• Distance relay:

• relay which functions depending upon the distance of fault in the line. More
specifically, the relay operates depending upon the impedance between the point
of fault and the point where relay is installed. These relays are known as
distance relay or impedance relay.
• The working principle of distance relay or impedance relay is very simple.
There is one voltage element from potential transformer and a current element
fed from current transformer of the system.
• The deflecting torque is produced by secondary current of CT and restoring
torque is produced by voltage of potential transformer.
• The time operation of this relay is a function of the ratio voltage & current i.e
impedance .
• The relay operates only when the V/I ratio falls below a predetermine value (set
value)
• In normal operating condition, restoring torque is more than deflecting torque.
Hence relay will not operate.
• But in faulty condition, the current becomes quite large whereas voltage
becomes less. So deflecting torque becomes more than restoring torque and
dynamic parts of the relay starts moving which ultimately close the contact of
relay.
• Working principle of distance relay depends upon the ratio of system voltage
and current. As the ratio of voltage to current is nothing but impedance so a
distance relay is also known as impedance relay.
• Types of distance relay:
• a. Impedance relay
• b. Reactance relay
• c. Admittance or mho relay
• d. Off set mho relay
• Impedance type relay is suitable phase fault relaying for lines of moderate
length
• Reactance relays are preferred for ground fault relaying for short line sections.
• Mho type relays are best suited for phase fault relaying.
Operating characteristic of an impedance relay:
• The impedance relay is a double actuating quantity relay and essentially consists
of two elements , current operated element and voltage operated element
• The current operated element produces a positive torque or pick up torque while
the voltage element develops negative or reset torque.
• Taking spring control effect as –k3, the torque equation of the relay is
• T= k1I2 – k2V2-k3
• Where V & I are the rms values of voltage &current respectively.
• At balance point, the net torque is zero
• k1I2 – k3=k2V2
• V/I = Z = √ k1/k2 –k3/k2I2
• Hence take K3 = 0, the relay torque equation becomes
• Z= √ k1/k2 neglecting the effect of spring control k3 =0
• Torque equation of directional Impedance relay:
• The directional feature to the impedance relay can be provided by employing the
impedance relay along with a directional unit.
• This means the impedance unit will operate only when the directional unit has
operated.
• Directional features sense the direction in which fault power flows with respect to
the location of CT & PT.
• T= k1VI cos (ɵ - τ)
• Where ɵ is the phase angle b/n V & I and τ is the impedance angle of the relay
• When the relay is about to pickup
• The torque is T = 0; cos(ɵ - τ) =0
• Or
• (ɵ - τ) = ± 900 or
• ɵ = τ ± 900
• Hence for positive torque ɵ1 should be ± 900
• If the effect of spring control is taken in to account , the torque equation
becomes
• T= k1VI cos (ɵ - τ) – k2
• At balance point i.e when the relay is about to pickup
• T=0 , k1VI cos (ɵ - τ) = k2
• Substituting I =V/Z in above equation become, we have
• k1Vx(V/Z)cos (ɵ - τ) = k2 or
• Z = k1/k2 V2 cos (ɵ - τ)
• Reactance relay:
• The torque equation of the relay is T=k1I2-k2VIcos(90-Φ) –k3
• T=k1I2-k2VIsinΦ –k3

• k1I2 = driving torque œ square of current

• k2VIcos(90-Φ) = restraining torque product of V &I, k3 is spring constant
• The relay operates when k1I2 > k2VIsinΦ
• Neglecting K3 which is a constant for the spring’s torque
• Thus we have V/I sin Φ < k1/k2 or k1/k2 > V/I sin Φ
• Z sin Φ < k or X < k
• The X is straight line parallel to X-Axis in R-X diagram, the reactance seen by the
relay should be smaller than the reactance for which the relay is designed.
• MHO Relay: (Admittance or Angle admittance):
• It is inherently a directional relay as it directs the fault only in the forward
direction.
• The torque equation is given by
• T=K1VIcos (Φ –œ) – K2V2 –K3
• Operating torque œ VI ; restraining torque œ K2V2
• The relay will operate when
• K1VIcos (Φ –œ) > K2V2 OR
• I/V cos (Φ –œ) > K2/K1 OR
• Y cos (Φ –œ) > K2/K1 OR
• 1/ Ycos (Φ –œ) <K OR
• Z/ cos (Φ –œ) <K OR Z= K1/K2 cos (Φ –œ)
• OR M< K
• Off set Mho relay:
• For a mho relay, the characteristic circle passing through origin. It cannot operate
for close up fault & faults lying behind the busbar
• For this an off set is introduced in the Mho relay as shown in figure
• In the off set Mho relay, only a fraction of CT output current is injected in to the
restraining circuit .
• This fraction is n which is less than 1
• Hence the quantities which are compared for the operation of the relay are
• I & (V/I –nI)
• The relay operates when I > (V/Z – nI) where I is operating torque & (V/I –nI) is
restraining torque
• IZ > (V-ZnI) divide by I we get
• Z > (V/I –Zn)
• Z > (Z- nZ)
• Application: bus bar protection
• Over reach and under reach in the distance relay:
• Over Reach and Under Reach of a relay signify the accuracy and coordination
setting of the relay.
• For example in Distance(mostly impedance relay) protection, when a relay over
reaches beyond its pre-set setting (the distance up to which it should protect the
line) it is said to have over-reached and
• similarly if it is not able to detect the fault within its defined reach and detects
only up to a lesser (nearer) point then it is said to have under-reached.
This may occur due various phenomena. For eg.
1. Due to abrupt change in impedance of the line (say due to arc impedance, load
changes affecting reach of relay).
2.Due to mutual coupling of the lines.
Modern relays are provided with algorithms to compensate this effect.
• Under reach of distance relay:
• The tendency of the distance relay to restrain (not to operate) at the preset value
of the impedance or impedance less than the pre set value is known as under
reach.
• Ex: The arc resistance causes the distance relay to under reach due to the
presence of arc resistance.
• The impedance seen by the relay appears to be more than the actual value of the
impedance up to the fault point & the relay tends to under reach .
• The extents of under reach of different relays are summarized below:
RELAY Under reach due to arc resistance
Impedance relay Moderate
Reactance Relay None
Mho Relay Maximum
• Overreach of distance relay:
• The tendency of distance relay to operate at impedances larger than its preset
value.
• i.e fault point is beyond its preset reach, is known as over reach.
• The main reason for over reach is the presence dc offset in the fault current
wave.
• The distance relay is prone to overreach on a transient fault consisting of a dc
offset.
• The rms value of the fault current with & w/o dc offset is as follows:
• I = √(I2dc + I2ac) with dc offset
• I=Iac w/o dc offset
• Since the rms value of fault current with a dc offset is greater than the rms value
of a pure alternating current having symmetrical wave.
• The impedance seen by the relay appears to be less the actual value, and relay
tends to overreach
• Effect of Power swing:
• In an interconnected power system , under steady state condition, all the
generators run in synchronism. There is balance between a load & the generation.
This state is characterized by constant load angle.
• Power swings are surges of power due to the oscillation of generators with respect
to each other which may occur because of changes in load, switching.
• The relay must distinguish between a fault and a power swing and respond
correctly
• Consider a transmission line which connects two generating stations, the current
flowing through the transmission line depends upon the phase difference between
voltage generated at the two ends of the line.
• The phase difference is equal to the rotor angle , the phase angle b/n the generated
voltages changes during sudden change in load.
• When the rotor swings, the rotor angle changes & the current flowing through line
also changes such currents are heavy.
• As long as the phase angle between generated voltage goes on changing the
current seen by the relay is also changing .
• Therefore the impedance measured by the relay varies during power swings, thus
a power surge seen by the relay appears like a fault and it may operate to close
the circuit breaker.
• Effect of arc resistance on distance relays:
• Phase to phase or phase to ground occurs an arc resistance is introduced in to the
fault path.
• The arc resistance is appreciable at hugher voltages. The arc resistance is added
to the impedance of the line and hence the resultant impedance which is seen by
distance relays is increased .
• In case of ground fault , the resistance of the earth is also introduced in to the
fault path.
• The earth resistance and arc resistance combined together are known as fault
resistance.
• In case of phase to phase fault the fault resistance consists of only arc resistance
as there is no earth resistance in this case.
• Mho relay is effected most, impedance reay is moderately effected and
reactance relay is least effected.