Unit 4

Air Pollution
Definition
• Air pollution is basically the presence of foreign substances in air.
• The air pollution is defined as follows: "Air pollution means the presence in the outdoor
atmosphere of one or more contaminants, such as dust, fumes, gas, mist, smoke, odour
or vapour, in quantities, with characteristics, and of durations such as to be harmful to
human, plant or animal life or to property, or which reasonably interferes with the
comfortable enjoyment of life or property."
• In general, the actions of people are the primary cause of pollution and as the pollution
increases, the attendant pollution problems also increase proportionately.
• The pollution is due to rapid industrialization. Some critics comment on air pollution as
the "Price of Industrialization". The pollution caused by automobiles has been described
as the 'disease of wealth'.
• The most common contaminants present in the urban atmosphere are particulate matter
and gases such as oxides of sulphur and nitrogen. Except under special circumstances,
the carbon dioxide is not considered as an atmospheric contaminant, because of its role
in the photosynthesis of green plants.
MAJOR SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
1. Natural Sources:
• The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions releasing poisonous gases such as SO2, H2S and
CO, etc, forest fires, natural organic and inorganic decays or vegetative decay, marsh gases, deflation of sand
and dust, extra terrestrial bodies, cosmic dust, pollen grains of flowers, soil debris, comets and fungal spores.
• All these are produced naturally and released in the air, making it foul and injurious to health.
• Among all natural contaminant pollen grains are important, because of its peculiar irritating properties to
some individuals. These pollen grains are discharged from weeds, grasses and trees.
• Green plants through evapo-transpiration release huge amount of CO2. Accidental fires in forests emit huge
amount of dust, smoke, unburnt hydrocarbons and other gases.
• Reactions between natural gas emissions also constitute a source of air pollution.
2. Man Made Sources:
• Man is the main culprit for producing pollution in the air due to use of coal, oil and natural gas as fuel and
exhaust gases from automatic vehicles. To satisfy the demands of modern man, the rapid industrialization
and urbanization took place. This has become one of the important sources of air pollution. Following are
the man made sources of air pollution.
MAJOR SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
• Rapid Industrialization: The industries such as pulp and paper, chemical,
metallurgical plants and smelters, petroleum refineries, mining, iron and steel
works, and synthetic rubber industries are responsible for about 20% of air
pollution. The most common pollutants are CO2, SO2, CO, NO, H2S, etc. In
addition, the smoke coming out from stacks contain particulate matter, metals,
radioactive materials etc. Food processing factories and tanneries produce
repulsive odours. A large quantity of benzene is emitted at petrol filling station.
• Transportation: Automobile exhausts release smoke and to a little extent lead
particles. This smoke is produced primarily from the incomplete combustion of
carbonaceous matters. It contains gaseous pollutants, nearly two thirds of CO and
one half of the hydrocarbons and nitrous oxides. In Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai
this exhaust accounts for 70% of CO, 50% of all hydrocarbons, 30 to 42% of all
oxides and 30% Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM). The chief sources from
automobiles are (i) Exhaust system, (ii) Fuel tank, (ii) Carburetor, (iv) Crank case.
All these release unburnt hydrocarbons, NO, CO and lead oxides.
MAJOR SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
• Burning of Fossil Fuels and Fires: The conventional sources of energy are wood, coal and
fossil fuels. About 97% of the energy we use in our homes and factories is generated by
coal, oil and natural gas which are called fossil fuels. The byproducts of burning of fossil
fuel, wood, coal are nothing but poisonous gases such as CO, CH4, SO2 NO, etc.
• Deforestation: The balance of O2 and CO2 in the nature is maintained by the vegetation.
The plants purify the air by taking in CO2 for their use in photosynthesis and liberating
O2 to be used by animals during respiratory activities; again liberating CO2 used by the
plants. The deforestation by man for his own needs has disturbed the balance of CO2
and O2 concentration in atmosphere.
• Increase in Population: The rapid explosion of population is one of the most important
factors of air pollution. By the year 2022, the world population have exceeded 8 billion as
per the estimation of United Nations. This increase in population creates several serious
problems including air pollution. An increase in population leads to global warming and
emission of green house gases. It also contributes to loss in forest cover and loss in Wild
life species.
MAJOR SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
• Agricultural Activities: Various biocides are used for agricultural purposes. These biocides include
pesticides, insecticides, herbicides, etc. These biocides cause air pollution because some amount
of these poisonous substances is carried away by wind; and thus make the air foul.
• Solid Waste Disposal: Backyard burning and open burning of heaps of solid wastes results in the
emission of smoke and pollutants like NO, CO, CO2, etc.
• Radioactive Fallout: Nuclear reactions, nuclear weapon testings, chemical processing plants,
hospitals, research laboratories contribute numerous radio nuclides to the air. Nuclear effluents,
when released into the air, are potentially more hazardous to man, animal and vegetation.
• Wars: The various types of sophisticated explosives used in wars is also the source of air pollution.
Radioactive rays coming out from reactors or nuclear explosions pollute the air extensively.
• Construction Activities: During construction activity various pollutants are emitted into
atmosphere. Rapid urbanization has put a tremendous stress on construction industry resulting in
increase in construction rate.
MAJOR SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION
• Stationary and Mobile
Sources
• Another method of
classifying emission
sources is by
• 1. Point source (Large
stationary sources)
• 2. Area source (Small
stationary sources and
mobile sources with
indefinite routes) and
• 3. Line source (Mobile
sources with definite
routes).
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
• Classification: All air pollutants can be classified according to origin, chemical composition and state of matter.
• Broad Classification
(A) According to origin.
(B) According to chemical composition
(C) According to state of matter.
(A) According to Origin
Air pollutants can also further be classified as follows
1. Primary pollutants 2. Secondary pollutants.
1. Primary Pollutants
• Primary pollutants are those emitted directly from identifiable sources. These pollutants are emitted directly to the
atmosphere and found there in the form in which they were emitted. These primary pollutants will not react with other to
be found in the other form. They will be available in the atmosphere in the discrete manner. Following are the examples of
primary air pollutants
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
• Particulate matter
• Oxides of sulphur
• Oxides of nitrogen
• Carbon monoxide
• Halogen and organic compounds
• Radioactive compounds.
2. Secondary Air Pollutants
• Secondary air pollutants are those which are produced in the air by the interaction among two or more primary pollutants or by reaction
with normal atmospheric constituents with or without photo activation. Secondary pollutants such as ozone and PAN are those formed in
the atmosphere by a photochemical reaction or by hydrolysis or oxidation. Following are the examples of secondary air pollutants
• Ozone
• Formaldehyde
• Photochemical smog
• Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN)
• Peroxy Butyl Nitrate (PBN)
• Formation of acid mist.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
(B) According to Chemical Composition
• All the air pollutants are classified according to the chemical composition as follows 1. Organic 2. Inorganic.
1. Organic Air Pollutants
• Organic compounds contain carbon and hydrogen. Some air pollutants also contain nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen and phosphorus. Following
are the examples of organic compounds.
• Hydrocarbons
• Aldehydes and ketones
• Alcohols, acids, ethers, esters and amines
• Organic sulfur compounds.
2. Inorganic Air Pollutants
Inorganic compounds do not contain carbon and hydrogen as basic atoms. Following are the examples of inorganic air pollutants.
• Carbon monoxide (CO) • Oxides of sulfur and nitrogen
• Carbon dioxide (CO2) • Ozone
• Hydrogen fluoride and hydrogen chloride
• Carbonates
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
(C) According to State of Matter
• Air pollutants according to the state of matter can be classified as follows
1. Natural contaminants 2. Particulate matter 3. Gases and vapor.
1. Natural Contaminants
• The air contaminants, which are produced from natural sources, are called natural contaminants
• Following are the examples: Natural fog, pollen grains, bacteria and products of volcanic eruption.
• Pollen: Pollen grains are emitted into the atmosphere from weeds, grasses and trees. . During the growing season the pollens will
be emitted. Due to pollination, thousands of pollen grains are emitted which are irritating to some individuals. Size: 10 to 50
microns.
2. Particulate Matter
• These may be liquid or solid.
• The standards identify the particulates as any dispersed matter, solid or liquid, in which the individual aggregates are larger than a
single small molecule (about 0.002 μm in diameter) but smaller than about 500 μm.
• These are further classified according to their physical or biological characteristics. Physical characteristics include size, mode of
formation, settling properties and optical qualities.
• Following are the examples of particulate matter Dust, smoke, mist, fog, fumes, flyash and spray.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
• Dust: These are small solid particles created by break up of larger masses through processes such as
crushing, grinding or blasting. Dust particles that are picked up by the wind and carried over long distances
tend to sort themselves to the sizes between 0.5 and 50 μm in diameter. Size : 1 to 10,000 microns.
• Smoke: It consists of finely divided solid particles produced by incomplete combustion of organic particles
such as coal, wood or tobacco. Size: 0.5 to 1 microns.
• Mist: These are the liquid particles formed by the condensation of vapour or the dispersion of the liquid. If
the mist concentration is high enough to obscure the visibility, the mist is called a fog.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
• Fog: This is visible aerosol in which the dispersed phase is liquid. This is formed by the
condensation of liquid. It reduces the visibility to less than 1/2 km. Size: 1 to 40 microns.
• Fumes: These are fine solid particles formed by the condensation of vapours of solid materials.
Whenever the metal processing is performed in forging industry, the fumes are given out in the
atmosphere. These fumes are generally from sublimation, distillation or molten metal processes.
Size: 0.03 to 0.3 microns.
• Fly Ash : These are finely divided, non combustible particles contained in the flue gases arising
from combustion of coal. When the organic portion of coal is burned, the minerals and the
metallic substances are released into the atmosphere in the form of fly ash. Size: 1 to 1000
microns,
• Spray These are liquid particles formed by atomization of parent liquids such as pesticides and
herbicides. Size: 10 to 1000 microns.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
3. Gases and Vapours
• Following is the list of gaseous air pollutants
• Carbon monoxide • Chlorine and hydrogen chloride
• Oxides of sulphur • Hydrogen sulphide
• Hydrogen fluoride
• Oxides of nitrogen • Radioactive gases
• Hydrocarbons • Lead
• Photochemical oxidants
1. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• This is an odourless, tasteless, colourless gas and chemically inert under normal conditions.
• The major origin of CO is from incomplete combustion of carbonaceous materials.
• The natural anaerobic decomposition of carbonaceous material by soil micro- organisms releases methane (CH4) to the
atmosphere. The oxidation of methane results in CO.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
• Anthropogenic sources include motor vehicles, fossil fuel burning for electricity and heat, industrial
processes, solid waste disposal, and miscellaneous burning of such things as leaves and brush.
• The chief source of CO in the atmosphere is combustion, especially due to automobile exhausts. Motor
vehicles account for more than 60% of the emission.
• It is observed that the CO concentration is reduced due to its reaction with hydroxyl radicals to form CO2
and its removal by soil micro-organisms.
2. Oxides of Sulphur-(SOX)
• The oxides of sulphur are one of the principle constituents of air pollutants. Sulphur oxides may be both
primary or secondary pollutants.
• They include four different gaseous compounds viz. sulphur monoxide (SO), sulphur dioxide (SO2), sulphur
trioxide (SO), and sulphur tetraoxide (SO4).
• Sulphur dioxide is a colourless, non-flammable and non-explosive gas with a suffocating odour.
• This gas is released from sulphuric acid plants, paper manufacturing plants, power plants, volcanoes and
open burning of refuse. In addition, H2S released from some industrial processes gets oxidised into SO2 The
most important reactions in SO2 formation are as follows
• H2S + 03 →→→→ H2O + SO2 ↑
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
The reactions involved in formation of acid rain are as follows
SO (Photoexcitation of SO2)
The excited molecule then readily reacts with O2 to form SO3
, so + O2SO, +0
Highly hydroscopic SO3 gets converted into sulphuric acid.

3. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx)

• Oxides of nitrogen includes four known gaseous compounds viz Nitric oxide (NO), Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), Nitrous oxide (N2O),
Nitrogen pentoxide (N2O5). In air pollution, nitiric oxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are of primary concern.
• Generally, highest concentration of nitrogen oxides in gaseous emissions occurs in effluents from industries where nitric acid is
produced or used in chemical reactions. The next highest concentration is in automobile exhausts. Bacterial action in soil releases
nitrous oxide to the atmosphere. At higher altitudes the atomic oxygen reacts with the nitrous oxides to form nitric oxides.
• N2O +0 2 NO
• NO 03 →→→ NO2+ O2
• (Ultimately the NO2 is converted to either NO2- or NO3-, in particulate form). The particulates are then washed out by
precipitation. The dissolution of nitrate in a water droplet allows for the formation of nitric acid causing 'acid rain'.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
4. Hydrocarbons
• Organic compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are classified as hydrocarbons. These are classified into two
major groups. They are
• Aliphatic hydrocarbons
• Aromatic hydrocarbons.
• Hydrocarbons present in the atmosphere are from both natural and anthropogenic sources. Natural sources like biological
processes, geothermal areas, coal fields, petroleum fields emit methane and terpens. The major anthropogenic sources
are partially burned gasoline and incinerator, emissions, industrial processes and solid waste disposal.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
5. Photochemical Oxidants
• Oxidising agents, ozone, Peroxy Acetyl Nitrate (PAN), Peroxy Benzoyl Nitrate (PBN) and other trace
substances, which can oxidise iodine ion of potassium iodide are termed as photochemical oxidants.
• These pollutants results from atmospheric reactions. These are formed through a series of reactions that are
initiated by the absorption of photon by an atom, molecule, free radical or ion.
• Ozone is the principal photochemical oxidant. Its formation is usually attributed to the nitrogen dioxide
photolytic cycle. Ozone is poisonous and smelly. It is present in the upper stratosphere.
• The photochemical oxidants are involved in 'smog' formation.
6. Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride
• Chlorine is found in polluted atmosphere as the element itself (chlorine). The most common sources of
chlorine in atmosphere are from operations in which it is manufactured or used to produce other chemicals.
• Hydrogen chloride (HCl) in air can occur from various sources like industrial processes, combustion, or
volcanic eruptions.
7. Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S)
• This is a foul smelling gas. This is produced in anaerobic biological decay processes on land, in marshes and
in the oceans. The major source of hydrogen sulphide is kraft-pulp industry.
CLASSIFICATION OF POLLUTANTS
8. Hydrogen Fluoride (HF)
• The major sources are the manufacture of phosphate fertilizer, the
aluminium industry, brick plants, pottery, and ferro-enamel works. This gas
is important in terms of injury to vegetation and animals.
9. Radioactive Gases
• The major source is nuclear power plants and related fuel handling
facilities.
10. Lead (Pb)
• Natural sources are volcanic activity and airborne soil. Anthropogenic
sources are smelters, refining processes and incineration of lead containing
waste.
Smog
• Smog is a term which is made out of two words Smoke and fog. Smoke + Fog = Smog
• There are two types of smogs 1. Photochemical smog. 2. Coal induced smog.
1. Photochemical Smog: This type of the smog is end product of photochemical reactions consisting of air contaminants
such as O3, PAN, aldehydes, ketones, and CO. The photochemical smog is restricted to highly motorised areas.
• It occurs during inversion conditions and no wind currents. It reduces visibility and causes eye irritation, damage to
vegetation.
Effects of Photochemical Smog
• Due to presence of sulphur, carbon and halides in the smog, it causes visibility problems.
• The compounds of formaldehyde, PAN and PBN are highly irritant to eyes.
• Vegetation is badly affected due to photochemical smog.
• Hoses, gaskets, wire insulations and other miniature electronic circuits are also badly affected.
Control of Photochemical Smog: It can only be controlled by controlling the pollutants responsible for its formation viz. CO,
NOx, VOC’s etc. Such gases are mainly exhausted from automobiles.
2. Coal Induced Smog: This type of smog consists of smoke, sulphur compounds, and fly ash. This will be formed
generally during night time and when the temperature is below 10°C. If it prevails for more time, it may result in high
mortality rate especially among the elder person.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
• There are many air pollutants present in the atmosphere which in one way or other can cause problems to
the species in the environments.
• Some of the air pollutants are chemically inert or chemically active in themselves. The pollutant present in
the atmosphere alone may be inert but when it comes in contact with others it may become chemically
active.
• Depending on the chemical composition and physical state, it may cause the dangerous effects upon human
health and vegetation.
• Particulate matter alone or in combination with other pollutants constitutes a very serious health hazard.
The carbon monoxide emitted from vehicle exhaust as a dangerous air pollutant reduces oxygen carrying
capacity of blood in human being. The oxides of sulphur are mainly concerned with acid rain. The acid rain
disturbs the complete set up of earth as ecosystem. The chlorofluorocarbons emitted through the industries
are reducing the ozone from stratosphere causing the skin cancer.
• Thus, it becomes necessary to study the effects of air pollutants in detail. It is also necessary to study the
physical, chemical and biological characteristics of all pollutants.
• The effects of air pollutants can be classified as follows 1. Effects on human health 2. Effects on plants,
materials and animals. 3. Effects on visibility.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
1. Effects on Materials
• Five mechanisms of deterioration have been attributed to air pollution: abrasion, deposition and removal, direct chemical attack,
indirect chemical attack and electrochemical corrosion.
• Solid particles of large enough size that are travelling at a high enough speed can cause deterioration by abrasion.
• Small liquid and solid particles that settle on exposed surfaces do not cause more than aesthetic deterioration.
• In the presence of water as a medium, the pollutants react with the surfaces by solubilization and oxidation/ reduction reactions.
• Indirect chemical attack occurs when pollutants are absorbed and then react with some component of the absorbent to form a
destructive compound.
• Electrochemical corrosion results from the potential that develops in metal surfaces.
2. Effect on Vegetation: The pollutants get deposited on the leaf surface. This closes the stomatal openings.
3. Effect on Human Health: The respiratory system is the primary indicator of air pollution effects in air pollution.

1. Particulate Matter: These pollutants are present in lower atmosphere i.e. troposphere and stratosphere. These pollutants stay here
for a long period. They consist of smoke, dust, fumes, mist, and spray particles. These may be organic or inorganic in nature.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Effects on Human Health
• The particulate pollutants of size less than one micron (1 μ) enter into the alveoli of lungs and damage lung
tissues.
• Asbestos fibers may cause cancer to the industrial workers. This occurs in the tissue lining the abdomen.
• Lead from automobile exhaust may cause effect on children's brain.
• Lead interferes with the development and maturation of red blood cells.
• Insoluble aerosols may create toxicity to respiratory system.
• Silicosis, a chronic disease of lung, is caused by inhalation of dust containing free silica, SiO2.
• Black lung disease is common to coal miners, while white lung disease occurs in textile workers.
• Arsenic is absorbed through the lungs and skin and cause diarrhoea, conjunctivitis, lung and skin cancer.
• Traces of mercury cause nerve damage and death.
• The acid particulates and aldehydes cause eye, nose and throat irritation.
Effects on Plants
• The deposition of particulate pollutants, containing toxic metals, makes the soil unsuitable for plant growth.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
• The particulate pollutant after deposition on plant leaves block the stomata openings of the plants, thus
reducing the growth of plant.
• The particulate fallout with acid rain, reduces the pH of the soil which makes soil infertile.
• The particulates inhibit the action of plant enzyme system. Arsenic inhibits the growth of plants.
Effects on Materials
• The particulate matter i.e. fumes, soot, mist etc. causes severe damage to buildings and monuments.
• The corrosion activity is enhanced in the presence of particulate pollutants.
• Corrosive particulates cause severe damage.
• Particulates cause cracks and fading in pointed surfaces.
• Particulates accumulate on the soil surfaces causing soil erosion.
• Particulates cause smog formation which may be dangerous to materials.
2. Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless and odourless gas. It has an atmospheric mean life of about 2 to 4
months.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Effects on Human Health
• The high concentration of CO can cause physiological and pathological changes and ultimately death.
• The combination of CO and haemoglobin leads to the formation of carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb). The COHb reduces the
oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
• At 100 ppm, most people experience dizziness, headache and lassitude.
• Exposure to higher concentrations has provided evidence of psychological stress in patients with heart disease.
• The cigarette smoke contains 400 to 450 ppm CO. The percentage of COHb in blood of cigarette smokers increases with
increase in smoking.
• The exposure to low concentrations of CO can impair a person's ability to estimate time intervals and affect his visual
ability with regard to brightness threshold.
• At 750 ppm of CO, it will cause death.
• Smoking leads to fertility problems, premature births, spontaneous abortions and deformed babies in pregnant women.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Effects on Plants
• CO inhibits the nitrogen fixation ability of bacteria when they are exposed to CO levels of 2000 ppm.
• CO concentration from 100 to 10,000 ppm affects leaf drops, leaf curling, reduction in leaf size and chlorophyll with
premature ageing etc.
• Nitrogen fixing ability of bacteria living in clover roots is inhibited to a 100 ppm.
Effect on Materials
• Carbon monoxide appears to have no detrimental effect on material surfaces.
3. Oxides of Sulphur
The sulphur oxides include sulphur dioxide and sulphur trioxide as the dominant oxides in the atmosphere. Sulphur dioxide is
a non-flammable, non-explosive gas. Sulphur dioxide gets converted partially into sulphur trioxide and partially into the
sulphuric acid by various chemical processes in the atmosphere. The effects of sulphur dioxide will be in combination with
other chemicals and contaminants.
Effects on Human Health
• It causes intense irritation, even at 2.5 ppm to eyes and respiratory tract.
• Increase in SO2 concentration in the atmosphere, may lead to lung cancer.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
• SO2 inhalation causes the symptoms of bronchitis and other lung diseases.
• SO2 may obstruct breathing.
• SO2 may lead to reduction in surface area of gaseous exchange on lungs causing suffocation.
• SO2 leads to formation of H2SO4 which is 5 to 20 times as irritant as SO2
• SO2 is a severe allergenic agent.
• At 20 ppm concentration, it causes eye irritation and cough.
• At 1-5 ppm, it causes tightness to chest
• Higher concentration of SO2 (400-500 ppm) is dangerous even for short exposure.
Effects on Vegetation
• The low concentrations for long periods of time may result in brownish red or bleached white areas on the blade of leaf.
• SO2 damages vegetable crops and affects growth of the plant.
• At 1.00 ppm concentration of SO2, the trees may lead to chlorosis disease.
• If the stomata are open in day time, the plants get injured.
• At high concentrations of SO2, the leaf tissues may die leading to leaf necrosis.
• H2SO4 mists and aerosols are extremely toxic to plants and soil fertility.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Effects on Materials
• The sulphuric acid will attack building materials containing carbonates. This will form CaSO4. The CaSO4 is washed away leaving a
pitted and discoloured surface.
• Paper absorbs SO2 which is oxidised to H2SO4 causing the paper to become brittle and fragile.
• Leather looses the strength and may disintegrate.
• The famous Taj Mahal in Agra is getting deteriorated because of SO2 emissions from industries.
• Long exposure to SO increases the drying and hardening time of paints.
• SO2 polluted air accelerates the corrosion rate of metals such as Fe, Zn, steel and Cu.
4. Oxides of Nitrogen
Nitric oxide (NO) and Nitrogen dioxide (NO) are important air pollutants. Nitric oxide is a relatively inert gas and only moderately
toxic. Nitric oxide concentration is generally less than 1 ppm in ambient air.
Effects on Human Health
• Nitric oxide reduces the oxygen carrying capacity of blood.
• Nitrogen dioxide acts as a acute irritant and irritates the alveoli of the lungs.
• NO2 is related to chronic pulmonary fibrosis. Concentrations from 47 to 140 mg/m3 cause reversible pneumonia.
• Below 0.01 ppm, bronchitis in children is observed.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
• 500 to 600 ppm of NO2 for 2 to 10 days, results in death of the victim.
• NO2 has irritating effects on mucous membrane.
• NO2 also lowers the resistance to influenza and irritates eyes.
• Higher levels of NOx causes internal bleeding, pneumonia, lung cancer, oxygen deficiency etc. .
• NOx causes respiratory, nervous and digestive ailments.
• Exposure to 9.4 mg/m3 for 10 minutes has produced transient increase in air way resistance and
occupational exposure to 162 mg/m3 for 30 minutes has produced pulmonary oedema.
• NOx is extremely dangerous to human health.
Effects on Vegetation
• NO2 and primary pollutants can cause injury to plants.
• NO2 at 0.5 ppm for a period of 10 to 12 days has suppressed growth of vegetation.
• Higher concentration of NO2 damages the leaves of plants and retards the photosynthetic activity.
• Secondary pollutants such as PAN, smog, O, etc. may damage the vegetation.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
• Exposure to 10 ppm of NO checks the metabolic activities in plant tissues.
• At 100 ppm of NO checks the metabolic activities in plant tissues.
Effects on Materials
• Nitric acid causes corrosion to metal surfaces.
• NO2 fades away textile dyes like cotton, rayon etc.
• NO2 produces aerosols which damage the nylon fibers.
• NO2, along with hydrocarbons, produces peroxides which combine with ozone and cause crack in rubber.
• Oxides of nitrogen are responsible for dangerous photochemical smog formation.
• Higher levels of NOx cause 10% loss of fibre strength in cotton and rayon.
5. Hydrocarbons
• Among the natural sources, trees emit huge quantities of hydrocarbons (isoprene) into the air. The hydrocarbons undergo chemical
reactions in the air and form particulate matter. The major naturally occuring hydrocarbon is methane (CH4).
• Human activities contribute nearly 20% of hydrocarbon emitted into the atmosphere every year. Automobile exhaust emit
maximum hydrocarbons in air. Hydrocarbons like methane, ethylene, acetylene, butane, isopentane etc. are emitted from
industrial processes. Hydrocarbons in the presence of nitrogen oxides are responsible for the formation of dangerous
photochemical smog. Also photochemical oxidants are formed due to hydrocarbons.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
Effects on Human Health
• Aromatic hydrocarbons found in soots and tars may lead to cancer.
• Unburnt hydrocarbons form photochemical oxidant which in turn is harmful to health.
• Photochemical smog causes irritation of eyes, nose, throat and respiratory distress.
• Inhalation of some hydrocarbon gases causes irritation to mucous membrane.
• Respiratory tracks are blocked and man coughs regularly because of high concentration hydrocarbons.
• Benzpyrene, present in tobacco and gasoline exhausts, is a cancer inducing hydrocarbon.
• Methane creates narcotic effects on human beings.
• Most of the hydrocarbons are carcinogenic to lungs at higher concentrations (500 - 1000 ppm).
Effects on Vegetation
• Ethylene inhibits the plant growth.
• Hydrocarbons and photochemical oxidants are injurious to plants, leading to chlorosis.
• Acetylene and propylene show damage to growth of vegetation.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
• Ozone creates flecks or stipples on the leaf surface which inhibits photosynthesis.
• Hydrocarbons may cause death of flowering plants.
Effects on Materials
• Particulates or soot made up of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon, erode the surfaces.
• Ozone induces chemical alteration in natural synthetic textiles, paper, rubber and polymer.
• Materials become less elastic and more brittle.
• Tensile strength of polymers is reduced.
• Causes corrosive damage to materials.
6. Photochemical Oxidants
• Ozone attacks synthetic rubbers, thereby reducing the life of tires, rubber insulation and so on.
• Ozone attacks the cellulose in textiles, and reduces the strength.
• All the oxidants cause fading of fabrics.
• Ozone causes skin irritation and may reach up to skin cancer.
• All the oxidants can form photochemical smog, which is highly dangerous to human health.
• Oxidants like PAN and PBN cause severe eye irritation, and also nose and throat irritation.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION
7. EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTANTS ON VISIBILITY
• One of the most common effects of air pollution is the reduction in visibility, resulting from
absorption and scattering of light by air borne liquid and solid materials. The particulate matter
present in the atmosphere reduces the visibility considerably.
• Carbon dioxide and water vapour may change the absorption and transmission characteristics of
the atmosphere, thus causing reduction in visibility.
• Carbon monoxide in combination with other air contaminants may cause reduction in visibility.
• Photochemical reactions between SO2, particulate matter, oxides of nitrogen and hydrocarbons in
the atmosphere, result in the formation of aerosols. These aerosols in the form of haze are
related to the reduction in visibility.
• Considerable aerosol formation takes place when mixtures of olefins, NO, and SO, are irradiated
by sunlight.
• Nitrogen dioxide at a concentration of 0.25 ppm causes considerable reduction in visibility by
absorbing the light.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
• The atmospheric emission coming in the form of air contaminants are not harmful at initial stages.
• When the concentration of the air contaminants increases above the standards recommended, then it becomes necessary to
control these emissions of air pollutants in the atmosphere.
• If the control measures are not applied, this troposphere may become unusable for the species of environment.
• The air contaminants are in two forms, one being particulate matter and other gaseous contaminant. The characteristics of these
contaminants being different, the separate control measures are suggested.
• The control of atmospheric emissions from an industry can be done by three methods. 1. Process change 2. Fuel change 3.
Installation of control equipment.
1. Process Change: The emission of air pollutant can be reduced by changing the process completely or by making some
modifications in existing process. In this, the raw materials used or the solvent used can be replaced by other materials.
2. Fuel Change: The most air pollution problems are due to the fuels used for the various industrial processes. For many air
pollution control situations a change to a less polluting fuel offers the ideal solution to the problem.
3. Installation of Control Equipments: The gaseous as well as particulate matter emissions can be controlled at the source by
installing the control equipments. These control equipments are designed by considering the efficiency and economy of the
system.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
• General measures to control air pollution
1. Use of public mode of transportation: People should be encouraged to use public mode of transportation to reduce air
pollution.
2. Car pooling: People living in same area or locality and having same office and office timings can share the vehicle to save
energy and money.
3. Conserve the energy: Switch off the fan, tv sets and lights whenever its not needed. This reduces the electricity demand on
power utility. So utility will use less fossil fuel to generate electricity. This will result into reduction in air pollution.
4. Reduce, Reuse and Recycle: Do not through away the items which can be reused and recycled. Try to avoid purchasing of items
that cannot be reused and recycled.
5. Clean energy resources: Put large amount of emphasis on clean energy technologies like solar, wind, geothermal etc.
Governments are giving many subsidies to private power producers who are involved in generation of power from renewable
energy solutions. This will result into lower value of air pollution. Use of clean energy source can be started from single
household also e.g. Use of solar water heater
6. Use of energy efficient devices : Try to use energy efficient devices (whose energy demand is less) to lower down the energy
consumption e.g. Compact Florescent Lamp (CFL), Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) etc. This will result into lower air pollution by
reducing burning of fossil fuel.
7. Use of electric vehicles: Instead of gasoline engines, it reduces air pollution. Catalytic converters must be used in the gasoline
vehicles to reduce the pollutants from the exhaust gases. Always use green fuels i.e. natural instead of petrol and diesel.
Vehicle engine should be ln proper condition.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
8. Laws and regulations: Tougher pollution prevention act is necessary to lower down the air pollution. Montreal protocol is
developed to lower down the ozone depletion. It was signed by 196 countries in the world. Government must build good
mechanism to implement environmental laws and penalize the polluting factories or vehicles
9. Creating awareness and changing behavior: People are unaware about the pollution and their effects. A professional society
should be developed for creating pollution awareness and changing behaviour.
10. Save water when and wherever possible as clean water required larger amount of energy.
11. Do not burn household wastes as they releases toxic chemicals into atmosphere.
12. Use water based paints and glues to lower down air pollution.
13. Plant more trees: Trees absorb the harmful gases and releases air.
14. Community can built habit of walking to more nearby areas
15. Industries should install good smokestacks which reduces harmful emissions.
16. Industries should install good quality of machines which can burn less fuel and emit less smoke.
17. Use unleaded petrol.
18. Use of fuels having less sulphur and ash content.
19. Hospitals, schools, play ground, industries should be located away, from the busy roads like highways (national/state).
20. Use gravitational settling chamber to control air pollution. It removes the dust particles having size larger than 50 um.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL OF PARTICULATE MATTER
• Basically, five mechanisms are available for collecting particles which are classified as gravitational
settling, inertial impaction, centrifugal impaction, diffusion and electrostatic effects. With the
help of these mechanisms various particulate control equipments are designed.
• A number of factors must be determined before a proper choice of collection equipment can be
made. Following factors are properties of particulate matter, flow rate, loading, the temperature
and pressure of flow stream.
• Following is the list of particulate collection equipments
• 1. Gravity settling chambers 2. Cyclones 3. Fabric filters 4. Electrostatic precipitators. 5. Scrubbers
or wet collectors
1. Gravity Settling Chambers
• Gravitational force is used to collect the particulate matter by reducing the velocity of flow.
• Generally the settling velocity is greater than 15 cm/sec for the particulates of size 10 microns to
50 microns.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
Advantages
• Simple method
• Simple construction design
• Low maintenance cost
• Dry, continuous and quick disposal of solid particulates.
Disadvantages
• It needs large space
• Only large particles are getting collected.
2. Cyclones
• In the cyclone separators centrifugal force generated by a spinning gas stream is employed to remove the
particulate matter.
• In this, the particles are separated from carrying gas. This class of separations is the most common of a
general group of separators.
• It depends upon the centrifugal force for its action.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
• It consists of a vertically placed cylinder which has an inverted cone attached to its base.
The gas stream will enter tangentially at the inlet point of the cylinder. The centrifugal
force due to high rate of spin throws the dust particles to the outer walls of the cylinder
and cone. The particles then slide down the walls and into the storage hopper. The outlet
pipe for a purified gas is a central cylindrical opening at the top.
Advantages
• Simple in construction and operation.
• Low maintenance cost needed.
• Low initial cost
• Continuous and quick disposal of solid particulates.
Disadvantages
• Less collection efficiency for 5-10 μm diameter particles.
• Equipment deterioration.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
3. Fabric Filters
• Filtration is one of the oldest, most reliable, efficient and economic methods of
collecting particulate matter from a carrier gas.
• A porous structure composed of granular or fibrous material, which will be able
to retain particulate, is used.
• These filters may be of cloth or fibrous material like mat of wool, cellulose etc.
• Mat filters are used for very light dust load and designed to serve for long
periods. Fabric filters are used for large or medium dust load.
• Fabric filters are tubular type consisting tubular bags. A bag house consists of
tubular filters hung in multiple rows to provide large surface areas for gas
passage. They are suspended with open ends attached to manifold. The hopper
at the bottom serves as a collector for the dust.
Advantages of Fabric Filter System
• Extremely high collection efficiency on both coarse and fine (submicron)
particulates.
• Relatively insensitive to gas stream fluctuation.
• Efficiency and pressure drop are relatively unaffected by large changes in inlet
dust loading for continuously cleaned filters.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
• Filter outlet air may be recirculated within the plant in many cases (for energy conservation).
• Collected material is recovered dry for subsequent processing or disposal.
• Corrosion and rusting of components are usually not problems.
• There is no hazard or high voltage, simplifying maintenance and repair and permitting collection of
flammable dusts.
• Use of selected fibrous or granular filter permits the high efficiency collection of submicron smokes and
gaseous contaminants.
• Filter collectors are available in a large number of configurations resulting in a range of dimensions and inlet
and outlet flange locations to suit installation requirements.
• Relatively simple operation.
Disadvantages of Fabric Filter System
• Temperatures much in excess of 550°F require special refractory mineral or metallic fabrics that are still in
the development stage and can be very expensive.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
• Certain dusts may require fabric treatments to reduce dust seeping or in other cases, assist in the
removal of the collected dust.
• Conventions of some dusts in the collector (250 g/m3) may represent a fire or explosion hazard if
a spark or flame is admitted by accident. Fabrics can burn if readily oxidizable dust is being
collected.
• Relatively high maintenance requirements (bag replacement etc.).
• Fabric life may be shorted at elevated temperatures and in the presence of acid or alkaline
particulate or gas constituents.

• Hygroscopic materials, condensation of moisture, or tarry adhesive components may cause crusty
caking or plugging of the fabric or require special additives.
• Replacement of fabric may require respiratory protection for maintenance personal.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
4. Electrostatic Precipitator
• An electrostatic precipitator (ESP) is defined as a filtration device that
is used to remove fine particles like smoke and fine dust from the
flowing gas. It is the most commonly used device for air pollution
control. They are used in industries like steel plants, and thermal
energy plants.
• The operation of electrostatic precipitators is fairly simple. The dirty
flue gas escaping through the smokestack is passed through two
electrodes. The shape these electrodes take depends on the type of
electrostatic precipitator used, but they can be metal wires, bars, or
plates inside a pipe or the smokestack itself. One of the electrodes is
charged with a high negative voltage, and this plate causes
particulates inside the smoke to obtain a negative charge as they pass
by this electrode. Further along the pipe, the second electrode carries
a similarly high positive voltage. Based solely on the fact that opposite
charges attract, the negatively charged soot particles are pulled
towards the positive electrode and stick to it.
• Occasionally these plates must be cleaned to remove the accumulated
soot and dispose it off into a hopper.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
Advantages of Electrostatic Precipitators
Disadvantages of Electrostatic Precipitators
• Extremely high particulate (coarse and fine) • High capital costs.
collection efficiencies can be attained (at a relatively • Very sensitive to fluctuations in gas stream conditions (in
low expenditure of energy).
particular, flow rates, temperatures, particulate and gas
• Dry collection and disposal. compositions and particulate loadings).
• Low pressure drop (typically less than 0.5 inch water • Certain particulates are difficult to collect due to extremely
column). high or low resistivity characteristics.
• Relatively large space requirements required for
• Designed for continuous operation with minimum
installations.
maintenance requirements.
• Explosion hazard when treating combustible gases and /or
• Relatively low operating costs. collecting combustible particulates.
• Capable of operation under high pressure (to 150 • Special precautions required to safeguard personal from the
psi) or vacuum conditions. high voltages.
• Ozone is produced by the negatively charged electrode
• Capable of operation under high temperature (to
1300° F). during gas ionization.
• Relatively sophisticated maintenance personal required.
• Relatively large gas flow rates can be effectively
handled.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
5. Wet collectors or scrubbers
• A wet scrubber or wet scrubber system is one type of scrubber that is
used to remove harmful materials from industrial exhaust gases—
known as flue gas—before they are released into the environment. It
was the original type of scrubbing system, and utilizes a wet substance
to remove acidic gases that contribute to acid rain.
• When using a wet scrubber, flue gas is funneled through an area and
sprayed with a wet substance. Water is used when dust and
particulate matter is to be removed, but other chemicals can be
added. These chemicals are chosen to specifically react with certain
airborne contaminants—generally acidic gases.
• The exhaust gas is moved through the scrubbing liquid (usually
through a chamber) and the liquid is misted through the gas. Then,
the gas emerges without the contaminants and pollutants that existed
before exposure to the scrubbing liquid. When the gas is sprayed with
the fluid, the heavier pollutants are pulled out of the gas and attach to
the liquid because of its chemical composition. As the gas is passed
through the cleaning mist, the contaminants are attracted to the mist
and left behind.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
Advantages
• These scrubbers are beneficial as they prevent a wide range of pollutants
from entering the air through the exhaust gas.
• These units are fairly sturdy and can tolerate a wide range of temperatures,
making them ideal for operation in almost any environment.
• Better collection efficiency
• Lower initial cost
Disadvantages
• Wet disposal material
• These machines require frequent maintenance, and they can suffer from
corrosion quite severely.
• Very small particulates cannot be removed.
• High power consumption.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
CONTROL OF GASEOUS CONTAMINANTS
• The control of gaseous contaminants depends on their property of reacting with other chemicals.
• Four general methods of control of gaseous contaminants are classified as follows
I. Absorption in a liquid
II. Adsorption on a solid surface
III. Condensation to a liquid
IV. Conversion into a less polluting or non-polluting gas.
1. Absorption in a Liquid
• In this method gases are passed through the absorbers containing liquid absorbents which removes the
pollutants.
• Wet scrubbers, packed tower, plate tower etc, are the equipments used in this method.
• The sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen chloride, chlorine, ammonia, oxides of nitrogen are the
contaminant gases controlled by absorption method.
• The commonly used absorption liquids are water, alkane solution, diethanolamine.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
Advantages of Absorption Systems (Packed and Plate Columns)
• Relatively low pressure drop.
• Standardization in Fibreglass Reinforced Plastic (FRP) construction permits operation in highly corrosive atmosphere.
• Capable of achieving relatively high mass-transfer efficiencies.
• Increasing the height and/or type of packing or number of plates can improve mass transfer without purchasing a new piece of
equipment.
• Relatively low capital cost.
• Relatively small space requirements.
• Ability to collect particulates as well as gases.
Disadvantages of Absorption Systems (Packed and Plate Columns)
• May create water (or liquid) disposal problem.
• Particulates deposition may cause plugging of the bed or plates.
• When FRP construction is used, it is sensitive to temperature.
• Relatively high maintenance costs.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
2. Adsorption on a Solid Surface
• Adsorption of pollutant gases is accomplished by passing effluent gases through adsorbers which contain
solids of porous structures.
• This process is strictly a surface phenomena and may take place due to molecular forces or chemical reaction
occurring at the surface.
• The sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, hydrogen fluoride are the gases controlled by this method.
• Activated carbon, alumina and silica gel are widely used adsorbents to remove the gases.

3. Condensation to a Liquid
• The vapour type discharges are controlled by condensing them to a liquid.
• These condensers are installed ahead of other pollution control equipments to remove condensable
components.
• This method is used for the following reasons:
a) To recover the valuable products,
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION
a) To remove components that might be corrosive or damaging to other equipments.
• These condensers are generally installed in petroleum refining industry, basic chemical
manufacturing industry.

4. Conversion to a Less Polluting or Non- polluting Gas

• To control the organic gaseous emissions, the widely used system is the combustion of
combustible components into water and carbon dioxide.
• Combustion processes, like flame combustion or catalytic combustion, can be utilised to
greatest advantage.
• The equipments used in this process are flame incinerators, after burners and flares.
• Other systems such as oxidation of H2S to SO2 and H2O are also used even though the
SO2 produced is still considered as pollutant. But SO2 occurs less toxic than H2S.
AIR POLLUTION CONTROL BY LEGISLATION
AND REGULATIONS
• Out of all the methods used to control the air pollution, the control
through legislation and regulation is also must.
• In the view of this, the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981
of the Government of India came into force from May 16, 1981.
• This act is seen as the first concrete step taken by the government of India
to combat air pollution.
• The Act is applicable throughout the country.
• The act provides for an integrated approach for tackling environmental
problems relating to the pollution.
• In this system, the various boards at central (CPCB) and state (SPCB) level
are set up. These boards work to control the pollution in the particular
areas.
IMPORTANCE OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR
QUALITY STANDARDS
• Air Pollutant includes any substance in solid, liquid or gaseous form present in the atmosphere in concentrations which
may tend to be injurious to all living creatures, property and environment. Various contaminants in different forms from
both man-made and natural sources perpetually enter our environment and contaminate it causing toxicity, diseases and
environmental decay. Recent industrialization and increased number of potent air polluting sources like automobiles,
landfills, etc. has gushed into the atmosphere toxic materials which not only harm human health but are also a threat to
the ecosystem in general.
• In order to arrest the deteriorating air quality, Government of India enacted Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, which
was an umbrella act for the protection of all aspects of the environment.
• The government had also enacted the Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981 with the aim of ensuring
moderated pollution concentrations and hence safe ambient air quality.
• Air pollution is a global concern. One can not merely abstain themselves from pollution at an individual level because
unlike water whose purity can be ensured before consumption, air has to be taken up in the form that it is present. Air
pollution is known to cause a lot of premature deaths, chronic asthma, decreased fertility, deteriorated property and may
lead to the hazardous acid rains too. It is hence imperative that the air pollutant concentrations are regularly monitored
and a proper inventory is maintained so that one can predict unforeseen disasters like The Great Smog of 1952 in London.
• With the aim of proper monitoring of the pollutant concentrations, the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) in1984-
1985 launched the National Ambient Air Quality Monitoring network which was later renamed as National Air Monitoring
Programme (N.A.M.P.).
IMPORTANCE OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR
QUALITY STANDARDS
The objectives of N.A.M.P. can be enlisted as follows:
• To determine the trend and status of the ambient air quality.
• To ascertain that the prescribed levels are being met or not.
• To identify the cities where the pollution concentration is higher than the prescribed levels.
• To understand and obtain knowledge for the development of preventive and corrective measures.
• To understand the ongoing natural processes of cleansing like dispersion, dilution, dry deposition, wind-
based movements, chemical transformation and precipitation.

The objectives of National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) is:

• To indicate necessary air quality levels and appropriate margins required to ensure the protection of
vegetation, health and property.
• To provide assistance in the establishment of priorities for abatement and control of pollution.
• To provide a uniform yardstick for assessment of air quality at the national level.
• To indicate the extent and need of monitoring programme.
Note: Six criteria pollutants are Sulphur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter, carbon monoxide, lead and ozone.
IMPORTANCE OF NATIONAL AMBIENT AIR
QUALITY STANDARDS
Measurement of air pollution
Sampling Methods
• In order to analyze air quality, we need to take samples of the ambient air
without modifying its chemical composition. In order to avoid microscale effects,
free air movement around the measurement site has to be provided. On the
other hand, the sample inlet must be protected against rainfall and dust that can
largely influence measurement data.
• A sampling system thus has to fulfil the following criterias (Air Quality Sampling
Manual 1997):
Built from materials that do not react with the pollutants to be observed,
Located in a place where free air movement is provided,
Protect the sample from rainwater, dust and insects,
Reliable with low maintenance requirements,
Resistant against elements and wildlife.
Measurement of air pollution
• Sampling time interval depends largely on the aim of the measurement.
• Long-term average concentration studies require samples collected during a certain time period, mostly on a
daily or longer basis. This batch sampling method provides accurate results of average concentration for a
period equal or longer than the sampling interval however, cannot estimate concentration fluctuations on a
finer temporal resolution.
• To obtain hourly or even finer concentration data, a continuous monitoring is needed where sampling is
either continuous in time or performed with a very fine (1-10 s) time interval. Continuous monitoring is
usually carried out in air quality investigations for public protection purposes, especially in urban areas.
• Thus, measurement methods can be classified as batch measurement or continuous measurement.
• Depending on the measured quantity, either passive or active sampling can be used. Passive sampling does
not involve any pumping, thus the pollutants only reach the container through their own movement and
diffusion.
• Passive sampling is an efficient tool to estimate deposition; however, concentration measurement requires a
well- defined volume flux of air pumped through the measurement device, often referred to as active
sampling.
Measurement of air pollution
• Measurement method is broadly classified as:
• Passive measurement:
• Passive devices are relatively simple and low-cost. They work by soaking up or otherwise passively collecting a sample of
the ambient air, which then has to be analyzed in a laboratory. One of the most common forms of passive measurement is
the diffusion tube, which looks similar to a laboratory test tube and is fastened to something like a lamp post to absorb
one or more specific pollutant gases of interest. After a period of time, the tube is taken down and sent to a laboratory for
analysis.
• Active measurement:
• Active measurement devices are more automated, complex, and sophisticated, though not always more sensitive or
reliable. They use fans to suck in the air, filter it, and either analyze it automatically there and then or collect and store it
for later analysis in a laboratory. Active sensors use either physical or chemical methods. Physical methods measure an air
sample without changing it, for example, by seeing how much of a certain wavelength of light it absorbs. Chemical
methods change the sample in some way, through a chemical reaction, and measure that. Most automated air-quality
sensors are examples of active measurement.
• It can also be classified as manual measurement or automatic measurement. Automatic measurement includes UV
fluorescence, chemiluminescence, Non dispersive IR spectroscopy, TEOM, Beta attenuation etc. Manual measurement
includes improved West and Geake method, chemical method, gravimetric method etc.
Measurement of air pollution
• Most commonly used methods for measurement of air pollutants are given
below:
• Sulphur dioxide (SO2): It is determined by fluorescent signal developed by
exciting SO2 under UV light.
• Nitrogen oxide (NOx): It is determined by the chemiluminescent reaction of NOx
and 03.
• Ozone (O3): It is calculated by attenuation of 254 nm UV light on absorpted gas.
• Carbon monoxide (CO): It is measured by using IR photometer.
• Methane and NMHC: It determined by having flame ionization detector.
• Particulate matter (PM-2.5, PM-10, TSP) - Here beta attenuation is used for
calculating 30 minute or 1 hr average concentration.
• Volatile organic compounds (VOC): It is determined using gas chromatography
and photoionization detector.
Acid rain
• Acid rain, or acid deposition, is a broad term that includes any form of precipitation with acidic components,
such as sulfuric or nitric acid that fall to the ground from the atmosphere in wet or dry forms. This can
include rain, snow, fog, hail or even dust that is acidic.
• Acid rain results when sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) are emitted into the atmosphere and
transported by wind and air currents. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen and other chemicals to form
sulfuric and nitric acids. These then mix with water and other materials before falling to the ground.
• Normal rain has a pH of about 5.6; it is slightly acidic because carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolves into it forming
weak carbonic acid. Acid rain usually has a pH between 4.2 and 4.4.
• While a small portion of the SO2 and NOX that cause acid rain is from natural sources such as volcanoes,
most of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels. The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
• Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity. Two thirds of SO2 and one fourth of NOX in the atmosphere
come from electric power generators.
• Vehicles and heavy equipment.
• Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
• Winds can blow SO2 and NOX over long distances and across borders making acid rain a problem for
everyone and not just those who live close to these sources.
Greenhouse effect
• Greenhouse effect is the process by which radiations from the sun are absorbed by the greenhouse gases
and not reflected back into space. This insulates the surface of the earth and prevents it from freezing.
• During the day the sun heats up the earth’s atmosphere. At night, when the earth cools down the heat is
radiated back into the atmosphere. During this process, the heat is absorbed by the greenhouse gases in the
earth’s atmosphere. This is what makes the surface of the earth warmer, that makes the survival of living
beings on earth possible.
• However, due to the increased levels of greenhouse gases, the temperature of the earth has increased
considerably. This has led to several drastic effects.
• Greenhouse gases are the gases that absorb the infrared radiations and create a greenhouse effect. For eg.,
carbondioxide and chlorofluorocarbons. The major greenhouse gases are:
1) Carbon dioxide
2) Methane
3) Water
4) Nitrous oxide
5) Ozone
6) Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
Greenhouse effect
• The Kyoto Protocol was adopted on 11 December 1997. Owing to a complex ratification process, it entered
into force on 16 February 2005. Currently, there are 192 Parties to the Kyoto Protocol.
• In short, the Kyoto Protocol operationalizes the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
by committing industrialized countries and economies in transition to limit and reduce greenhouse gases
(GHG) emissions in accordance with agreed individual targets. The Convention itself only asks those
countries to adopt policies and measures on mitigation and to report periodically.
• The major causes of the greenhouse effect are:
• Burning of Fossil Fuels: Fossil fuels are an important part of our lives. They are widely used in transportation
and to produce electricity. Burning of fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide. With the increase in population,
the utilization of fossil fuels has increased. This has led to an increase in the release of greenhouse gases in
the atmosphere.
• Deforestation: Plants and trees take in carbon dioxide and release oxygen. Due to the cutting of trees, there
is a considerable increase in the greenhouse gases which increases the earth’s temperature.
• Farming: Nitrous oxide used in fertilizers is one of the contributors to the greenhouse effect in the
atmosphere.
• Industrial Waste and Landfills: The industries and factories produce harmful gases which are released in the
atmosphere. Landfills also release carbon dioxide and methane that adds to the greenhouse gases.
Greenhouse effect
• The main effects of increased greenhouse gases are:
• Global Warming: It is the phenomenon of a gradual increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s atmosphere. The main
cause for this environmental issue is the increased volumes of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane released
by the burning of fossil fuels, emissions from the vehicles, industries and other human activities.
• Depletion of Ozone Layer: Ozone Layer protects the earth from harmful ultraviolet rays from the sun. It is found in the upper
regions of the stratosphere. The depletion of the ozone layer results in the entry of the harmful UV rays to the earth’s surface
that might lead to skin cancer and can also change the climate drastically. The major cause of this phenomenon is the
accumulation of natural greenhouse gases including chlorofluorocarbons, carbon dioxide, methane, etc.
• Smog and Air Pollution: Smog is formed by the combination of smoke and fog. It can be caused both by natural means and man-
made activities. In general, smog is generally formed by the accumulation of more greenhouse gases including nitrogen and
sulfur oxides. The major contributors to the formation of smog are automobile and industrial emissions, agricultural fires,
natural forest fires and the reaction of these chemicals among themselves.
• Acidification of Water Bodies: Increase in the total amount of greenhouse gases in the air has turned most of the world’s water
bodies acidic. The greenhouse gases mix with the rainwater and fall as acid rain. This leads to the acidification of water bodies.
Also, the rainwater carries the contaminants along with it and falls into the river, streams and lakes thereby causing their
acidification.
• Runaway Greenhouse Effect: Increasing the greenhouse effect gives rise to a runaway greenhouse effect which would increase
the temperature of the earth to such an extent that no life will exist in the near future.
Indoor Air pollutants
• Asbestos: Because of its fiber strength and heat resistance it has been used in a variety of building
construction materials for insulation and as a fire-retardant. Building materials: Roofing shingles, Ceiling and
floor tiles, Paper products, Asbestos cement etc.
• Biological Pollutants: Biological contaminants include bacteria, viruses, animal dander and cat saliva, house
dust, mites, cockroaches, and pollen. There are many sources of these pollutants. By controlling the relative
humidity level in a home, the growth of some sources of biologicals can be minimized. A relative humidity of
30-50 percent is generally recommended for homes. Standing water, water-damaged materials or wet
surfaces also serve as a breeding ground for molds, mildews, bacteria and insects. House dust mites, the
source of one of the most powerful biological allergens, grow in damp, warm environments.
• Carbon Monoxide (CO): Sources of CO include: unvented kerosene and gas space heaters; leaking chimneys
and furnaces; back-drafting from furnaces, gas water heaters, wood stoves and fireplaces; gas stoves;
generators and other gasoline powered equipment; automobile exhaust from attached garages; tobacco
smoke; auto, truck, or bus exhaust from attached garages, nearby roads, or parking areas; incomplete
oxidation during combustion in gas ranges, and unvented gas or kerosene heaters; worn or poorly adjusted
and maintained combustion devices.
Indoor Air pollutants
• Cookstoves: More than 40% of the world’s population—2.4 billion people—cook their food and light and heat their homes
by burning coal and biomass fuels, including wood, charcoal, kerosene, dung, and crop residues, with open fires or
rudimentary stoves. Burning solid fuels indoors for these household energy needs releases dangerous particulate matter,
carbon monoxide, and other toxic pollutants, leading to indoor air pollution levels that are often 20 times greater than the
World Health Organization’s (WHO) air quality guidelines.
• Formaldehyde/Pressed Wood Products: Formaldehyde is an important chemical used widely by industry to manufacture
building materials and numerous household products. It is also a by-product of combustion and certain other natural
processes. Formaldehyde can cause irritation of the skin, eyes, nose and throat. High levels of exposure may cause some
types of cancers.
• Lead (Pb): Humans may be exposed to lead by eating and drinking food or water containing lead or from dishes or glasses
that contain lead, inhaling lead dust from lead-based paint or lead-contaminated soil or from playing with toys with lead
paint. Before it was known how harmful lead could be, it was used in paint, gasoline, water pipes, and many other
products.
• Nitrogen Dioxide (NO2): The primary sources indoors are combustion processes, such as:
• unvented combustion appliances, e.g. gas stoves; vented appliances with defective installations; welding; tobacco smoke;
kerosene heaters.
Indoor Air pollutants
• Pesticides: Products used to kill household pests (insecticides, termiticides and disinfectants); Products used on lawns and gardens
that drift or are tracked inside the house.
• Radon (Rn): The main source of indoor radon is radon gas infiltration from soil into buildings. Rock and soil produce radon gas.
Building materials, the water supply, and natural gas can all be sources of radon in the home. Smoking, radon, and secondhand
smoke are the leading causes of lung cancer.
• Indoor Particulate Matter: PM found indoors will include particles of outdoor origin that migrate indoors and particles that
originate from indoor sources. Indoor PM can be generated through cooking, combustion activities (including burning of candles,
use of fireplaces, use of unvented space heaters or kerosene heaters, cigarette smoking) and some hobbies. Indoor PM can also be
of biological origin.
• Secondhand Smoke/ Environmental Tobacco Smoke: Secondhand smoke is a mixture of the smoke given off by the burning of
tobacco products, such as cigarettes, cigars or pipes and the smoke exhaled by smokers. Secondhand smoke is also called
environmental tobacco smoke (ETS).
• Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs): Household products, including:
• paints, paint strippers and other solvents; wood preservatives; aerosol sprays; cleansers and disinfectants; moth repellents and air
fresheners; stored fuels and automotive products; hobby supplies; dry-cleaned clothing; pesticide.
• Other products, including: building materials and furnishings; office equipment such as copiers and printers, correction fluids and
carbonless copy paper; graphics and craft materials including glues and adhesives, permanent markers and photographic solutions.
• Wood Smoke: Many old, pot-bellied wood stoves are still functioning to provide warmth and a cooking fire in tribal communities.