SG With Answers - 21.2.2023

Subject : 191EE546 - Introduction to Smart Grid
PART – A (UNIT – I & UNIT-II)
1. Which of the following elements of electrical engineering cannot be analyzed

using Ohm’s law?
a) Capacitors b) Inductors c) Transistors d) Resistance
Answer: c
Explanation: Ohm’s law cannot be used for unilateral networks as such
networks only allow current flow in one direction. Transistor forms a unilateral
network. Thus, Ohm’s law cannot be used on Transistors.
2. How many cycles will an AC signal make in 2 seconds if its frequency is 100
Hz?
a) 50 b) 100 c) 150 d) 200
Answer: d
Explanation: In electrical engineering, the frequency represents the ratio of the
number of cycles to the total time. Since frequency is given as 100 Hz and
an the
time is 2 sec thus a total of 200 cycles will be made.
3. Voltage across the 60ohm resistor is______
a) 72V b) 0V c) 48V d) 120V

Answer: b
Explanation: The 60ohm resistance is shorted since current always
always choses the
low resistance path. Voltage across short circuit is equal to zero, hence voltage
across the resistor is 0.
4. Find the voltage across the 6 ohm resistor.
a) 150V b) 181.6V c) 27.27V d) 54.48V

Answer: c
191EE546 - INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID CAT – I (Materials) S.T. Subha Page 1

Explanation: Total current I = 150/(6+12+15) = (150/33)V.
V across 6 ohm = 6*I = 6*(150/33)V = 27.27V.
5. If there are two bulbs connected in series and one blows out, what happens to
the other bulb?
a) The other bulb continues to glow with the same
sam brightness
b) The other bulb stops glowing
c) The other bulb glows with increased brightness
d) The other bulb also burns out
Answer: b
Explanation: Since the two bulbs are connected in series, if the first bulb burns
out there is a break in the circuit and hence the second bulb does not glow.
6. If two bulbs are connected in parallel and one bulb blows out, what happens
to the other bulb?
a) The other bulb blows out as well
b) The other bulb continues to glow with the same brightness
c) The other bulb glows
ows with increased brightness
d) The other bulb stops glowing
Answer: b
Explanation: If one bulb blows out, it acts as an open circuit. Current does not
flow in that branch but it continues to flow in the other branch of the parallel
circuit. Hence the other
er bulb continues to glow. Also the voltage across other
bulb remains the same due to which power delivered to it remains the same so it
continues to glow with the same brightness.
7. Calculate the current across the 20 ohm resistor.
a) 10A b) 20A c) 6.67A d) 36.67A

Answer: a
Explanation: I = V/R. Since in parallel circuit, voltage is same across all
resistors. Hence across the 20 ohm resistor, V=200V so I=200/20=10A.

8. 1. The SI unit of electrical energy is ____________
a) kilojoule (KJ) b) joules (J) c) watt (W) d) kilowatt
(KW)
Answer: b
Explanation: Electric energy is defined as the total electric work done or energy
supplied by the source of emf in maintaining the current in an electric circuit for
a given time. The SI unit of electrical energy is joule (J). The commercial unit
of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
9. 1 kWh = ___________
a) 3.6 × 106 J b) 3.6 × 105 J c) 0.36 × 106 J d) 0.36 × 105 J
Answer: a
Explanation: The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt-hour (kWh).
1 kWh = 1000 Wh = 3.6 × 106J = one unit of electricity consumed. The
electric energy used in factories, industries and houses are measured in kWh.
10. Calculate the number of units of electricity used if a bulb of 100 W is kept
on for 5 hours.
a) 1 unit b) 0.1 unit c) 5 unit d) 0.5 unit
Answer: d
Explanation: The number of units of electricity consumed is
n = (total wattage × time in hour)/1000
Total wattage = 100 W; Time in hour = 5 hours
Therefore, n = (100×5)/1000 = 0.5 units
So, the number of units of electricity consumed is 0.5 units.
11. You bought 5 new light bulbs of 50 W each; in addition to the 7 bulbs you
already had in your house which is 50 W each. Calculate your electricity bill, if
you keep the new bulbs on for 5 hours and the older bulbs on only for 3 hours,
and the cost of one unit of electricity is Rs. 10.
a) Rs. 36 b) Rs. 35 c) Rs. 23 d) Rs. 39
Answer: c
Explanation: New bulbs = 5; Old bulbs = 7; Total wattage of new bulbs = 5 ×
50;
Total wattage of old bulbs = 7 × 50; Time the new bulbs are kept on = 5 hours;
Time the old bulbs are kept on = 3 hours
The number of units of electricity consumed by new bulbs (n1) = (total wattage
× time in hours)/1000
= (50×5×5)/1000 = 1.25
The number of units of electricity consumed by old bulbs (n2)
= (50×7×3)/1000 = 1.05
Total bill of electricity = number of units of electricity consumed × amount for

one unit of electricity
= (n1 + n2) × 10 = (1.25 + 1.05) × 10 = 23
Therefore, his electricity bill will be Rs. 23.
12. Identify the correct formula of electric power.

a) Electric power = time taken / electric work done
b) Electric power = electric work done / time taken
c) Electric power = electric work done × time taken
d) Electric power = 1/electricworkdone
Answer: b
Explanation: Electric power is defined as the rate at which work is done by the
source of emf in maintaining the current in the electric circuit. So, the formula
of electric power is:
Electric power (P) = electric work done / time taken
13. Which one of the following is the practical unit of power?

a) Watt (W) b) Kilowatt hour (kWh) c) Horse power (hp) d)
Kilojoule (kJ)
Answer: c
Explanation: The practical unit of power is horse power (hp). Kilo watt is also
another practical unit of power. 1 kilowatt = 1000 watt; 1 hp = 746 watt. It is
usually used in reference to the output of engines or motors.
14. A power system will have greater flexibility of operation if they have
__________
a) Only Base load plants operating in combination
b) Various types of power plants operating in combination
c) Only Peak load plants operating in combination
d) Only thermal power plants operating in combination
Answer: b
Explanation: If various types of power plants are operated in combination, the
system will become more flexible i.e Steam and Nuclear power plants will
supply base loads, Hydroelectric power plants will supply base or peak loads
depending upon the availability of water, Gas turbine power plant will meet

peak load demand and existing Diesel power plant will operate in emergency
only.
15. Which of the following power plants can be profitably employed for
supplying base loads as well as peak loads?
a) Diesel power plant b) Hydroelectric power plant
c) Thermal power plant d) Nuclear power plant
Answer: b
Explanation: Seam and Nuclear power plants are only used to supply base load.
Diesel power plants are suitable for only peak load. Only hydroelectric power
plant can supply both peak load as well as base load because of its flexibility in
operation and low operating cost.
16. Which of the following is an essential requirement for a peak load plant?
a) Economical and speedy repair b) Capability of working continuously
c) Low operating cost d) Capability of quick start
Answer: d
Explanation: The power plants to be employed as peak load plant should only
have the capability of quick start, synchronization and taking up of system load
and quick response to load variations.
17. The area under the load curve represents ____________

a) maximum demand b) load factor
c) the average load on power system d) number of units generated
Answer: d
Explanation: Load curve is obtained by plotting fluctuating load be keeping
load on y axis and time in x axis. The area under the load curve represents the
total number of units generated in a particular time.
18. When load factor and diversity factor increases ___________

a) cost of electricity decreases
b) cost of electricity also increases
c) cost of electricity remains same
d) cost of electricity increases exponential
Answer: a
Explanation: Load factor and diversity factor plays an important role in cost of
supply of electrical energy. Higher the value of load factor and diversity factor,
lower will be the cost per unit generated.
Load Factor = Average Load / Maximum Demand

Diversity Factor = Sum of individual maximum demands / Maximum demand
on the power station
19. Which of the following has highest diversity factor?

a) Domestic lightning b) Commercial lightning
c) Industrial power d) Domestic power
Answer: a
Explanation: Diversity factor of all of the options ranges from 1.5 to 2. The
diversity factor of domestic lightning upto 1 kilowatt ranges from 3 to 5.
20. A system that integrates several types of power sources (wind turbines,
hydro, photovoltaics, and batteries) to give a reliable overall power supply is
termed as
A. Virtual Power Plant B. Micro Grid C. Macro Grid

D. Traditional Grid
Ans: d
21. Smart Grid Technology comprises the following:
a. AMI, PLM, OMS, Renewable Integration
b. DR/DSM, Distributed Automation, Energy Efficient systems
c. All the above d. None of the above
Ans: c
[AMI - Advanced Metering Infrastructure
PLM - Peak Load Management
OMS - Outage Management System
DR/DSM – Demand Response / Demand Side Management]
22. Smart meter is an important element in building the smart grid. These
advanced meters
a. Measure electricity usage in real time
b. can send data and from electric companies and their customers

c. Allows companies to give consumers more information about their electricity
usage and communicate current electricity prices.
d. All the above
Ans: d
23. Smart Grid Technologies are aimed at improvement of
a. Only Power Transmission system b. Only Power Distribution

System
c. Both Power Transmission and Distribution System
d. Neither Power Transmission nor Distribution System
Ans: C
24. In a Smart Grid ECO System, a normal consumer is expected to be able to

turn into a
a. non-consumer b. careful consumer c. Prosumer
d. Both careful consumer and Prosumer
Ans: d
[A prosumer is an individual who both consumes and produces.]
25. AMI means
a. Automated Metering Instrument b. Alternate Metering Instrument
c. Advanced Metering Infrastructure d. Advanced Metering Instrument
Ans: C
26. PLM means
a. Peak Load Management b. Plant Load Management
c. Power Leakage Management d. Plant Leakage Management
Ans: a
27. OMS means:

a. Overall Maintenance System b. Overall Management System
c. Outage Management System d. Outage Maintenance System
Ans: C
28. In a power system, due to interconnection or Grid formation and

transmission line redundancy, the ability to serve all power demands without
failure over long periods of time, is due to
a. Power system quality b. Power system reliability
c. Computers and microprocessors d. Reserve generating capacity
Ans: b
29. Opportunities of smart grid
A. Cyber Security in future B. Optimal Power Flow
C. Defence Model D. All the above
Answer: D
30. What is not true for smart grid in comparison with conventional power grid?
a. two way communication
b. continuous monitoring and feedback from the grid
c. fault finding and real time pricing is possible
d. cannot support integration of renewable energy sources
Ans: d
31. A transmission and distribution engineer needed to design the sub

transmission substation. The tapping component needed will be
_______________
a) feeder b) distributor c) transmitter d) tap-changing
transformer
Answer: a
Explanation: A feeder is a type of transmission line. In addition Feeders are the
power lines through which electricity is transmitted in power systems. Feeder
transmits power from Generating station or substation to the distribution points.

For the sub transmission level, there is no tapping at various level does not take
place. For this a feeder is used.
32. While designing the distribution to locality of one lac population with
medium dense load requirement, we can employ ___________
a) radial system b) parallel system c) ring main system d) any of
the mentioned
Answer: a
Explanation: A radial system is used for the medium requirement of loading and
a medium dense population as it becomes easier to install and operate.
33. A _________ distribution system is more reliable than the ______

distribution system.
a) parallel, radial b) parallel, ring c) radial, parallel d) ring, parallel
Answer: a
Explanation: A parallel distribution system has two end feeding and an
alternative of parallel line, so in case there is a fault, the isolator can isolate the
faulty part and let the healthy system operate.
34. What is the advantage of sectionalizing of power plant?

a) High reliability b) Low capital cost c) Low maintenance d) Easy
operation
Answer: a
Explanation: Sectionalizing means installing more number of small units rather
than installing a big unit. Doing so enables us to maintain continuity of supply
from rest of the units, when one or two units of plant fails, this makes the plant
more reliable.
35. The area under the load curve represents ____________

a) the average load on power system b) maximum demand c) number of
units generated
d) load factor
Answer: c
Explanation: Load curve is obtained by plotting fluctuating load be keeping
load on y axis and time in x axis. The area under the load curve represents the
total number of units generated in a particular time.
36. Which of the following is equal to the maximum demand?

a) The ratio of area under curve to the total area of rectangle
b) The ratio of area under curve and number of hours
c) The peak of the load curve
d) The area under the curve
Answer: c
Explanation: The ratio of area under curve to the total area of the rectangle is
called load factor. The ratio of area under the curve to the number of hours
represents the average load. The peak of the curve represents the maximum
demand.
37. Load duration curve indicates _______

a) the variation of load during different hours of the day
b) total number of units generated for the given demand
c) total energy consumed by the load
d) the number of hours for which the particular load lasts during a day
Answer: d
Explanation: The variation of load during different hours of the day is shown by
load curve. Load duration curve is different from Load curve. Load duration
curve indicates the variation of the load, but with the load arranged in
descending order of magnitude. Load duration curve give the number of hours
for which a particular load lasts during a day.
38. During which time the demand of electrical energy is maximum?

a) 2 A.M. to 5 A.M. b) 5 A.M. to 12 P.M. c) 12 P.M. to 7 P.M. d) 7 P.M. to 9
P.M
Answer: d
Explanation: From the load curve it is obtained that during early morning

demand is always low. Around 5 A.M. it starts increasing and around 9 A.M.
load reaches a high value and remains almost constant till evening except for
some Dip during lunch hours. The load again starts increasing in evening hours
and reaches its peak around 7 to 9 P.M.
39. Size and cost of installation depends upon ____________

a) average load b) maximum demand c) square mean load d) square of peak
load
Answer: b
Explanation: The greatest of all “short time interval averaged” during a given
period, on the power system is called the maximum demand. Maximum demand
represents the maximum amount of load that is active, out of total connected
load. So the size and rating of power plant depends on Maximum demand.
40. What is Demand factor?

a) Ratio of connected load to maximum demand
b) Ratio of average load to connected load
c) Ratio of maximum demand to the connected load
d) Ratio of kilowatt hour consumed to 24 hours
Answer: c
Explanation: Demand Factor = Maximum Demand/Connected Load
Demand factor is the ratio of actual maximum demand on the system to the total
load connected to the system. The idea of demand factor was introduced due to
the fact that all the equipments connected to the system does not work at a time
in practice.
41. The Smart Grid is __________________.
a. Self healing b. non resilient c. one way communication structure d. non

expandable
Ans: a
42. Following are the Pillars of smart grid,___________.
a. control system, feedback management system, PIC system, emergency

system
b. Transmission optimization, demand Side Management, Distribution

optimization, Asset optimization

c. Transmission control, Fault detection, islanding
d. Electo-mechanical meter, microgrid, power line communication, smooth

Interoperability
Ans: b
43. Self-healing is ______________________.
a. its capacity to fix some failures affecting it main function to supply

power.
b. its ability to communicate with sensors and control panels.
c. its capacity to manage crew in case of outage.
d. its ability to convert analog data to digital data.
Ans: a
44. Following is the Disadvantage of Smart grid.
a. Privacy and Security b) Data analyzing c) Plug and Play technique d)
Fault finding
Ans: a
45. Conventional power grid systems ______________________.
a. can be upgraded to the advanced system.
b. cannot be upgraded to the advanced system.
c. are robust towards advancements.
d. cannot adapt new technologies
Ans: a
46. IED stands for
a. Integral Electrical Devices b) Intelligent Electronic Devices
c. Intelligent Extended Demand d. Interoperable Electrical Demand
Ans: b
47. RTU is ____________.
a. Renewable Transmission Unit b. Remote terminal Unit
c. Regional Testing Unit d. Roadmap Transmission Unit
Ans: b

48. Except which
hich one of the following, all the rest are essential components of
the distribution system.
a. Service Heads b. Service Mains c. Distributors d. Feeder
Ans: a
49. The typical voltage level of the primary customer is
a. 66 KV b. 11 KV c. 400 KV d. 110KV
Ans: b
50.. Which of the following is not the characteristic of the existing Grid:
a. Manual monitoring b. Failures and Blackouts
c. Self-healing
healing d. One way Communication
Ans: c
51. In which of the following methods, the data and power both are transferred
with the same conductor:
a. Fibre optic communications b. Cognitive radio
c. Power line communication d. Cellular communication systems
Ans: Power line communication
52. Which of the following may not be a barrier in the smart grid technologies?
a. Lack of infrastructure b. Lack of financial resources
c. Lack of regulator
d. Integration of the grid with very small renewable generation

Ans: d
53. According to IRIG B, Time synchronization accuracy requirement is upto
a. 0.5 µs b. 1 µs c. 2 µs d. 0.1 µs
Ans: b
Inter-range instrumentation group time codes, commonly known as IRIG time

code, are standard formats for transferring timing information. The IRIG-B time
protocol is widely used by electric utilities, industrials, and others to ensure
precise time synchronization of power system devices, such as breakers,
relays and meters.
54. The boundaries of the customer domain typically consider which type of
meters
a. Energy services Load b. Energy services Interface
c. Energy services Demand d. Wattmeter
Ans: b
55. The transmission network is typically operated by
a. Load Dispatch centers b. Distribution Company
c. Regional Load Dispatch center d. Generation Company
Ans: c
56. Service Provider communicates with
a. Bulk generation b. Distribution
c. Transmission d. Customer
Ans: d
57. Energy Services Interfaces (ESI) communicates with other domain via:
a. AMI infrastructure or Internet b. Home Area Network
c. Local Area Network d. None of the above
Ans: a

58. In the following which standard represent the practice for Interconnecting
Distributed Resources Electric Power Systems Distribution Secondary
Networks:
a. IEEE Standard 1547.3 b. IEEE Standard 1547.4
c. IEEE Standard 1547.5 d. IEEE Standard 1547.6
Ans: d
*****************************************************************
UNIT – I
PART - B
1. Interpret the system having constant voltage and constant frequency regardless of
the load.
Normally, in a power system, more than one synchronous generators or alternators operate in
parallel. The alternators may be located at different places.
• A group of alternators located at a single place may be treated as a single large

alternator.
• Also, the alternators connected to the same busbar but separated by transmission lines
of low reactance may be considered as a single large machine.
The capacity of this power system is so large that its terminal voltage and frequency may be
taken constant. The connection or disconnection of a single alternator or a single small load
would not affect the magnitude and phase of the voltage and frequency. Therefore, the power
system behaves like a large alternator having virtually zero internal impedance and infinite
rotational inertia. Such kind of system having constant voltage and constant frequency
regardless of the load is known as infinite busbar system or infinite bus. An infinite bus can
be defined as follows −
An infinite bus is a power system so large that its voltage and frequency remain constant
regardless of how much real power and reactive power is drawn from or supplied to it.
When an alternator is operating in parallel with an infinite bus and its excitation voltage is
changed, the power factor of the machine changes. However, the change in excitation does
not change the terminal voltage which held constant in the system.
Characteristics of an Infinite Bus
The characteristics of an infinite bus are given below −
• The frequency of the infinite bus remains constant since the rotational inertia is too
large to enable the incoming machine to alter the speed of the system.
• The terminal voltage of the infinite bus remains constant, because the incoming
machine is very small to increase or decrease it.
• The synchronous impedance of an infinite bus is very small because the system
consists
nsists of a large number of alternators connected in parallel.
Operating Characteristics of an Alternator Connected to an Infinite Bus
An alternator connected to an infinite bus has the following operating characteristics −
• The terminal voltage and frequen

frequency
cy of the alternator are controlled by the power
system to which it is connected.
• The excitation of the alternator controls the reactive power supplied by the alternator
to the infinite bus. The increase in the excitation of the alternator increases the
reactive
active power output of the alternator.
The real power supplied by the alternator to the infinite bus is controlled by the governor
set points of the alternator.
2. Show how voltage and frequency remains constant in an infinite busbar?
Operating Characteristics of an Alternator Connected to an Infinite Bus
An alternator connected to an infinite bus has the following operating characteristics −
• The terminal voltage and frequency of the alternator are controlled by the power
system to which it is connected.
nnected.
• The excitation of the alternator controls the reactive power supplied by the alternator
to the infinite bus. The increase in the excitation of the alternator increases the
reactive power output of the alternator.
• alternator to the infinite bus is controlled by the

The real power supplied by the alt
governor set points of the alternator
alternator.
Obtaining an Infinite Bus
The figure shows n alternators connected to an infinite bus.
Proof of voltage remaining constant for an infinite bus

Let
• = Terminal voltage of the busbar
• = Induced EMF of each alternator
• = Synchronous impedance of each alternator
• = Number of alternators in parallel
Thus, the voltage equation of the system would be
V = E − IZs (eq)…(1)
Where,
Zs(eq) = Zs/n…(2)
From eqn. (2), when n is very large, then
Zs(eq)→0; and ∴IZs (eq)→0
∴V = E (Constant)…(3)
Proof of frequency remaining constant for an infinite bus
Let, J = moment of inertia of each alternator
Then, the total moment of inertia of all n alternators operating in parallel is
∑J = J+J+⋯+J(n times) = nJ…(4)
∴Acceleration of alternator = accelerating torque /moment of inertia
⇒ Acceleration of alternator = τa/∑J = τa/nJ…(5)
From eqn. (5), if n is very large, then nJ is very large, thusAccelerationofalternator→0
Hence, the speed of the machine is constant. Consequently, the frequency is constant.
Therefore, in order to obtain a constant voltage and constant frequency of a practical busbar
system, i.e., an infinite busbar, the number of alternators connected in parallel should be as
large as possible.
3. State the need of reactive power electrical systems.
Need for Reactive Power:
Voltage control in an electrical power system is important for operation for electrical power
equipment to prevent damage such as overheating of Generators and motors, to reduce transmission
losses and to maintain the ability of the system to withstand and prevent voltage collapse. In general

terms, decreasing reactive power occurs when the system try to serve much more load than the
voltage can support.
When reactive power supply lowers the voltage, as voltage drops current must increase to
maintain power supplied, causing system to consume more reactive power and the voltage drops
further. If the current increase too much, transmission lines go Offline, overloading other lines and
potentially causing cascading failures.
If the voltage drops too low, some generators will disconnect automatically to protect
themselves. Voltage collapse occurs when an increase in load or less generation or transmission
facilities causes dropping voltage, which causes a further reduction in reactive power from capacitor
and line charging, and still there further voltage reductions. If voltage reduction continues, these will
cause additional elements to trip, leading further reduction in voltage and loss of the load. The result
in these entire progressive and uncontrollable declines in voltage is that the system unable to provide
the reactive power required supplying the reactive power demands.
1. While active power is the energy supplied to run a motor, or illuminate an electric bulb, reactive
power provides the important function of regulating voltage.
2. If voltage on the system is not high enough, active power cannot be supplied.
3. Reactive power is used to provide the voltage levels necessary for active power to do useful work.
4. Reactive power is essential to move active power through the transmission and distribution system
to the customer.
4. Enumerate briefly the types of Electrical grid.
Electrical grid or power grid is defined as the network which interconnects the generation,
transmission and distribution unit. It supplies the electrical power from generating unit to the
distribution unit. A large amount of power is transmitted from the generating station to load
centre at 220kV or higher. The network form by these high voltage lines is called the super
grid. The super grid feeds the sub-transmission network operating at 132kV or less.
Types of Electrical Grid
The power station of the grid is located near the fuel source which reduces the transportation
cost of the system. But it is located far away from the populated areas. The power which is
generated at high voltage is stepped down by the help of step-down transformer in the
substation and then supply to the consumers. The electrical grid is mainly classified into two
types. They are:
1. Regional Grid – The Regional grid is formed by interconnecting the different

transmission system of a particular area through the transmission line.
2. National Grid – It is formed by interconnecting the different regional grid.
5. Brief out the problems associated with interconnected AC Power systems.

HVAC (High Voltage Alternating Current) Interconnection
In HVAC link the two AC systems are interconnected by an AC link. For interconnecting the
AC system, it is necessary that there should be sufficiently close frequency control on each of
the two systems.
For the 50Hz system, the frequency should lie between 48.5 Hz and 51.5 Hz. Such an
interconnection is known as synchronous interconnection or synchronous tie. The AC link
provides a rigid connection between two AC systems to be interconnected. But the AC
interconnection has certain limitations.
The interconnection of an AC system has suffered from the following problems.
1. The interconnection of the two AC networks is the synchronous tie. The frequency
disturbances in one system are transferred to the other system.
2. The power swings in one system affects the other system. Large power swing in one
system may result in frequent tripping due to which major fault occurs in the system.
This fault causes complete failure of the whole interconnected system.
3. There is an increase in the fault level if an existing AC system is connected with the
other AC system with an AC tie line. This is because the additional parallel line
reduces the equivalent reactance of the interconnected system. If the two AC systems
are connected to the fault line, then the fault level of an each AC system remains
unchanged.
Unit - I
Part – C
1. (a). Examine the difference between active and reactive power?
(b). State the need of control of voltage and frequency in Electrical grid.
(a). The main difference between active and reactive power is that Active Power is actual or
real power which is used in the circuit while Reactive power bounce back and forth between
load and source which is theoretically useless.
The following power triangle shows the relation between Active, Reactive and Apparent
Power. These all powers only induced in AC circuits when current is leading or lagging
behind the voltage i.e. there is a phase difference (phase angle (Φ) between voltage and
current.

What is Active Power?
The Power which is really utilized and consumed for useful works in AC or DC circuit is
known as Active Power. It is also called True Power, Real Power, Useful Power or Watt-full
Power. It is denoted by “P” and measured in Watts, kW or MW. The average value of active
power can be calculated by the following formulas.
What is Reactive Power
The power which moves and back (bounces back and forth) between source and load in the
circuit is known as Reactive Power. It is also called, Useless Power or Watt-less Power.
Reactive Power is denoted by “Q” and measured in VAR (Volt Ampere Reactive), kVAR or
MVARs.
Reactive Power is useful too i.e. it helps to produce magnetic and electric field and stores in
the circuits and discharge by transformers, solenoid, and induction motors etc.
Comparison between Active Power and Reactive Power:
The following table shows the main differences between Active and Reactive Powers.
Characteristics Active Power Reactive Power
A Power which continuously

The True or Real or Actual Power bounces back and forth
dissipated in the circuit is known between source and load is
Definition as Active Power which is actually known as Reactive Power.
utilized or consumed. (Also known (Also known
as useful or watt-full power). as useless or watt-
less Power).
Represented by P Q
Units Watts, kW, MW VAr, kVAr, MVAr
Formulas • P = V x I (DC circuits) • Q = V x I x Sinθ

• P = V x I x Cosθ (Single • Reactive Power = √
phase AC Circuits) (Apparent Power2 -
True Power2)
• P = √3 x VL x IL x Cosθ
(Three Phase AC Circuits)
• P = √ (S2 – Q2)
Measuring
Watt meter VAr meter
Instrument
Active Power is equal to the There is no Reactive Power

Role in DC Reactive Power i.e. there is no in DC circuits due to the
Circuits VAr in DC Circuits. Only Active zero phase angle (Φ)
Power exists. between current and voltage.
Active power is important to Reactive Power plays an

Role in AC produce heat and utilize the important role in AC circuits
Circuits electric and magnetic field to produce magnetic and
generated by Reactive Power. electric fields.
Behavior in All circuit Power is dissipated by

No Reactive Power in pure
Pure Resistive the resistors which is Active
resistive circuit.
Circuit Power.
Reactive Power is useful too,

which is used to measure
the power factor and
Active Power is used to produce generate magnetic flux,
Applications heat, light, torque etc. in electrical electric flux, electric and
appliances and machines. magnetic
field in motors, transformers,
ballasts and induction
heating equipment etc.
We always in practice try to reduce reactive power to improve system efficiency. This is
acceptable at some level, if system is purely resistively or capacitance it make cause some
problem in Electrical system. AC systems supply or consume two kind of power: real power
and reactive power.

Real power accomplishes useful work while reactive power supports the voltage that must be
controlled for system reliability. Reactive power has a profound effect on the security of
power systems because it affects voltages throughout the system.
(b). Control of Voltage:
Assuming that load is constant, the voltage at the terminals of a rotating generator depends on
the changing magnetic flux through the generator’s stator windings as the generator’s rotor
spins. The amount of magnetic flux depends on the intensity of the rotor’s magnetic field; the
rate of change in flux is dependent on how fast the rotor is spinning.
In an off-grid application, generator frequency is regulated by different types of controls.

Assuming frequency is kept constant by the regulator, voltage can be varied by increasing or
decreasing the strength of the rotor magnetic field. This is the job of a synchronous
generator’s automatic voltage regulator (AVR). The AVR adjusts rotor magnetic intensity
(and thus generator voltage) by modulating the magnetizing current that is provided to the
rotor in a synchronous generator. As voltage starts to sag, the AVR responds by sending more
current to the rotor, increasing voltage.
Typically an off-grid generator’s AVR is set in a mode that attempts to keep voltage constant.
That is, as loads change, it increases or decreases field strength in response. Likewise, in an
inverter-based system, the inverter’s power electronic controls are designed to keep voltage
constant. As discussed below, AVRs are also used in grid-connected generators.
To summarize: frequency is regulated by a mechanical regulator or Electronic Load

Controller (ELC). In both off-grid and on-grid installations, voltage is independently adjusted
by an AVR.
Control of Frequency
For a synchronous generator, frequency is determined by the rotational speed of the
generator shaft; faster rotation generates a higher frequency. A generator’s frequency depends
on the balance between the pressure and flow rate of water flowing through the turbine and
the amount of electrical load. (Similarly, a car’s motor speed depends on both the rate of fuel
flow to the motor and the load on the engine.) With no load, the generator will “freewheel”
and run at a very high rpm, just as a car’s engine will spin quickly if revved with the
transmission in neutral. If load is excessive, the generator bogs down (spins slower than
normal) and the frequency drops below the standard, just as a car slows down while going up
a steep hill.
In the case of an isolated mini-grid, the renewable electricity generator must maintain
frequency control because there is no option of frequency control by any other means. In an
isolated micro-hydropower context, commonly occurring large and sudden changes in load or
generation resources on the system can drive frequency up or down. In these systems, control
of frequency is accomplished one of two ways. One method uses a mechanical controller that
incrementally opens the water supply valve to increase water flow the moment that it detects
a drop in frequency and incrementally closes the valve when it detects excessive frequency.
This negative feedback loop keeps frequency fairly constant under most conditions.
Similarly, generators with internal combustion engines modulate the engine throttle in

response to slight shifts in frequency, and steam turbines modulate the flow of steam from the
boiler to the turbine to keep frequency constant.
In the second method, an Electronic Load Controller (ELC) manages the load on the
generator. By adding progressively higher loads, the generator can be slowed until it reaches
the exact speed (in rpm) for proper AC frequency. As long as the ELC maintains this
“perfect” load, known as the design load, electrical output will be correct. To maintain the
design load, ELCs typically divert excess power to a resistive heating element (safely
installed to heat air or immersed in water). ELCs are commonly used in isolated micro- or
mini-hydropower systems.
All types of frequency control can do little to help in the situation in which load exceeds the
generating capacity of the source – unfortunately a common occurrence in many mini-grids
in developing countries. If loads exceed the generating capacity, the generator bogs down,
frequency drops, and a brownout typically ensues. More advanced utility systems employ
automatic relays that drop load when frequency begins to sag (known as under frequency
load-shedding schemes).
2. Discuss briefly formation of Electrical Grid.
Formation of Electrical Grid
Definition: Electrical grid or power grid is defined as the network which interconnects the
generation, transmission and distribution unit. It supplies the electrical power from generating
unit to the distribution unit. A large amount of power is transmitted from the generating
station to load centre at 220kV or higher. The network form by these high voltage lines is
called the super grid. The super grid feeds the sub-transmission network operating at 132kV
or less.
Types of Electrical Grid
The power station of the grid is located near the fuel source which reduces the transportation
cost of the system. But it is located far away from the populated areas. The power which is
generated at high voltage is stepped down by the help of step-down transformer in the
substation and then supply to the consumers. The electrical grid is mainly classified into two
types. They are:
3. Regional Grid – The Regional grid is formed by interconnecting the different

transmission system of a particular area through the transmission line.
4. National Grid – It is formed by interconnecting the different regional grid.
Interconnection
The interconnection of the grid provides the best use of power resource and ensures great
security to supply. It makes the system economical and reliable. The generating stations are
interconnected for reducing the reserve generation capacity in each area.

If there is a sudden increase in load or loss of generation in a zone, then it borrows from the
adjacent interconnected area. But for the interconnections of the network certain amount of
generating capacity known as the spinning reserve is required. The spinning reserve should
consist of generator running at normal speed and ready to supply power instantaneously.
Types of Interconnections
The interconnection between networks is mainly classified into two types, i.e., the HVAC
link and HVDC link.
HVAC (High Voltage Alternating Current) Interconnection
In HVAC link the two AC systems are interconnected by an AC link. For interconnecting the
AC system, it is necessary that there should be sufficiently close frequency control on each of
the two systems.
For the 50Hz system, the frequency should lie between 48.5 Hz and 51.5 Hz. Such an
interconnection is known as synchronous interconnection or synchronous tie. The AC link
provides a rigid connection between two AC systems to be interconnected. But the AC
interconnection has certain limitations.
The interconnection of an AC system has suffered from the following problems.
4. The interconnection of the two AC networks is the synchronous tie. The frequency
disturbances in one system are transferred to the other system.
5. The power swings in one system affects the other system. Large power swing in one
system may result in frequent tripping due to which major fault occurs in the system.
This fault causes complete failure of the whole interconnected system.
6. There is an increase in the fault level if an existing AC system is connected with the
other AC system with an AC tie line. This is because the additional parallel line
reduces the equivalent reactance of the interconnected system. If the two AC systems
are connected to the fault line, then the fault level of an each AC system remains
unchanged.
HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current) Interconnection
The DC interconnection or DC tie provides a loose coupling between the two AC system to
be interconnected. The DC tie between two AC systems is non-synchronous (Asynchronous).
The DC interconnection has the certain advantages. They are as follows:
1. The DC interconnection system is asynchronous thus the system which is to be

interconnected is either of the same frequency or at the difference frequency. The DC
link thus provides the advantages of interconnection of two AC network at different
frequencies. It also enables the system to operate independently and to maintain their
frequency standards.

2. The HVDC links provide fast and reliable control of magnitude and direction of
power flow by controlling the firing angle of converters. The rapid control of power
flow increases the limit of transient stability.
3. The power swings in the interconnected AC networks can be damped rapidly by

modulating the power flow throug
through
h the DC tie. Thus, the stability of the system is
increased.
Nowadays, the customary grids are replaced by the smart grids. The smart grid uses the smart
meter and appliances which improves the efficiency of the system.
An electrical grid is an interconne

interconnected network for electricity delivery from producers to
consumers. Electrical grids vary in size and can cover whole countries or continents. It
consists of:
• Power stations:: often located near energy and away from heavily populated areas.
• electrical substations to step voltage up or down.
• electric power transmission to carry power long distances.
• electric power distribution to individual customers, where voltage is stepped down

again to the required service voltage(s).
Components:
1. Generation
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary
energy typically at power stations
stations.. Usually this is done
with electromechanical generators driven by heat engines or the kinetic energy of water or
wind. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.
The sum of the power outputs of generators on the grid is the production of the grid, typically
measured in gigawatts (GW).
2. Transmission

Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site,
via a web of interconnected lines, to an electrical substation, from which is connected to the
distribution system. This networked system of connections is distinct from the local wiring
between high-voltage substations and customers.
Because the power is often generated far from where it is consumed, the transmission system
can cover great distances. For a given amount of power, transmission efficiency is greater at
higher voltages and lower currents. Therefore, voltages are stepped up at the generating
station, and stepped down at local substations for distribution to customers.
Most transmission is three-phase. Three phase, compared to single phase, can deliver much
more power for a given amount of wire, since the neutral and ground wires are
shared. Further, three-phase generators and motors are more efficient than their single-phase
counterparts.
However, for conventional conductors one of the main losses are resistive losses which are a
square law on current, and depend on distance. High voltage AC transmission lines can lose
1-4% per hundred miles. However, high-voltage direct current can have half the losses of
AC. Over very long distances, these efficiencies can offset the additional cost of the required
AC/DC converter stations at each end.
Transmission networks are complex with redundant pathways. The physical layout is often
forced by what land is available and its geology. Most transmission grids offer the reliability
that more complex mesh networks provide. Redundancy allows line failures to occur and
power is simply rerouted while repairs are done.
Substations
Substations may perform many different functions but usually transform voltage from low to
high (step up) and from high to low (step down). Between the generator and the final
consumer, the voltage may be transformed several times.
The three main types of substations, by function, are:
• Step-up substation: these use transformers to raise the voltage coming from the
generators and power plants so that power can be transmitted long distances more
efficiently, with smaller currents.
• Step-down substation: these transformers lower the voltage coming from the
transmission lines which can be used in industry or sent to a distribution substation.
• Distribution substation: these transform the voltage lower again for the distribution to
end users.
Aside from transformers, other major components or functions of substations include:
• Circuit breakers: used to automatically break a circuit and isolate a fault in the system.

• Switches: to control the flow of electricity, and isolate equipment.
• The substation busbar: typically, a set of three conductors, one for each phase of
current. The substation is orgranized around the buses, and they are connected to
incoming lines, transformers, protection equipment, switches, and the outgoing lines.
• Lightning arresters
• Capacitors for power factor correction
• Synchronous condensers for power factor correction and grid stability
Electric power distribution
Distribution is the final stage in the delivery of power; it carries electricity from the
transmission system to individual consumers. Substations connect to the transmission system
and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV.
Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers
located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the
utilization voltage. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected
directly to the primary distribution level or the sub transmission level.
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network.
A radial system is arranged like a tree where each customer has one source of supply. A
network system has multiple sources of supply operating in parallel. Spot networks are used
for concentrated loads. Radial systems are commonly used in rural or suburban areas.
Radial systems usually include emergency connections where the system can be reconfigured
in case of problems, such as a fault or planned maintenance. This can be done by opening and
closing switches to isolate a certain section from the grid.
Long feeders experience voltage drop(power factor distortion) requiring capacitors or voltage
regulators to be installed.
Reconfiguration, by exchanging the functional links between the elements of the system,
represents one of the most important measures which can improve the operational
performance of a distribution system.
A substation receives its power from the transmission network, the power is stepped down
with a transformer and sent to a bus from which feeders fan out in all directions across the
countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the major streets near
the substation. As the distance from the substation grows, the fan out continues as smaller
laterals spread out to cover areas missed by the feeders. This tree-like structure grows
outward from the substation, but for reliability reasons, usually contains at least one unused
backup connection to a nearby substation. This connection can be enabled in case of an
emergency, so that a portion of a substation's service territory can be alternatively fed by
another substation.

3. Elaborate the basic building components of conventional electrical grid.
Conventional electrical supply network usually consists of generation, transmission,

transmission
distribution, and consumer (load) systems. Generation system normally consists of a
combination of large-scale
scale centralized generation plants. A typical modern generating unit
has rated value of over 1,000 MW. A transmission system is specifically designed to transfer
bulk off power from generating plants to distribution systems at high-
high and extra
extra-high voltage
levels over long distances. Typical operating voltages of transmission systems include 765
kV, 500 kV, 400 kV, and 275 kV. Distribution systems, however, are specifically
specificall designed to
receive electric power from transmission system to be distributed to load centers. It is
therefore important to note that the role of a distribution network is passive,, that is, its role is
confined to transferring electricity from generation and transmission systems to load centers.
The operating voltage of distribution networks includes 132 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33 kV, 20
kV, and 11 kV.
Conventional electrical supply networks normally have vertical structure whereby the electric
power generated by the generation system is passed to transmission system which is then
transferred to distribution network for feeding it to connected loads. Figure 2.1 shows the
principle of vertical structure of electrical supply networks whereby electricity flows in one
direction, starting from generation system, through transmission system to distribution
networks and finally to loads.
Components:
1. Generation
Electricity generation is the process of generating electric power from sources of primary
energy typically at power stations
stations.. Usually this is done

with electromechanical generators driven by heat engines or the kinetic energy of water or
wind. Other energy sources include solar photovoltaics and geothermal power.
The sum of the power outputs of generators on the grid is the production of the grid, typically
measured in gigawatts (GW).
2. Transmission
Electric power transmission is the bulk movement of electrical energy from a generating site,
via a web of interconnected lines, to an electrical substation, from which is connected to the
distribution system. This networked system of connections is distinct from the local wiring
between high-voltage substations and customers.
Because the power is often generated far from where it is consumed, the transmission system
can cover great distances. For a given amount of power, transmission efficiency is greater at
higher voltages and lower currents. Therefore, voltages are stepped up at the generating
station, and stepped down at local substations for distribution to customers.
Most transmission is three-phase. Three phase, compared to single phase, can deliver much
more power for a given amount of wire, since the neutral and ground wires are
shared. Further, three-phase generators and motors are more efficient than their single-phase
counterparts.
However, for conventional conductors one of the main losses are resistive losses which are a
square law on current, and depend on distance. High voltage AC transmission lines can lose
1-4% per hundred miles. However, high-voltage direct current can have half the losses of
AC. Over very long distances, these efficiencies can offset the additional cost of the required
AC/DC converter stations at each end.
Transmission networks are complex with redundant pathways. The physical layout is often
forced by what land is available and its geology. Most transmission grids offer the reliability
that more complex mesh networks provide. Redundancy allows line failures to occur and
power is simply rerouted while repairs are done.
Substations
Substations may perform many different functions but usually transform voltage from low to
high (step up) and from high to low (step down). Between the generator and the final
consumer, the voltage may be transformed several times.
The three main types of substations, by function, are:
• Step-up substation: these use transformers to raise the voltage coming from the
generators and power plants so that power can be transmitted long distances more
efficiently, with smaller currents.
• Step-down substation: these transformers lower the voltage coming from the
transmission lines which can be used in industry or sent to a distribution substation.

• Distribution substation: these transform the voltage lower again for the distribution to
end users.
Aside from transformers, other major components or functions of substations include:
• Circuit breakers: used to automatically break a circuit and isolate a fault in the system.
• Switches: to control the flow of electricity, and isolate equipment.
• The substation busbar: typically, a set of three conductors, one for each phase of
current. The substation is orgranized around the buses, and they are connected to
incoming lines, transformers, protection equipment, switches, and the outgoing lines.
• Lightning arresters
• Capacitors for power factor correction
• Synchronous condensers for power factor correction and grid stability
Electric power distribution
Distribution is the final stage in the delivery of power; it carries electricity from the
transmission system to individual consumers. Substations connect to the transmission system
and lower the transmission voltage to medium voltage ranging between 2 kV and 35 kV.
Primary distribution lines carry this medium voltage power to distribution transformers
located near the customer's premises. Distribution transformers again lower the voltage to the
utilization voltage. Customers demanding a much larger amount of power may be connected
directly to the primary distribution level or the sub transmission level.
Distribution networks are divided into two types, radial or network.
A radial system is arranged like a tree where each customer has one source of supply. A
network system has multiple sources of supply operating in parallel. Spot networks are used
for concentrated loads. Radial systems are commonly used in rural or suburban areas.
Radial systems usually include emergency connections where the system can be reconfigured
in case of problems, such as a fault or planned maintenance. This can be done by opening and
closing switches to isolate a certain section from the grid.
Long feeders experience voltage drop(power factor distortion) requiring capacitors or voltage
regulators to be installed.
Reconfiguration, by exchanging the functional links between the elements of the system,
represents one of the most important measures which can improve the operational
performance of a distribution system.
A substation receives its power from the transmission network, the power is stepped down
with a transformer and sent to a bus from which feeders fan out in all directions across the
countryside. These feeders carry three-phase power, and tend to follow the major streets near

the substation. As the distance from the substation grows, the fan out continues as smaller
laterals spread out to cover areas missed by the feeders. This tree-like structure grows
outward from the substation, but for reliability reasons, usually contains at least one unused
backup connection to a nearby substation. This connection can be enabled in case of an
emergency, so that a portion of a substation's service territory can be alternatively fed by
another substation.
4. Enumerate the main characteristics of conventional electrical networks.
Conventional electrical supply network usually consists of generation, transmission,

distribution, and consumer (load) systems. Generation system normally consists of a
combination of large-scale centralized generation plants. A typical modern generating unit
has rated value of over 1,000 MW. A transmission system is specifically designed to transfer
bulk of power from generating plants to distribution systems at high- and extra-high voltage
levels over long distances. Typical operating voltages of transmission systems include 765
kV, 500 kV, 400 kV, and 275 kV. Distribution systems, however, are specifically designed to
receive electric power from transmission system to be distributed to load centers. It is
therefore important to note that the role of a distribution network is passive, that is, its role is
confined to transferring electricity from generation and transmission systems to load centers.
The operating voltage of distribution networks includes 132 kV, 110 kV, 66 kV, 33 kV, 20
kV, and 11 kV.
Conventional electrical supply networks normally have vertical structure whereby the electric
power generated by the generation system is passed to transmission system which is then
transferred to distribution network for feeding it to connected loads.
The main characteristics of conventional electrical networks include:
1. Technology:
Electromechanical: Traditional energy infrastructure is electromechanical. This means that

it is of, relating to, or denoting a mechanical device that is electrically operated. The
technology of this manner is typically considered to be “dumb” as it has no means of
communication between devices and little internal regulation.
2. Distribution:
One-Way Distribution: Power can only be distributed from the main plant using traditional
energy infrastructure.
3. Generation:
Centralized: With traditional energy infrastructure, all power must be generated from a
central location. This eliminates the possibility of easily incorporating alternative energy
sources into the grid.
4. Sensors:

Few Sensors: The infrastructure is not equipped to handle many sensors on the lines. This
makes it difficult to pinpoint the location of a problem and can result in longer downtimes.
5. Monitoring:
Manual: Due to limitations in traditional infrastructure, energy distribution must be

monitored manually.
6. Restoration:
Manual: In order to make repairs on traditional energy infrastructure, technicians have to

physically go to the location of the failure to make repairs. The need for this can extend the
amount of time that outages occur.
7. Equipment:
Failure & Blackout: As a result of aging and limitations, traditional energy infrastructure is
prone to failures. Failure of infrastructure can lead to blackouts, a condition where the end
customer is receiving no power to their unit causing downtime.
8. Control:
Limited: Using traditional power infrastructure, energy is very difficult to control. After
leaving the power plant or substation, companies have no control over the energy
distribution.
9. Customer Choices:
Fewer: The traditional power grid system infrastructure is not properly equipped to give
customers a choice in the way they receive their electricity. Alternative energy sources, for
example, have to be separated from power plants and traditional grid infrastructure. This is
also part of the reasoning behind the establishment of electric companies as a public utility.
10. Cost of electricity:
The price of electricity is dictated by the utility to which the consumer is connected. In other
words, consumers have no choice of opting from where they buy their electricity, that is,
consumers are considered passive.
5. List out the drawbacks and challenges faced in conventional electrical networks.
Challenges Faced:
Handling failure
Failures are usually associated with generators or power transmission lines tripping circuit
breakers due to faults leading to a loss of generation capacity for customers, or excess
demand. This will often cause the frequency to reduce, and the remaining generators will
react and together attempt to stabilize above the minimum. If that is not possible then a
number of scenarios can occur.
A large failure in one part of the grid — unless quickly compensated for — can cause current
to re-route itself to flow from the remaining generators to consumers over transmission lines
of insufficient capacity, causing further failures. One downside to a widely connected grid is
thus the possibility of cascading failure and widespread power outage. A central authority is
usually designated to facilitate communication and develop protocols to maintain a stable
grid.
Brownout
A brownout is an intentional or unintentional drop in voltage in an electrical power

supply system. Intentional brownouts are used for load reduction in an emergency. The
reduction lasts for minutes or hours, as opposed to short-term voltage sag (or dip). The term
brownout comes from the dimming experienced by incandescent lighting when the voltage
sags. A voltage reduction may be an effect of disruption of an electrical grid, or may
occasionally be imposed in an effort to reduce load and prevent a power outage, known as
a blackout.
Blackout
A power outage (also called a power cut, a power out, a power blackout, power failure or
a blackout) is a loss of the electric power to a particular area.
Power failures can be caused by faults at power stations, damage to electric transmission
lines, substations or other parts of the distribution system, a short circuit, cascading
failure, fuse or circuit breaker operation, and human error.
Power failures are particularly critical at sites where the environment and public safety are at
risk. Institutions such as hospitals, sewage treatment plants, mines, shelters and the like will
usually have backup power sources such as standby generators, which will automatically start
up when electrical power is lost. Other critical systems, such as telecommunication, are also
required to have emergency power. The battery room of a telephone exchange usually has
arrays of lead–acid batteries for backup and also a socket for connecting a generator during
extended periods of outage.
Load shedding:
Electrical generation and transmission systems may not always meet peak demand
requirements— the greatest amount of electricity required by all utility customers within a
given region. In these situations, overall demand must be lowered, either by turning off
service to some devices or cutting back the supply voltage (brownouts), in order to prevent
uncontrolled service disruptions such as power outages (widespread blackouts) or equipment
damage. Utilities may impose load shedding on service areas via targeted blackouts, rolling
blackouts or by agreements with specific high-use industrial consumers to turn off equipment
at times of system-wide peak demand.

A black start is the process of restoring an electric power station or a part of an electric
grid to operation without relying on the external electric power transmission network to
recover from a total or partial shutdown.
Normally, the electric power used within the plant is provided from the station's own
generators. If all of the plant's main generators are shut down, station service power is
provided by drawing power from the grid through the plant's transmission line. However,
during a wide-area outage, off-site power from the grid is not available. In the absence of grid
power, a so-called black start needs to be performed to bootstrap the power grid into
operation.
Aging infrastructure:
Despite the novel institutional arrangements and network designs of the electrical grid, its
power delivery infrastructures suffer aging across the developed world. Contributing factors
to the current state of the electric grid and its consequences include:
• Aging equipment – older equipment has higher failure rates, leading to customer
interruption rates affecting the economy and society; also, older assets and facilities
lead to higher inspection maintenance costs and further repair and restoration costs.
• Obsolete system layout – older areas require serious additional substation sites
and rights-of-way that cannot be obtained in the current area and are forced to use
existing, insufficient facilities.
• Outdated engineering – traditional tools for power delivery planning and engineering
are ineffective in addressing current problems of aged equipment, obsolete system
layouts, and modern deregulated loading levels.
Old cultural value – planning, engineering, operating of system using concepts and
procedures that worked in vertically integrated industry exacerbate the problem under a
deregulated industry.
Apart from being old and out-of-date, conventional electrical networks have recently
been subjected to many changes. The most important of these that proved to be difficult for
the networks to accommodate include:
(i). The integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) based-generators, including RESs
based-generators and storage systems into electrical networks, particularly at distribution
voltage levels.
(ii). Accommodating the recent new development in transport industry in terms of EVs will
be presented as a new type of load which puts further stress on the network.
(iii). Dealing with the dynamic situation between electricity market stakeholders and
electrical utilities due to liberalization of electricity market in recent years that require the
implementation of new tools and methodologies with the help of new and advanced
technologies.

***************************************************************************
UNIT – II
PART - B
1. State the need of Smart Grid.

A smart grid distribution system, whose objective is to develop a power grid more
efficient and reliable, improving safety and quality of supply in accordance with the
requirements of the digital age.
1. Higher Penetration of renewable resources or distributed generation.
2. Extensive and effective communication overlay from generation to consumers.
3. Use of advanced sensors and high speed control.
4. Higher operating efficiency.
5. Greater resiliency against attacks and natural disasters.
6. Automated metering and rapid power restoration.
7. Provided greater customer participation
2. Identify the areas of applications of Smart Grids and write some of the definitions of
Smart Grid.
A Smart Grid is an electricity Network based on Digital Technology that is used to
supply electricity to consumers via Two-Way Digital Communication. This system allows
for monitoring, analysis, control and communication within the supply chain to help
improve efficiency, reduce the energy consumption and cost and maximise the
transparency and reliability of the energy supply chain. The term “Smart Grid” was coined
by Andres E. Carvallo on April 24, 2007 at an IDC energy conference in Chicago.
Definition: Smart grid is integration of an electric power system, communication network,
advanced Sensing, metering, measurement infrastructure, complete decision support and
human interfaces software and hardware to monitor, control and manage the creation,
distribution, storage and consumption of energy. The areas of application of smart grids
include: smart meters integration, demand management, smart integration of generated
energy, administration of storage and renewable resources, using systems that
continuously provide and use data from an energy network. A Smart Grid is an electricity
network that can intelligently integrate the actions of all users connected to it – generators,
consumers and those that do both – in order to efficiently deliver sustainable, economic
and secure electricity supplies.
System (Generation, Transmission, Distribution) with an advanced two- way
communications system.
Enables real-time monitoring and control.
Provide greater visibility and transparency.
Consequently, enables cost reduction and efficiency improvement.
Smart Grid is based on Digital Technology that is used to supply electricity to consumers
via Two-Way Digital Communication. This system allows for monitoring, analysis,
control and communication within the supply chain to help improve efficiency, reduce the

energy consumption and cost and maximise the transparency and reliability of the energy
supply chain.
The flow of electricity from utility to consumer becomes a two-way conversation, saving
consumers money, energy, delivering more transparency in terms of end-user use, and
reducing carbon emissions.
3. How Self-healing concept important to the electrical Grid.
A self-healing grid is expected to respond to threats, material failures, and other

destabilizing influences by preventing or containing the spread of disturbances. This
requires the following capabilities:
1. Timely recognition of impending problems.
2. Redeployment of resources to minimize adverse impacts.
3. A fast and coordinated response to evolving disturbances.
4. Minimization of loss of service under any circumstances.
5. Minimization of time to reconfigure and restore service.
A smart grid automatically detects and responds to routine problems and quickly recover if
they occur, minimizing downtime and financial loss. Self-healing concept important to the
Energy Infrastructure A secure ―architected sensing, communications, automation (control),
and energy overlaid infrastructure as an integrated, reconfigurable, and electronically
controlled system that will offer unprecedented flexibility and functionality, and improve
system availability, security, quality, resilience and robustness.
The Self-Healing Grid is a system comprised of sensors, automated controls, and advanced
software that utilizes real-time distribution data to detect and isolate faults and to
reconfigure the distribution network to minimize the customers impacted.
One of the main goals of a Self-Healing Grid is to improve system reliability.
This can be accomplished by reconfiguring the switches and reclosers installed on the
distribution feeder to quickly isolate the faulted section of the feeder and re-establish service
to as many customers as possible from alternate sources/feeders.
4. Summarize the disadvantages of conventional electrical grid.

1. Over strained and interregional bulk power transfer is limited
2. Cannot fully support the integration of renewable energy
3. Low reliability of power and outages
4. Fluctuating Power quality
5. Lack of Consumer Discipline
6. Increasing levels of Green house gases
7. Almost Zero Customer Participation

8. Low billing and collection
9. Less Efficiency
Unit - II
Part – C
1. Summarize the steps involved in the evolution of Smart Grid.
Evolution of Electric Grid
Advancements made over many decades in automation, protection, control,

power dispatch, and communication used particularly in transmission networks have
paved the way to the development of the Smart Grid concept. Some of these technologies
have been in use since the early stage of electrical power industry while
others have gradually been incorporated into electrical grids over several generations.
1. For example, the earliest or first generation control equipment used in substations that
was best described as automatic control. Their basic function is to de-energize the
protected circuit when it is subjected to a fault condition, reclosing it once to test
whether the fault to which the circuit is subjected to is momentary. This function
was initially performed by electromechanical relays but later on was taken over by
digital / numerical relays.
2. The second generation is based on the automatic telephone switchboard equipment of the
1950s. It may be considered as one of the first uses of communication equipment in a grid
substation. Using this equipment, the operator at a remote location could read and have
control of the local substation. This equipment was called supervisory control equipment.
3. In the late 1960s the supervisory control and data acquisition system (SCADA) was
introduced to replace supervisory control equipment.
4. The SCADA system slowly expanded in the 1970s and 1980s whereby a minimum
monitoring of the majority of the transmission systems operating at voltages of 220 kV or
higher and some distribution substations were included. This system was also used to
centrally support control rooms and Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) for data collection and
control in the substations.
5. Latter on RTUs are connected through hardwires to programmable logic controllers

(PLCs). The latter are originated from manufacturing industries.
6. As technology progressed, communication links took the place of the hardwired inputs.
The RTU/PLC configuration was then replaced with different network architecture in the
mid-1990s. This network architecture consists of protection relays/intelligent electronic
devices (IEDs), PLCs, and other devices talking to each other over a network and
coordinating operations. Number of utilities has already moved to the second generation of

this system and they are currently contemplating to transform the backbone communication
protocol to International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) 61850.
7. Since about 2005, there has been increasing interest in the Smart Grid. The recognition that
ICT offers significant opportunities to modernise the operation of the electrical networks has
coincided with an understanding that the power sector can only be de-carbonised at a realistic
cost if it is monitored and controlled effectively.
In the context of Smart Grid, historically distribution networks are usually controlled
manually. However, manually operated switches and fuses do not lend themselves easily to
the Smart Grid concept. For this reason, many utilities embarked on developing programs
aiming at deployment of intelligence, primarily to enhance the voltage profiles of distribution
networks and to speed up isolation of faults.
Apart from being old and out-of-date, conventional electrical networks have recently been
subjected to many changes. The most important of these that proved to be difficult for the
networks to accommodate include:
(i). The integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) based-generators, including RESs
based-generators and storage systems into electrical networks, particularly at distribution
voltage levels.
(ii). Accommodating the recent new development in transport industry in terms of EVs will
be presented as a new type of load which puts further stress on the network.
(iii). Dealing with the dynamic situation between electricity market stakeholders and
electrical utilities due to liberalization of electricity market in recent years that require the
implementation of new tools and methodologies with the help of new and advanced
technologies.
These changes have adversely affected the operation, management, and protection of
networks in a number of ways. Additionally the advancement in digital, communication,
automatic control, and other technologies has opened new windows and opportunities to find
solutions and tackle network’s problems. This in turn has led to initially contemplate on
modernizing conventional electrical networks and eventually to the development of the Smart
Grid concept.
2. Brief out the motives behind developing the Smart Grid Network.
It has been recognized that the changes to which electrical networks are subjected in recent
years have made the grid of today unable to meet the challenges of the future. This has led to
urgent need to modernizing electrical networks, which in turn has evolved into the
development of the Smart Grid concept. The Smart Grid concept is widely perceived as way
forward to solve problems related to growing energy consumption, integration of distributed
generation, energy efficiency, power supply reliability, and power quality. The factors that
led to the development of the Smart Grid concept may be summarized as follows:
1. Aging of conventional electrical networks coupled with the emergence of new

applications.

2. Political and environmental factors
3. Liberalization of electricity market
4. Motivation and inclusion of customers as players to support the grid
1. Aging of conventional electrical networks coupled with the emergence of new

applications:
Conventional electrical networks in many countries were designed in 1950s and
built in 1960s and 1970s, well before the microprocessor era and huge
advancements in areas such as communications and automatic control and smart
appliances. In addition to this, totally new applications have emerged that are
likely to affect the management and operation of electrical networks. Examples
of such applications include electrical vehicles (EVs) and heat pumps which will
have a considerable impact on the electricity grid [3]. Therefore, it has been
recognized that electrical networks have become very old and out-of-date and
consequently their modernization has become essential. In this context,
upgrading the current European electricity grid with ‘‘smarter’’ technologies was
made one of the key priorities in the effort to overcome the infrastructural and
operational challenges posed by the newly adapted EU energy-climate legislative package
with its triple targets for 2020 [4]. The EU’s triple commitment
aims at:
● Reducing CO2 emissions by 20%
● Sourcing 20% of the EU’s total energy, including transport, heating and lighting, and
electricity from renewable sources
● Improving energy efficiency by 20%
All targets must be completed by 2020. This represents a considerable challenge for the
energy sector of today. As far as the electricity grid, the triple commitment is even more
challenging as this means that approximately 35% of all electricity must be generated from
renewable energy sources (RESs).
2. Political and environmental factors:
Sharp increase in oil prices following the Arab–Israeli conflict in October 1973
has led the industrial nations to multiply their efforts to harness RESs, including
wind, solar, hydro, etc. Subsequent years have witnessed the development of
mature technologies to generate electricity from RESs such as solar energy, using
photovoltaic (PV), and wind power, which are perceived as environment friendly
and they do not emit the greenhouse gas, CO2, associated with generation of
electricity using fossil fuels. It is claimed that the electricity generated from
fossil fuels causes approximately 25% of global greenhouse gas emissions [3]
which prompted utilities to redefine the electricity system of the future in terms
of how it should look like. However, the majority of electrical generators powered by RES

are normally integrated into electrical networks at distribution level.
This process has led to transforming distribution networks from being passive
into active networks and consequently the flow of power in these networks has
become bidirectional. This in turn has created several technical difficulties
which in turn have affected the proper operation of protection relays [5] and
voltage control devices. All these factors have adversely affected the overall
management of the networks.
3. Liberalization of electricity market (economic factors):
Liberalization of electricity market in the USA, Europe [4], and elsewhere has
made it necessary that the reliability and quality of energy supply must be ensured
while adapting the structure and processes to take on board the new market
approach and new legal obligations, integrating RESs into the system and
increasing the efficiency of both transmission and distribution networks in order to
limit the grid tariffs.
4. Motivation and inclusion of customers:
Traditionally, customers are perceived as ‘‘passive users of electricity’’ while

utilities as providers of electricity commodity with fixed tariffs [8]. Recently, this
situation has changed due to (i) making it possible to customers, through legislations and
various incentives, to generate electricity and feed it back partially or
totally to the grid using electrical network’s transmission and distribution systems
and (ii) empowering customers, through the use of combination of advanced
technologies in association with recently developed smart appliances, to choose
electricity provider based on the price on offer and/or decide the most suitable time
to operate their appliances. The inclusion of customers can be facilitated by the
implementation of the Smart Grid concept. The price of electricity can be used as the key
motivator by customers. This is achieved through customer choices that they can make with
their smart appliances and energy management systems to actively respond instantaneously,
hourly, daily, and even seasonally, in order to closely match their energy
usage to the actual cost of producing that electricity or in response to emergency
situations. Under this situation, utilities are required to respond more interactively
to customer needs in order to meet their reliability and efficiency requirements in a
more timely and comprehensive manner.
3. Prioritize the most important characteristics of Smart Grid.
Smart Grid characteristics based on functionality approach include seven principal

characteristics as listed below:
1. Optimize asset utilization and operating efficiency.
2. Accommodate all generation and storage options.
3. Provide power quality for the range of needs in a digital economy.

4. Anticipate and respond to system disturbances in a self-healing manner.
5. Operate resiliently against physical and cyber-attacks and natural disasters.
6. Enable active participation by consumers.
7. Enable new products, services, and markets.
These principal characteristics will be discussed as follows.
1. Optimize asset utilization and operate efficiently
It is anticipated that implementing the Smart Grid concept will greatly improve the operation
of power system as a result of improving load factors, reducing system losses, and the
expected dramatic improvement in the outage management performance. It is also anticipated
that as a consequence of fully implementing the Smart Grid concept the grid will be equipped
with additional intelligence. This in turn will provide planners and engineers with extra
knowledge to build ‘‘what is needed when it is needed,’’ extend the life of assets, repair
equipment before it fails unexpectedly, and more importantly manage the work force
responsible for maintaining the grid. This will result in reducing the operation, maintenance,
and capital costs and thereby reducing the pressure on electricity prices.
2. Accommodate all generation and storage options
Under the Smart Grid environment it will be much easier to integrate all types and sizes of
electrical generation and storage systems using simplified interconnection processes and
universal interoperability standards to support what is called a ‘‘plug and-play’’ approach. It
is expected that large central generation plants, including advanced nuclear plants and RESs,
such as wind and solar farms which are considered environment friendly, will continue to
play a major role despite the expected deployment of large number of smaller distributed
resources, including plug-in EVs. It will also be possible to interconnect generators with
capacities ranging from small to large at essentially all voltage levels. This will include DERs
such as photovoltaic, wind, advanced batteries, plug-in hybrid vehicles, and fuel cells.
Commercial users will find it much easier and more profitable to install their own generation
such as highly efficient combined heat and power installations and electric storage facilities.
3. Provide power quality for digital economy
It is expected that implementing the Smart Grid concept will help in monitoring, diagnosing,
and responding to power quality deficiencies. This in turn will lead to a substantial reduction
in the business losses currently experienced by consumers due to low power quality.
Adapting new power quality standards will balance load sensitivity with delivered power
quality. The Smart Grid will facilitate the supply of varying grades of power quality at
different pricing levels. Additionally, power quality events that originate in the transmission
and distribution elements of the electrical power system can be minimized. The irregularities
caused by certain consumer loads can also be isolated and consequently preventing the
adverse effect on the electrical system and other consumers.

4. Anticipate and respond to system disturbances (self-heal)
Under the Smart Grid environment the grid will have the ability to heal itself. This is
achieved by continuously performing self-assessments to detect and analyze the status of the
grid and its components, take corrective action to mitigate the effect of defective components
and, if needed, rapidly restore grid components or network sections. It will also have the
capability to handle problems that are too large or too fast-moving to be handled by human.
Grid’s self-healing is considered as the grid’s ‘‘immune system.’’ It will help maintain grid
reliability, security, affordability, power quality, and efficiency. This will result in
minimizing disruption of service. Self-healing can be achieved by employing modern
technologies that can acquire data, execute decision-support algorithms, prevent or limit
interruptions, dynamically control the flow of power, and restore service quickly. For
example, probabilistic risk assessments based on real-time measurements can be used to
identify the equipment, power plants, and lines most likely to fail. A second example, real-
time contingency analyses can be used to determine overall grid health, trigger early
warnings of trends that could result in grid failure, and identify the need for immediate
investigation and action. A third example is the use of communication system to
communicate with local and remote devices to analyze faults, low voltage, poor power
quality, overloads, and other undesirable system conditions. Based on these analyses,
appropriate control actions will be taken, automatically or manually as the need determines.
5. Operate resiliently against attack and natural disaster
A system-wide solution that ensures the reduction of physical and cyber vulnerabilities and
enables a rapid recovery from disruptions will be incorporated under the Smart Grid
environment. This will result in the Smart Grid being resilience which will deter any attack
that would be committed from even those who are determined and well equipped. However,
its decentralized operating model and self-healing features will also make it less vulnerable to
natural disasters than today’s grid. Additionally, security protocols will be designed such that
they will contain elements of deterrence, detection, response, and mitigation to ensure
minimizing the impact on the grid and the economy. This particular characteristic of the
Smart Grid makes it less susceptible and more resilient, which will in turn make it a more
difficult target for terrorists.
6. Enable active participation by consumers
It is expected that active participation of consumers in electricity markets would bring several
benefits to the grid as well as the environment. By fully implementing the Smart Grid
concept, consumers will get access to the necessary information, control, and options that
allow them to engage in ‘‘electricity markets.’’ However, grid operators will consider willing
consumers as resources in the day-to-day operation of the grid as will be discussed later on in
the following chapters. Additionally well informed consumers will have the ability to modify
their consumption based on balancing their demands and resources with the electric system’s
capability to meet those demands. Dedicated demand response (DR) programs will help
satisfying basic consumers’ need, i.e., the ability and flexibility in deciding when and where
from energy is purchased. Such participation of consumers would help in reducing or shifting

peak demand that allows utilities to minimize capital expenditures and operating expenses. It
would lead to reducing line losses and minimizing the operation of inefficient peaking power
plants. This in turn would result in substantial environmental benefits.
7. Enable new products, services, and markets
Realizing the Smart Grid will facilitate linking buyers and sellers together, starting from
consumers to generators and all those in between. It will also support the creation of new
electricity markets and tools that ensure efficient electricity trading. This will range from the
home energy management system at the consumers’ premises to the technologies that allow
consumers and third parties to bid their energy into the electricity market. This will help in
making consumers feel price fluctuations through real-time pricing. The reaction of
consumers to price increases will inevitably lead to mitigate demand and energy usage. This
in turn will drive lower-cost solutions, which will lead to new technology development. New
and clean energy-related products will also be offered as market options. The Smart Grid is
also expected to support consistent market operation across regions.

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Subject : 191EE546 - Introduction to Smart Grid

PART – A (UNIT – I & UNIT-II)

1. Which of the following elements of electrical engineering cannot be analyzed

3. Voltage across the 60ohm resistor is______

a) 72V b) 0V c) 48V d) 120V

4. Find the voltage across the 6 ohm resistor.

a) 150V b) 181.6V c) 27.27V d) 54.48V

191EE546 - INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID CAT – I (Materials) S.T. Subha Page 1

7. Calculate the current across the 20 ohm resistor.

a) 10A b) 20A c) 6.67A d) 36.67A

191EE546 - INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID CAT – I (Materials) S.T. Subha Page 2

Total bill of electricity = number of units of electricity consumed × amount for

12. Identify the correct formula of electric power.

13. Which one of the following is the practical unit of power?

191EE546 - INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID CAT – I (Materials) S.T. Subha Page 4

17. The area under the load curve represents ____________

18. When load factor and diversity factor increases ___________

Load Factor = Average Load / Maximum Demand

19. Which of the following has highest diversity factor?

A. Virtual Power Plant B. Micro Grid C. Macro Grid

21. Smart Grid Technology comprises the following:

a. AMI, PLM, OMS, Renewable Integration

b. DR/DSM, Distributed Automation, Energy Efficient systems

c. All the above d. None of the above

[AMI - Advanced Metering Infrastructure

PLM - Peak Load Management

OMS - Outage Management System

DR/DSM – Demand Response / Demand Side Management]

a. Measure electricity usage in real time

191EE546 - INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID CAT – I (Materials) S.T. Subha Page 6

d. All the above

23. Smart Grid Technologies are aimed at improvement of

a. Only Power Transmission system b. Only Power Distribution

c. Both Power Transmission and Distribution System

d. Neither Power Transmission nor Distribution System

24. In a Smart Grid ECO System, a normal consumer is expected to be able to

a. non-consumer b. careful consumer c. Prosumer

d. Both careful consumer and Prosumer

[A prosumer is an individual who both consumes and produces.]

25. AMI means

a. Automated Metering Instrument b. Alternate Metering Instrument

c. Advanced Metering Infrastructure d. Advanced Metering Instrument

26. PLM means

a. Peak Load Management b. Plant Load Management

c. Power Leakage Management d. Plant Leakage Management

27. OMS means:

191EE546 - INTRODUCTION TO SMART GRID CAT – I (Materials) S.T. Subha Page 7

c. Outage Management System d. Outage Maintenance System

28. In a power system, due to interconnection or Grid formation and

a. Power system quality b. Power system reliability

c. Computers and microprocessors d. Reserve generating capacity

29. Opportunities of smart grid

A. Cyber Security in future B. Optimal Power Flow

C. Defence Model D. All the above

a. two way communication

b. continuous monitoring and feedback from the grid

c. fault finding and real time pricing is possible

33. A ___ distribution system is more reliable than the