Further Maths AS Pure Year 12

Matrices and Transformations 7 Make sure that you know the general rotation
matrix The matrix for a rotation of
Invariance, Determinants and
1 Check answers carefully It’s easy to make careless anticlockwise about the origin is, Inverses
mistakes in matrix arithmetic.
1 Remember that the origin is always an invariant
2 Make sure that you can do matrix multiplication
confidently This is fundamental to all work on
point for a linear transformation Either the origin
is the only invariant point, or there are an infinite
and that you can recognise it even if cos and/or
matrices. sin are negative. Check that you can find the number of invariant points which all lie on the
angle of rotation from the matrix, including same straight line – a line of invariant points.
3 Remember that matrix multiplication is not
cases where the angle is not in the first
commutative In general, AB ≠ BA. This is an easy
mistake to make as we are all used to ordinary quadrant. 2 Make sure that you know the difference between
a line of invariant points and an invariant line An
multiplication being commutative. invariant point is a point which is mapped to itself,
8 Remember the useful result about the columns
of a matrix The image of the point I (1, 0) gives so a line of invariant points is a line of points each
4 Make sure that you are familiar with the matrices
for simple transformations You need to know the the first column of the matrix, and the image of of which is mapped to itself. An invariant line is a
the point J (0, 1) gives the second column of the line of points each of which is mapped to a point
matrices for reflection in the x axis, the y axis and
matrix. which is also on the line (not necessarily itself). A
the lines y = x and y = -x, and the matrices for
line of invariant points is, of course, also an
rotation through 90° or 180° about the origin. All
these look a bit similar, with 0s, 1s and –1s, so 9 Make sure you multiply matrices in the correct
order for composite transformations
invariant line.
make sure that you can work out what they are Remember that “transformation A followed by
with a quick diagram if you’re not sure. transformation B” is represented by the matrix
BA.
3 Remember the rule for the inverse of a matrix
product For square matrices M and
5 Make sure that you are also familiar with the
matrices for enlargement and two-way stretches
These are quite easy to remember, with the
numbers on the leading diagonal giving you the
scale factors, and zeros in the other two positions. 4 Make sure you understand the significance of a
zero determinant for a matrix transformation For
a matrix with zero determinant, all points on the
6 Make sure that you understand how a shear is
defined A shear has a fixed line (in the cases you
plane are mapped to a straight line through the
origin, and each set of object points which are
will meet the fixed line will be either the x-axis or
mapped to a single image point all lie on a straight
the y-axis). The shear can be defined by giving the
line.
fixed line and the image of a point not on the line.
The shear factor is the distance moved by a point
divided by its perpendicular distance from the
fixed line.
 Further Maths AS Pure Year 12

Complex Numbers Roots of Polynomials Conics

1 Always simplify i² Remember that when
you are working with complex numbers,
1 Check your algebra The most common
problem in this topic is mistakes with
1 Learn the equations of the conics You need
to know the equations of the standard
you should always simplify i² to -1. algebra. The algebra can be quite parabola, ellipse, hyperbola and
complicated, but if you can do this then it rectangular hyperbola. Also make sure you
2 Remember that zz* is always real In
particular, remember that you can use this
will help you in all areas of mathematics. know where they cross the axes, and in the
case of the hyperbola, the equations of the
in dividing complex numbers.
2 Make sure that you have learnt the
relationships between roots and
asymptotes.
3 Make sure that you know the condition
for equality For two complex numbers to
coefficients In particular, make sure that you
2 Make sure you know how to deal with
remember the pattern of alternating signs in transformations You need to be able to
be equal, the real parts must be equal and
the relationships between roots and work with translations, stretches and
the imaginary parts must be equal.
coefficients. reflections in the lines y x and y x
4 Make sure that you can plot complex
numbers correctly on the Argand diagram 3 Be careful with the Σ notation In particular,
3 Make sure that you know how to find out
make sure that you know how many terms whether a line crosses a curve Substituting
Remember in particular that the points z
are involved in each case: for example, for a the equation of a straight line into the
and z* are reflections of each other in the x
cubic then Σαβ has three terms, but for a equation of a conic gives you a quadratic
axis, and that the points z and –z are
quartic Σαβ has six terms. equation to solve. If this quadratic equation
rotations of each other through 180° about
has two roots, then the line crosses the
the origin.
4 Remember that complex roots of
polynomial equations with real coefficients
conic once. If it has a repeated root, the
5 Make sure that you know how to show
addition and subtraction in the Argand
always occur in conjugate pairs This means
line touches the conic (i.e. it is a tangent). If
it has no real roots, then the line does not
that if you know one complex root, then you
diagram You need to understand that a meet the conic.
know another one. Note: this does not apply
complex number can be represented not
if the coefficients of the equation are not
only by a point in the Argand diagram, but
real!
alternatively by a vector.
5 Make sure that you can divide a polynomial
by a linear or quadratic factor This is
covered in AS Mathematics – look back at
this work if you need to.

6 Check your work carefully It is easy to make

mistakes in the algebra when solving
polynomial equations.
 Further Maths AS Pure Year 12

Hyperbolic Functions Summing Series Proof by Induction

1 Don’t get mixed up between the
properties of the hyperbolic functions and
1 Make sure you have the correct left-over
terms when using the method of 1 Understand the concept Make sure that
you really understand the principle behind
the circular functions In particular, don’t differences After most of the terms cancel proof by induction. The Notes and
mix up: out, the left over terms may not necessarily Examples should help.
be the first and the last, and there may be
more than two. You need to write out the 2 Always think about what you are aiming
2 Make sure you know the graphs of the
hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic
first few terms and the last few terms in full for! When you take the assumed result for
n = k and add on the (k + 1)th term, you
to spot the pattern.
functions Make sure that you can want to rearrange this to get the formula
remember the graphs for sinh x, cosh x and
tanh x. You can use these to find the graphs
2 Check your answer by substituting for n
Whether using the method of differences or
for n = k + 1. It may help to actually write
down the result you are looking for.
of the inverse hyperbolic functions. standard results to find a sum of the first n
terms of a series, it is a good idea to 3 Be careful with algebraic manipulation It is
3 Remember that the graph of cosh x is
symmetrical about the y-axis This means
substitute n = 1, and perhaps n = 2 as well, to easy to make mistakes. Thinking about the
result you are aiming for (see above) often
check your result.
that there are two values of x for every helps, as it may give you a clue about what
possible value of cosh x. Remember that
using the logarithmic formula for the
3 Factorise where possible When using
standard results, there can be quite a lot of
factors you could take out.

inverse cosh function will give you just the algebra involved in simplifying the result. 4 Make sure that you write out the proof
correctly Remember that there are three
positive value for x. Make sure you take out any common factors
first, as this makes the algebra a lot simpler. steps involved, and you will lose marks if
4 Be careful when evaluating inverse
hyperbolic functions You sometimes need
you don’t, for example, write down the
conclusion of the argument (Step 3).
to deal with some quite complicated Maclaurin Series
logarithmic functions when using the
inverse hyperbolic functions. It is very easy 1 Be careful when substituting into standard
Maclaurin series Remember that if you are
to make careless mistakes, so always check
your work. If your calculator has the finding, for example, 2 e x by substituting 2x
hyperbolic functions on it, you can use it to into the standard series, that you must find
double-check your answer. (2x)², (2x)³ etc: remember to find the power
of 2 as well as the power of x!

2 Remember that some of the standard

series are valid only for certain values of x
The ranges of validity are given in your
formula book.
 Further Maths AS Pure Year 12

Volume of Revolution Further Complex Numbers Loci in the Complex Plane

1 Don’t forget the π in the volume of
revolution formula Remember the formulae:
1 Be very careful when you find the argument of a
complex number Always decide first which
1 You should recognise equations and inequalities which
represent circles Any set of points of the form |z – (a +
quadrant the complex number is in, and remember bi)| = r is represented by a circle, centre a + bi, radius r.
that when you have worked out the value of
on your calculator, 2 You should recognise equations and inequalities which
represent perpendicular bisectors Any set of points of
the form
2 Make sure that you use the correct limits of
integration Remember that if you are rotating
this will only be correct for complex numbers in
the first and fourth quadrant. For the second
about the x-axis, the limits of integration must quadrant, you need to add π, and for the third
be x-coordinates, and if you are rotating about is represented by the perpendicular bisector of the line
quadrant you need to subtract π. It’s a good idea to
the yaxis, the limits of integration must be y- joining the points a + bi and c + di. Don’t mix this up with
make a rough sketch of the number on an Argand
coordinates. the circle locus!
diagram, so you can ‘see’ the argument.

3 Remember to integrate with respect to the 3 Make sure you show sets of points involving the
argument correctly Remember that for the set of points
correct variable You need to substitute for x²
or y² to do this. Example Find the volume of
revolution of y = x² about the x-axis between x the set of points is a half-line starting from the point z = a
= 0 and x = 1 + bi. However the point z = a + bi is not included and
should be shown by an open circle.

2 Use the modulus-argument form correctly

Remember that the modulus-argument form of a 4 Use the correct range for the argument Remember that
the possible values of arg z are given by
complex number must be of the form
with r positive. Make sure when drawing sets of points of the form
or

that you use the correct range for the argument.

5 Be careful with inequalities A set of points defined using

an inequality represents a region. Remember that if < or >
are used, the boundary of the region (a circle or a line) is
not included and should be shown as a dotted line, but if
≤ or ≥ are used, the boundary is included and should be
shown as a solid line.
 Further Maths AS Pure Year 12

Polar Coordinates and Curves Rational Functions Inequalities

1 Make sure you plot polar coordinates
correctly Always make sure that you check
1 Factorise where possible Make sure that you
always factorise both the numerator and the
1 Be careful to use the correct inequality
sign in your answers If the question
whether Ѳ is positive or negative. denominator if possible, and if they are not involves < or >, the solution set should
already given in factorised form. If you don’t, involve < or >. However, be careful when
2 Make sure you change Cartesian
coordinates into polar coordinates
you may miss vertical asymptotes or points the question involves ≤ or ≥, as sometimes
where the graph cuts the x axis. the answer may involve < or > (see point 2
correctly When finding Ѳ, make sure that
below).
you know which quadrant the point is in.
2 Put all the information that you have on to

3 Make sure that you sketch polar graphs

your initial sketch Remember when
completing the sketch that the graph cannot
2 Watch out for points where the function is
undefined Points which are undefined,
correctly Look for any points at which r is
cross the x axis at any point other than the such as at an asymptote, must not be
zero or takes its maximum or minimum
points which you found in Step 1. included in your solution set.
value. Decide whether r is increasing or
decreasing between these points.
3 Don’t be too hasty in completing the sketch
Make sure that there is only one possible
3 Remember that you cannot multiply
through by a quantity which may be
way in which you can do it. If there isn’t, positive or negative You can’t multiply
then obtain the extra information you need, through by an expression such as (x – 3),
such as the sign of y near the asymptotes. which is positive for some values of x and
negative for others. However, you could
4 Make sure that you know how to find a
turning point without using calculus
multiply through by a quantity such as (x –
3)² which is always positive – but if you do,
Remember that at a local maximum or
remember that in this case x = 3 must be
minimum point, the graph touches a
excluded from the solution set.
horizontal line y = k, so the equation f(x) = k
(rearranged to form a quadratic in x) has a
repeated root.
4 Watch out for points where a function
becomes zero but does not change sign If
you want to solve an inequality of the form
f(x) ≥ 0, an isolated point where the graph
of y = f(x) touches the x axis must be
included. For example, to solve the
inequality (x + 1)²(x – 2) ≥ 0, the graph
below shows that x ≥ 2 is part of the
Mr Kendall’s calculators can draw solution, but x = -1 is also part of the
solution, since y = 0 when x = -1.
each and every one of these!
 Further Maths AS Pure Year 12

Scalar Product The Vector Equation of a Line 5 Make sure that you can identify points on a line correctly Students often think
that if a particular point lies on a line, then scalar multiples of that point also lie
1 Remember that the scalar
product of perpendicular vectors 1 Make sure you understand the relationship between
vector and cartesian equations of lines:
on the same line. This is not normally the case (except for lines passing through
the origin – can you see why?)
is zero To show that two vectors
are perpendicular just show that
the scalar (or dot) product of the
vectors is 0.

2 Draw diagrams to make sure

that you are using the right
vectors If you want to find angle 2 Make sure you know how to find the angle between
two lines To find the angle between two lines simply
ABC , the diagram below shows find the angle between the two direction vectors.
that you need to work out the
angle between the vectors BA 3 Remember to watch your signs when converting 6 Make sure you use different symbols to represent the parameters in the
equations of different lines This must be done in order to avoid confusion. If
and BC between the vector and cartesian equations of a
line. the same symbol were used it would imply that the parameters in each line
always have equal values, which is certainly not true. Different symbols are
used for the parameters to indicate that they are separate values.

4 Be careful when writing down the Cartesian 7 Remember that shortest distances always involve perpendicular lines The
shortest distance from a point to a line is the length of a line segment
equation of a line which has one or two zeros in the
direction vector. perpendicular to the line, from the point to the line. The shortest distance
between two skew lines is the length of a line perpendicular to both lines.

8 Remember that the distance between two parallel lines is the same as the
distance from any point on one line to the other line You cannot use the
formula for the distance between two skew lines to find the distance between
two parallel lines, since the vector product of parallel vectors is zero. Instead,
remember that the distance between two parallel lines is the distance from
any point on one line to the other line, and use the formula for the distance of
a point from a line.