 30-ft elevation head of ethanol, so

the transmitter sees 30 feet of ethanol when the tank is empty.

● Some times the transmitter is mounted at or near the vessel’s bottom, but
the desired level measurement range is above the vessel’s bottom. Such
problems can be tackled by proper calibration of the system.

● If the transmitter is located above the process connection point, it will see a
negative pressure (i.e. vacuum). Therefore a “Remote seal is placed in
impulse line to stop the back flow in vessel.”
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Lecture – 11
Compensated Leg Systems

● The relationship between liquid height and pressure will not hold good if
another source of pressure exists inside the vessel other than hydrostatic
head.

● Vapor pressure of liquid may cause error and any pressure-sensing

instrument to falsely register a high level.

● This error can not be simply removed by calibration by “Static Zero Shift” of
system as gas pressure is not a constant quantity here.

● This situation requires continuous compensation of gas pressure.

● Fortunately, the capabilities of a differential pressure transmitter make
this a simple task.
● The differential pressure transmitter is connected to top of the vessel with the
help of a compensating leg.
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Tank expert systems

An alternative to compensating leg is to subtract gas pressure measured by
another pressure transducer and electronically subtract the two pressures in a
computing device.

This approach has distinct advantage of avoiding a potentially wet compensating

leg, but suffers the disadvantages of extra cost and greater error due to the
potential calibration drift of two transmitters rather than just one.
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Displacement
Displacement level instruments exploit Archimedes’ Principle.
As liquid level increases, the displacer rod experiences a greater buoyant force, this
apparent reduction in weight is a measure of liquid level in tank.

Ultrasonic level measurement

● Ultrasonic level instruments measure the distance from the transmitter to the
surface of a process liquid.
● The time-of-flight for a sound pulse indicates this distance, and is interpreted
by the transmitter electronics as process level.

● If the ultrasonic level transmitter is programmed with the vessel’s total

height, it may calculate fillage via simple subtraction.
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● It consists of an electronics module containing all the power, computation,

and signal processing circuits plus an ultrasonic transducer to send and
receive the sound waves.

● This transducer is typically piezoelectric in nature, being the equivalent of a

very high-frequency audio speaker. A typical example is shown in the above
photograph.

Note: The US transducer can be mounted at bottom of vessel provided the process
vessel free from sound-damping materials such as sludge accumulating at the vessel
bottom.
problem with measurement of level in case of solid stored in vertical bins
● Ultrasonic level instruments can be used for the solids such as powders and
grains stored in vessels, not just liquids.

● Powdered or granular material in a vessel has the angle of repose that leads
to difficulty in level measurement.
● For this reason, solids storage measurement applications demanding high
accuracy generally use other techniques, such as weight-based
measurement.
Radar level measurement

● It way of working is similar to ultrasonic level sensor; the fundamental

difference is the type of waves. Radar instrument uses radio wave instead of
ultrasound.
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● Radio waves are electromagnetic in nature and very high in frequency usually
in GHz as compared to sound waves, which are mechanical vibrations
transmitted from molecule to molecule.

● If radio waves are guided with the help of a guide probe, the instrument is
called as guided-wave radar instruments. Whereas the radar instruments
relying on open space for signal propagation are called non-contact radar.
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● Non-contact radar transmitters are always mounted on the top side of a
storage vessel. Modern radar transmitters are quite compact as shown in
above photograph.

● Radio waves travel at the velocity of light (2.9979 ×108 m/s) in a perfect
vacuum.

● The velocity of a radio wave through space depends on the dielectric

permittivity. A formula relating wave velocity to relative permittivity (εr) and
the velocity of light in a perfect vacuum (c) is shown here.

● The relative permittivity of air at STP is very nearly unity (1).

● The permittivity of any gas is a function of both pressure and temperature;

● When the radio wave encounters a sudden change in dielectric permittivity,

some of that wave’s energy will be reflected in the opposite direction. This is
the basis of all radar devices.
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Weight
● Weight-based level instruments sense process level in a vessel by directly
measuring the weight of the vessel.

● If the vessel’s empty weight (tare weight) is known, process weight becomes
a simple calculation of total weight minus tare weight.

● It can measure both liquid and solid materials, and they have the benefit of
providing inherently linear mass storage measurement.

● Load cells are typically the primary sensing element.

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Industrial Instrumentation
Lecture – 12
Sensor for Humidity
Humidity
● Humidity is a measure of the relative amount of water vapor present in the air
or a gas.

Relative humidity (Φ)

● The % of water vapor (by wt.) present in a given volume of air compared to
the weight of water vapor present in the same volume of saturated air.

Dew point
The temperature at which the mixture becomes saturated and the mixture can no
longer hold all of the water vapor it contains.

Dry-bulb temperature
The temperature of a mixture of water vapor and air as measured by a thermometer
whose sensing element is dry.

Wet-bulb temperature
The temperature of the air (gas) as sensed by a moist element. Air is circulated
around the element causing vaporization to take place. The heat required for
vaporization cools the moisture around the element, reducing its temperature.

Hygrometers
● Devices that indirectly measure humidity by sensing changes in physical or
electrical properties in materials due to their moisture content are called
hygrometers.
● Materials such as hair, skin, membranes, and thin strips of wood change their
length as they absorb water. The change in length is directly related to the
humidity.
● Such devices are used to measure relative humidity from 20 to 90 percent,
with accuracies of about ± 5%.
● Their operating temperature range is limited to less than 70°C.
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● Laminate hygrometer is made by attaching thin strips of wood to thin metal
strips forming a laminate.

Hair hygrometer
● It is the simplest and oldest type of hygrometer.
● It is made using hair as shown in above figure. Human hair lengthens by 3
percent when the humidity changes from 0 to 100 percent.
● The change in length can be used to control a pointer for visual readings or a
transducer such as a LVDT for an electrical output.
● The hair hygrometer has an accuracy of about 5 percent for the humidity
range 20 to 90 percent over the temperature range 5 to 40°C.
Resistive hygrometer
● They consist of two electrodes with inter-digitated fingers on an insulating
substrate as shown in figure below.
● Electrodes are coated with a hydroscopic material (one that absorbs water
such as lithium chloride). The hydroscopic material provides a conductive path
between the electrodes.
● The coefficient of resistance of the path is inversely proportional to humidity.
● Alternatively, the electrodes can be coated with a bulk polymer film that
releases ions in proportion to the relative humidity.
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Capacitive hygrometer.
● The dielectric constant of certain thin polymer films changes linearly with
humidity, so that the capacitance between two plates using the polymer as
the dielectric is directly proportional to humidity.
● The capacitive device has working temperature range of 0 to 100°C.
● A fast response time, and can be temperature compensated to give an
accuracy of ±0.5% over the full humidity range.
●
Piezoelectric or sorption hygrometers
● They use two piezoelectric crystals one is used as a reference and is enclosed
in a dry atmosphere, and the other is exposed to the humidity to be
measured.
● Moisture increases the mass of the crystal which decreases its resonant
frequency. By comparing the frequencies of the two oscillators, the humidity
can be calculated.
● Moisture content of gases from 1 to 25,000 ppm can be measured.
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Lecture – 13
Sensor for Density or Specific gravity

Density (ρ) of a material is defined as the mass per unit volume. Units of density
are lb/ft3 or kg/ m3.

Specific weight (γ) is defined as the weight per unit volume of a material, i.e.,
(N/m3).

Specific gravity (SG) of a liquid or solid is defined as the density of the material
divided by the density of water. The relation between density and specific weight is
given by

Where (g) is the acceleration of gravity 9.8 m/s2 depending on the units being used.

Hydrometers
● The device consists of a graduated glass tube, with a weight at one end,
which causes the device to float in an upright position.
● The device sinks in a liquid until an equilibrium point between its weight and
buoyancy is reached.
● The specific weight or density can then be read directly from the graduations
on the tube.

Thermo hydrometer
● It is a combination of a hydrometer and a thermometer.
● So that the specific weight, density and temperature can be recorded.
● The specific weight/density can be corrected from the tables for temperature
variations to improve the accuracy of the readings.

Induction hydrometers
● They are used to convert the specific weight or density of a liquid into an
electrical signal.
● Hydrometer is attached with a metal core positioned in a coil which forms part
of a bridge circuit.
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● This movement can be measured by the coil and converted into electrical signal for
density.
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Industrial Instrumentation
Lecture - 14
Sensor for Viscosity

Viscosity (μ)

● The resistance to flow, which is due to molecular attraction in the liquid that
resists any change due to flow or motion.
● When a force is applied to a fluid at rest, the molecular layers in the fluid
tend to slide on top of each other.
● The force F resisting motion in a fluid is given by;

Where, A = boundary area being moved

V = velocity of the moving boundaries
y = distance between boundaries
μ = coefficient of viscosity, or dynamic viscosity

Unit of viscosity = poise,

Centipoise = poise/100 = 2.09 × 10−5 lb s/ft2 = the viscosity of water at 68.4°F.
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Viscometers
● Are used to measure the resistance to motion of liquids and gases.
● Several different types of instruments have been designed to measure viscosity, such
as;
o the Inline Falling-Cylinder Viscometer,
o the Drag-type Viscometer
o the Saybolt Universal Viscometer

● The rate of rise of bubbles in a liquid can also be used to give a measure of the
viscosity of a liquid.
● The falling-cylinder viscometer uses the principle that an object when dropped
into a liquid will descend to the bottom of the vessel at a fixed rate.
● The rate of descent is determined by the size, shape, density of the object, and the
density and viscosity of the liquid.
● The higher the viscosity, the longer the object will take to reach the bottom of the
vessel.
● The falling-cylinder device measures the rate of descent of a cylinder in a liquid and
correlates the rate of descent to the viscosity of the liquid.

● Rotating disc viscometer is a drag-type device.

● The device consists of two concentric cylinders and the space between the two
cylinders is filled with the liquid being measured.
● The inner cylinder is driven by an electric motor and the force on the outer cylinder is
measured by noting its movement against a torsion spring; the viscosity of the liquid
can then be determined.
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● The Saybolt instrument measures the time for a given amount of fluid to flow
through a standard size orifice or a capillary tube with an accurate bore.
● The time is measured in Saybolt seconds, which is directly related and can be easily
converted to other viscosity units.
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Industrial Instrumentation
Lecture – 15
pH Sensor

● In many process operations, pure and neutral water is required for cleaning or
diluting other chemicals.
● The water is not acidic or alkaline. Water contains both hydrogen ions (H+)
and hydroxyl ions (OH-).
● When these ions are in the correct ratio the water is neutral.
● An excess of hydrogen ions causes the water to be acidic and,
● An excess of hydroxyl ions, the water is alkaline.
● The pH of the water is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity.
● Neutral water has a pH value of 7 at 25°C.
● When water becomes acidic the pH value decreases.
● And when the water becomes alkaline the pH value increases.

● The pH value of a liquid can range from 0 to 14.

● The hydrogen ion concentration is in grams per liter, i.e., a pH = 4 means
that the (H+) concentration is 0.0001 g/liter at 25°C.
● Strong hydrochloric or sulfuric acids will have a pH of 0 to 1.
o 4 % caustic soda pH = 14
o Lemon and orange juice pH = 2 to 3
o Ammonia pH is about 11

pH measuring devices
● The pH is normally measured by chemical indicators or by pH meters.
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● The final color of chemical indicators depends on the hydrogen ion
concentration.
● Their accuracy is only 0.1 to 0.2 pH units.
● For indication of acid, alkali, or neutral water, litmus paper is used; it turns
pink when acidic, blue when alkaline, and stays white if neutral.
● A pH sensor normally consists of a sensing electrode and a reference
electrode immersed in the test solution which forms an electrolytic cell, as
shown in figure below.

● One electrode contains a saturated KCl (alkaline) solution to act as a

reference.
● The electrode is electrically connected to the test solution via the liquid
junction.
● The other electrode contains a buffer which sets the electrode in contact with
the liquid sample.
● The electrodes are connected to a differential amplifier, which amplifies the
voltage difference between the electrodes.
● An output voltage that is proportional to the pH of the solution.
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The most common configuration for modern pH probe sets is what is called a
combination electrode, which combines both the glass measurement electrode
and the porous reference electrode in a single unit.
This photograph shown above is a typical industrial combination pH electrode.