Chapter 3 – Synthesis of analogue circuits 133

Considering the pole-zero properties of LC network functions, we can assume

that the impedance function will have a zero or pole at the origin and pairs of
complex conjugate poles and zeros. The admittance function will have a pole or
zero at the origin. These functions may be expanded as partial fractions to yield
realisations of Foster-form networks. They may also be subjected to continued
fraction expansion to yield Cauer-form networks.

We will consider realisations of each of these forms.

3.1.1 Realisation of LC driving point functions

First Foster form – Impedance functions of LC networks

H ( s 2 + ω1 )( s 2 + ω 3 ) . . . .( s 2 + ω m )
2 2 2

Z (s) =
( s 2 + ω 2 )( s 2 + ω 4 ) . . . ( s 2 + ω r )
2 2 2

where 0 ≤ ω1 2 ≤ ω 2 2 ≤ ω 3 2 ≤ . . ..
and m = r ± 1
By partial fraction expansion we can write:
k r kps
Z (s) = k ∞ s + 0 + ∑ 2 , k ∞ , k 0 ≥ 0, k p > 0
s p = 2, 4,... s + ω p 2
This corresponds to the following circuit realisation:
1/k2 1/k4 1/kr
kinf 1/k0

K2/w22 K4/w42 Kr/wr2

Let us now consider a few examples.

Example 1

We will consider the following simple driving point impedance function, where
ω1 > 0 and m = r – 1:
s2 +1
Z ( s) =
s( s 2 + 2)

By partial fraction expansion we get: This corresponds to the circuit shown:

A Bs A( s 2 + 2) + Bs 2 1/4
Z (s) = + 2 =
s s +2 s ( s 2 + 2) 2
∴ A + B = 1, 2 A = 1
A = 1 ,B = 1 2
2 2
134 A systems approach to circuits, measurements and control

Example 2 ω1 = 0 and m = r – 1:

( s 2 + 0)( s 2 + 2) s( s 2 + 2) 1/2 1/6

Z (s) = = 2
s ( s + 1)( s + 3) ( s + 1)( s 2 + 3)
2 2

As Bs s 3 ( A + B) + s(3 A + B )
= + 2 =
s +1 s + 3
2
( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3) 2 2
∴ A + B = 1, 3 A + B = 2
∴A= 1 , B = 1
2 2
s s
∴ Z (s) = +
2( s 2 + 1) 2( s 2 + 3)

Example 3 ω1 > 0 and m = r + 1:

( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3) 3 s 1/4
Z ( s) = =s+ +
s ( s + 2)
2
2 s 2( s + 2)
2
1 2/3

1/2

Example 4
( s 2 + 0)( s 2 + 2)( s 2 + 4) 3/2 1/6
Z ( s) =
s ( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3) 1
s ( s 2 + 2)( s 2 + 4) 3s s
= =s+ +
( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3) 2( s 2 + 1) 2( s 2 + 3) 2/3 2

Second Foster form – Admittance functions of LC networks

We will consider the same examples as before:
1. Z ( s) = s 2 + 1 ⇒ Y ( s) = s( s 2 + 2) = s + s
s ( s 2 + 2) s2 +1 s2 +1
2. Z ( s) = ( s 2 + 0)( s 2 + 2) ⇒ Y ( s) = s( s 2 + 1)(s 2 + 3) = s + 3 + s
s ( s + 1)( s + 3)
2 2 2
( s + 0)( s + 2)
2
2s 2( s + 2)
2

3. Z ( s) = ( s + 1)( s + 3) ⇒ Y ( s) = s( s + 2) =
2 2 2
s s
+
s ( s + 2)
2
( s + 1)( s + 3) 2( s + 1) 2( s + 3)
2 2 2 2

4.
( s 2 + 0)( s 2 + 2)( s 2 + 4)
Z (s) = ⇒
s ( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3)
s ( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3) 3 s 3s
Y (s) = = + +
( s + 0)( s 2 + 2)( s 2 + 4) 8s 4( s 2 + 2) 8( s 2 + 4)
2

The realisations of the four functions are as shown below:

 Chapter 3 – Synthesis of analogue circuits 135

1 2
1 1
.
2/3
1
1/4

Example 1 Example 2

2 2 4 8/3

.
8/3

1/2 1/6 1/8 3/32

Example 3 Example 4

We can obtain a general realisation for the admittance function Y(s) as follows:

k0 m kps
Y ( s) = k ∞ s + + ∑ 2 , k ∞ , k 0 ≥ 0, k p > 0
s p =1,3,... s + ω p 2

1/k1 1/k3 1/km

1/k0
kinf K1/w12 K3/w32 Km/wm2

Realisation of LC network functions using First Cauer form

The first Cauer form is generated by the continued fraction expansion of a
reactance function about the point at infinity.

Consider a ladder network as shown [Note that the series arms are impedances
while the shunt arms are admittances]

1 I1 I2 2
z1 z3 z5

y2 y4 y6
E1 E2

: 1' 2'

E1
To compute the driving point impedance Z = , we start at the other end:
I1
136 A systems approach to circuits, measurements and control

1
The impedance of the last term z 6 =
y6
1
The impedance of the last two arms is z 5 +
y6
The impedance of the last three arms is 1
1
y4 +
1
z5 +
y6
Proceeding in this manner, we can write
1
Z = z1 +
1
y2 +
1
z3 +
1
y4 +
1
z5 +
y6

The driving point admittance may also be written in a similar manner, where the
first term is an admittance, the next an impedance, etc. We will now consider
each of the four examples used to illustrate the Foster forms.
s2 +1 s ( s 2 + 2)
Example 1 Z ( s) = , Y (s) =
s ( s 2 + 2) s2 +1

Starting with the impedance function Z(s) that has a zero at infinity, we proceed
as follows:

1 1 1 1 Either of these will give us the

Z ( s) = = = =
s + 2s s +
3
s
s+ 2
1
s+
1 following circuit realisation:
s +1
2
s 2
+ 1 s + 1 1
s+
s s
1
If we use the admittance function, we get:
1 1
s 3 + 2s s 1 1
Y (s) = 2 =s+ 2 =s+ 2 =s+
s +1 s +1 s +1 1
s+
s s

s( s 2 + 2) ( s 2 + 1)(s 2 + 3)
Example 2 Z ( s) = , Y ( s) =
( s + 1)(s 2 + 3)
2
s ( s 2 + 2)

s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
Y ( s) =
2s 2 + 3
=s+ 3 =s+ 3
1
=s+
1 This leads to the realisation:
s + 2s
3
s + 2s s + 2s s/2
s / 2+ 2
2s 2 + 3 2s + 3
1 1 1/2 1/6
=s+ =s+
1 1 1 4
s / 2+ 2 s / 2+
2s + 3 3
4s +
s/2 s/2
 Chapter 3 – Synthesis of analogue circuits 137

( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3) s ( s 2 + 2)
Example 3 Z (s) = , Y (s) =
s ( s 2 + 2) ( s + 1)( s 2 + 3)
2

Note that this is the reciprocal of the function considered in example 2.

s 4 + 4s 2 + 3 1 This leads to the realisation:

Z ( s) = = s+
s 3 + 2s 1
s / 2+
3 1 4
4s +
s/2
1/2 1/6

s ( s 2 + 2)( s 2 + 4) ( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3)
Example 4 Z ( s) = , Y ( s) =
( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3) s ( s 2 + 2)( s 2 + 4)

s 5 + 6 s 3 + 8s
Z (s) = =s+ 4
1
=s+
1 It can be realised as:
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3 s + 4s 2 + 3 1
s / 2 +
2 s 3 + 5s 2 s 3 + 5s
3s 2 / 2 + 3
1 1
1 4/3 1/3
=s+ =s+
1 1
s / 2+ s/2+ 1/2 3/2
1 1
4s / 3 + 2 4s / 3 +
3s / 2 + 3 1
3s / 2 +
s s/3

Realisation of LC network functions using Second Cauer form

The second Cauer form is generated by the continued fraction expansion of a
reactance function about the origin. This too results in a realisation where the
series arms are impedances while the shunt arms are admittances. We will
consider the same examples as before. However, in this realisation the series
arms contain capacitors while the shunt arms have inductors.
s2 +1 s ( s 2 + 2)
Example 1 Z ( s) = , Y (s) =
s( s 2 + 2) s2 +1

1+ s2 1 1 1 1
Z (s) = = + = + 2 2
2s + s 3 2s 4 2s 4 1
+ 2s +
s s 1 1/4
2s

s ( s 2 + 2) ( s 2 + 1)( s 2 + 3)
Example 2 Z ( s) = , Y ( s) =
( s + 1)(s 2 + 3)
2
s ( s 2 + 2)

3 + 4s 2 + s4 3 (5 / 2) s 2 + s 4 3 1 3 1
Y ( s) = = + = + = +
2s + s 3 2s 2s + s 3 2s2s + s 3 2s 4 / 5 (1 / 5) s
+
(5 / 2) s 2 + s 4 s (5 / 2) + s
3 1 3 1 3 1 5/4 5
= + = + = +
2s 4 / 5 1 2s 4 / 5 1 2s 4 / 5 1
+
(5 / 2) + s
+
25 / 2
+
25 / 2 1
2/3 2/25
s s s
+ 5s +
(1 / 5) s s s 1/ 5
s
Please work out the other two examples.
138 A systems approach to circuits, measurements and control

3.1.2 RC Driving point functions

We will start with the properties of RC driving point functions that we are already
familiar with. We have noted that:

• The poles and zeros are simple.

• They all lie on the non-positive σ- axis.
• Poles and zeros alternate.
• The critical frequency of the smallest magnitude is a pole.
jω

The s-plane

A typical pole-zero plot on the s-plane is as shown. With these properties, the
form of the impedance function may be represented by:
H ( s − s 2 )(s − s 4 ) . . . . ( s − s m )
Z (s) =
( s − s1 )( s − s3 ) . . . . ( s − s n )
As the smallest critical frequency corresponds to a pole and as poles and zeros
alternate,
0 ≤ s1 < s 2 < s3 . . . .
The following table gives the possible forms of the expansion of such a function.

First Foster form: k1 k k

Expansion of Z(s) Z (s) = k 0 + + 3 . . .+ n
s − s1 s − s3 s − sn
Second Foster form: Y (s) = k ∞ s + k 0 +
k2 s k s k s
+ 4 + . . .. + m
Expansion of Y(s) s − s2 s − s4 s − sm
First Cauer form: 1
Continued fraction Z ( s ) = a1 +
1
expansion about infinity b2 s +
1
a3 +
1
b4 s + .
a5 + . . .
Second Cauer form: 1 1
Continued fraction Z ( s) = +
a1 s 1
expansion about the b2 +
1
origin. a3 s +
1
b4 +
a5 s + . . .
 Chapter 3 – Synthesis of analogue circuits 139

There are four possible combinations that we need to study. We will consider one
example from each of these:

m = n –1 m=n
(Order of numerator is one less than (Both numerator and denominator are
that of denominator) of the same order)
s1 = 0 Example 1 ( s + 1) Example 2 ( s + 1)( s + 3)
Z ( s) = Z ( s) =
s ( s + 2) s( s + 2)
s1 > 0 Example 3 ( s + 2) Example 4 ( s + 2)( s + 4)
Z ( s) = Z (s) =
( s + 1)( s + 3) ( s + 1)( s + 3)

First Foster form:

Example 1

( s + 1) A B A( s + 2) + Bs
Z (s) = = + =
s ( s + 2) s s + 2 s( s + 2)
∴ A + B = 1, 2 A = 1 2
1/4
∴ A = 1 / 2, B = 1 / 2
1/ 2 1/ 2 2
Z (s) = +
s ( s + 2)

Example 2

( s + 1)( s + 3) s 2 + 4s + 3
Z ( s) = =
s ( s + 2) s 2 + 2s
2s + 3 A B 2/3
= 1+ = 1+ + 1 1/4
s ( s + 2) s s+2
A( s + 2) + Bs
= 1+ 2
s ( s + 2)
A+ B = 2
2A = 3
A = 3 / 2, B = 1 / 2
3 / 2 1/ 2
Z ( s) = 1 + +
s s+2

Example 3

( s + 2) A B
Z (s) = = +
( s + 1)( s + 3) s + 1 s + 3
A( s + 3) + B( s + 1) 1/2 1/6
( s + 1)( s + 3)
A+ B =1 2 2

3A + B = 2
A = 1 / 2, B = 1 / 2
1/ 2 1/ 2
Z (s) = +
s +1 s + 3
140 A systems approach to circuits, measurements and control

Example 4
( s + 2)( s + 4) s 2 + 6 s + 8
Z (s) = =
( s + 1)( s + 3) s 2 + 4 s + 3
2s + 5 A B 1 3/2 1/6
= 1+ = 1+ +
( s + 1)( s + 3) s +1 s + 3
A( s + 3) + B ( s + 1) 2/3 2
= 1+
( s + 1)( s + 3)

A+ B = 2
3A + B = 5
A = 3 / 2, B = 1 / 2
3/ 2 1/ 2
Z (s) = 1 + +
( s + 1) ( s + 3)

Second Foster form:

Example 1
( s + 1)
Z ( s) =
s ( s + 2) 1

s ( s + 2) s + 2 s
2
s
Y ( s) = = =s+ 1
( s + 1) s +1 s +1
1

Example 2
( s + 1)( s + 3)
Z (s) =
s ( s + 2)
s ( s + 2) As Bs
Y (s) = = +
( S + 1)( S + 3) s + 1 s + 3 2 2
As( s + 3) + Bs( s + 1)
=
( s + 1)( s + 3)
A+ B =1
3A + B = 2
A = 1 / 2. B = 1 / 2
1/2 1/6
s/2 s/2
Y (s) = +
s +1 s + 3

Example 3
( s + 2)
Z ( s) =
( s + 1)( s + 3)
( s + 1)( s + 3) s 2 + 4s + 3 2/3 2
Y (s) = =
( s + 2) s+2
2s + 3 3 s/2
= s+ = s+ + 1
s+2 2 s+2 1/4
 Chapter 3 – Synthesis of analogue circuits 141

Example 4

( s + 2)( s + 4)
Z ( s) =
( s + 1)( s + 3)
( s + 1)( s + 3) 3 7 s / 4 + 5s 2 / 8
Y ( s) = = + 8/3 4 8/5
( s + 2)( s + 4) 8 ( s + 2)( s + 4)
3 As Bs 3 As( s + 4) + Bs( s + 2)
= + + = +
8 s+2 s+4 8 ( s + 2)( s + 4)
1/8 5/32
A + B = 5/8
4 A + 2B = 7 / 4 ⇒ 2 A + B = 7 / 8
A = 1 / 4, B = 3 / 8
3 s / 4 3s / 8
Y ( s) = + +
8 s+2 s+4

First Cauer form:

Example 1
( s + 1) 1 1
Z ( s) = = =
s ( s + 2) s ( s + 2) s
s+
s +1 s +1 1
1 1 1 1
= =
1 1
s+ s+
s +1 1
1+
s s

Example 2

( s + 1)( s + 3) s 2 + 4 s + 3
Z ( s) = =
s ( s + 2) s 2 + 2s
2s + 3 1 1 1 4
= 1+ 2 = 1+ 2 = 1+
s + 2s s + 2s s/2 1/2 1/6
s/2+
2s + 3 2s + 3
1 1
= 1+ = 1+
1 1
s / 2+ s / 2+
2s + 3 3
4+
s/2 s/2
1
= 1+
1
s/2 +
1
4+
s/6

Example 3

( s + 2) 1 1
Z ( s) = = =
( s + 1)( s + 3) s 2 + 4 s + 3 s + 2 s + 3
s+2 s+2
1/2 1/6
1 1 1
= = = 1 4
1 1 1
s+ s+ s+
s+2 1/ 2 1
1/ 2 + 1/ 2 +
2s + 3 2s + 3 4s + 6
1
=
1
s+
1
1/ 2 +
1
4s +
1/ 6
142 A systems approach to circuits, measurements and control

Example 4

( s + 2)( s + 4) s 2 + 6 s + 8 2s + 5
Z (s) = = = 1+ 2
( s + 1)( s + 3) s 2 + 4 s + 3 s + 4s + 3
1 1 1 4/3 1/3
= 1+ 2 = 1+ 1/2 3/2
s + 4s + 3 3s / 2 + 3
s/2+
2s + 5 2s + 5
1 1
= 1+ 1+
1 1
s/2+ s/2+
2s + 5 1
4 / 3+
3s / 2 + 3 3s / 2 + 3
1
= 1+
1
s / 2+
1
4 / 3+
1
3s / 2 +
1/ 3

Second Cauer form:

Example 1

( s + 1) 1+ s 1 s/2
Z ( s) = = = +
s ( s + 2) 2 s + s 2 2 s 2 s + s 2 2 2
1 1 1 1
= + = +
2s 2s + s 2 2s s2 1/4
4+
s/2 s/2
1 1
= +
2s 1
4+
1
2s

Example 2

(s + 1)(s + 3) 3 + 4s + s2 1 5s / 2 + s2
Z(s) = = = +
s(s + 2) 2s + s 2
2s / 3 2s + s2
2/3 25/2
1 1 1 1
= + = +
2s / 3 2s + s2 2s / 3 s2 / 5
4/ 5 +
5s / 2 + s2
5s / 2 + s2 5/4 5
1 1 1 1
= + = +
2s / 3 1 2s / 3 1
4/ 5 + 4/ 5 +
5s / 2 + s2 1
25/ 2s +
s2 / 5 1/ 5

3.1.3 RL Driving point functions

The easiest way to start is to make use of the duality of RC and RL network
functions. We used the following general form of the impedance of an RC
function:
H ( s − s 2 )(s − s 4 ) . . . . ( s − s m )
Z ( s) =
( s − s1 )( s − s3 ) . . . . ( s − s n )
 Chapter 3 – Synthesis of analogue circuits 143

We now consider a function of the same form as the admittance function of an

RL network:
H ( s − s 2 )(s − s 4 ) . . . . ( s − s m )
Y ( s) =
( s − s1 )(s − s 3 ) . . . . ( s − s n )
As the smallest critical frequency corresponds to a pole and as poles and zeros
alternate, 0 ≤ s1 < s 2 < s3 . . . .
There are four possible combinations that we need to study. An example of each
is given below:

m = n –1 m=n
(Order of numerator is one less than (Both numerator and denominator are
that of denominator) of the same order)
s1 = 0 Example 1 ( s + 1) Example 2 ( s + 1)( s + 3)
Y (s) = Y (s) =
s ( s + 2) s ( s + 2)
s1 > 0 Example 3 ( s + 2) Example 4 ( s + 2)( s + 4)
Y ( s) = Y (s) =
( s + 1)( s + 3) ( s + 1)( s + 3)

Their realisations follow the same pattern as in the case of the RC network
functions.

3.1.4 Synthesis of RLC circuits

Uot of the many procedures available in classical design for the synthesis of RLC
circuits, we will consider the Brune Synthesis, which starts off with what is called
the Foster Preamble.

Foster Preamble

Step 1: Reactance reduction

We have to realise a given positive real function Z(s).

If the function contains poles on the imaginary axis, we can expand this in partial
fraction form to yield:
k0 k s
Z (s) = k ∞ s + + ∑ 2 r 2 + Z1 ( s)
s s +ω
The first part of this can be realised as a Foster network, while Z1(s) is still a
positive real function.
.

kinf 1/k2 1/k4 1/kr

1/k0 .

. Z1(s)
2 2 2
Z(s) k2/w2 k4/w4 kr/wr .

.
144 A systems approach to circuits, measurements and control

The first part of the network has poles only on the jω axis, and its real part is
zero. The remainder function, that is, Z1(s) is still positive real, for its real part is
still positive and all its poles are on the non-positive (left) half of the s-plane.

Z1(s) is a minimum reactance function. It is of a lower order than Z(s)

Step 2: Susceptance reduction

Z1(s) will not have poles on the jω axis, but it may have zeros on the jω axis. This
may be so even if the original function Z(s) did not have zeros on the jω axis, for
they may be introduced during the removal of poles on the jω axis in step 1.

We will now remove them, by partial fraction expansion of the admittance

function Y1(s) = 1/Z1(s).
k ks
Y1 ( s ) = 1 / Z1 ( s ) = k∞ s + 0 + ∑ 2 r 2 + Y2 ( s )
s s +ω
The first part of this may be realised as:

1/k1
kinf
Z1(s) Z2(s) .
1/k0

2
K1/ w1

Step 3: Reactance reduction

We may now find that even though Z1(s) was minimum reactive, Z2(s) is no
longer so, for jω axis poles may have been introduced during the removal of jω
axis zeros. We now repeat Step 1, and then Step 2, repeatedly until the
remainder is both minimum reactive and minimum susceptive.

This may be illustrated by a flow chart as follows:

Start

Remove reactance to yield

minimum reactive remainder

Remove susceptance to yield

minimum susceptive remainder
.

Is remainder both minimum

reactive and minimum susceptive? .

No

Yes
Realise the remainder

Stop
 Chapter 3 – Synthesis of analogue circuits 145

Note: Steps 1 and 2 may be interchanged. We should choose the sequence that
gives rise to a simpler realisation.

Example 12 s 5 + 8s 4 + 32 s 3 + 14 s 2 + 8s + 2
Z (s) =
4 s 5 + 4 s 4 + 10 s 3 + 9 s 2 + 4 s + 1

We will first check whether either the numerator or the denominator contains a
quadratic factor that can be removed:
3s/2 8s/11 121s/114
8s4 + 14s2 +2 12s5 + 32s3 + 8s 11s3 + 5s 4
8s + 14s + 2 2
114s2 /11+ 2 11s3 + 5s
12s5 + 21s3 + 3s 5s4 + 40s2/11 11s2 +121s/57
11s3 + 5s 114s2 /11+ 2 164s/57

114 x 57 s
11 x 164 82s/57

164s/57 114s2 /11+ 2 2 164s/57

114s2 /11 164s/57
2 0
We will now repeat this with the denominator polynomial:

2s/7 49s/28 26s/7

14s4 + 9s2 +1 4s5 + 10s3 + 4s 52s3/7+ 26s/7 14s4 + 9s2 +1 2s2+ 1 52s3/7+ 26s/7
14s4 + 7s2 52s3/7+ 26s/7
4s5 + 18s3 /7+ 2s/7
0
52s3/7+ 26s/7 2s2+ 1

The remainder is zero, and the last non-zero remainder is (2s2+1), indication a
pair of jω axis poles at s = + j / √2 and – j / √2
s
This means that we can remove a partial fraction of the form:
1
s2 +
2
4s3 +14s4 + 8s + 2
s2 + 1/2 4s5 + 14s4 + 10s3 + 9s2 + 4s + 1
4s5 + 2s3
14s4 + 8s3 + 9s2 + 4s + 1
14s4 + 7s2
8s3 + 2s2 + 4s + 1
8s3 + 4s
2s2 +1
2s2 +1

(s2 + ½) (4s3 +14s4 + 8s + 2) = 4s5 + 14s4 + 10s3 + 9s2 + 4s + 1

146 A systems approach to circuits, measurements and control

12s 5 + 8s 4 + 32 s 3 + 14s 2 + 8s + 2
∴ Z ( s) =
4s 5 + 4 s 4 + 10 s 3 + 9s 2 + 4 s + 1
12s 5 + 8s 4 + 32 s 3 + 14s 2 + 8s + 2
=
1
( s 2 + )(4s 3 + 14 s 2 + 8s + 2)
2
6 s 5 + 4s 4 + 16 s 3 + 7 s 2 + 4s + 1
=
1
( s 2 + )(2s 3 + 7 s 2 + 4s + 1)
2
As Bs 3 + Cs 2 + Ds + E
= +
1 (2s 3 + 7 s 2 + 4s + 1)
s2 +
2
We can compute the values of A, B, C, D and E by equating coefficients:

B = 6, 2 A + C = 4, 7 A + D + B / 2 = 16, 4 A + E + C / 2 = 7, a + D / 2 = 4, E / 2 = 1

This gives: A = 1, B = 6, C = 2, D = 6, E = 2
s 6s 3 + 2s 2 + 6s + 2
∴ Z1 ( s ) = Z ( s ) − =
1 2s 3 + 7 s 2 + 4s + 1
s2 +
2
We will now consider Y1(s):

1
s+
2s 3 + 7 s 2 + 4s + 1 2s 3 + 7 s 2 + 4s + 1 s 2 = s +Y
Y1 ( s ) = 3 = = 2 + 2
6 s + 2 s + 6 s + 2 2( s + 1)(3s + 1)
2 2
s + 1 3( s + 1 ) s 2 + 1
3
We can now write either
1 1
s+
1
2 = + 18
Y2 =
1 3 1
3( s + ) s+
3 3
or,
1 3s + 1 s
Z2 = = = 2+
Y2 1 1
s+ s+
2 2
These two alternatives lead to the following realisations:
2 2

1 1 2 1
1 18 1

3
1 1
2
6