ANSWERS (WAVES EXAMPLES) AUTUMN 2023

Q1.
Given:
ℎ = 20 m
𝐴 = 4 m (𝐻 = 8 m)
𝑇 = 13 s
Then,
2π
𝜔= = 0.4833 rad s −1
𝑇

Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 0.4762 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
The LHS is small, so iterate as
1 0.4762
𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 0.7499
0.7499
𝑘= = 0.03750 m−1
ℎ
2π
𝐿= = 167.6 m
𝑘
𝜔 𝐿
𝑐= (or ) = 12.89 m s −1
𝑘 𝑇

Answer: wavelength 168 m, phase speed 12.9 m s–1.

(b) By formula:
𝑔𝑘𝐴 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑢= cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
𝜕𝑢 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑎𝑥 = (+ neglected non-linear terms) = 𝑔𝑘𝐴 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 cosh 𝑘ℎ
Hence
𝑎𝑥,max = 1.137 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
Then:
surface (𝑧 = 0): 𝑎𝑥,max = 1.137 cosh 𝑘ℎ = 1.472 m s −2
mid-depth (𝑧 = − ℎ⁄2): 𝑎𝑥,max = 1.137 cosh(𝑘ℎ/2) = 1.218 m s −2

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -1 Dr David Apsley

 bottom: (𝑧 = −ℎ): 𝑎𝑥,max = 1.137 m s−2

Answer: (1.47, 1.22, 1.14) m s–2.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -2 Dr David Apsley

Q2.
Waves A and B (no current)

In the absence of current the dispersion relation is

𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
This may be iterated as either
𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔 1 𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔
𝑘ℎ = or 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ

Wave A Wave B
ℎ 20 m 3m

𝑇 10 s 12 s

2π
𝜔= 0.6283 rad s–1 0.5236 rad s–1
𝑇

𝜔2 ℎ
0.8048 0.08384
𝑔

1 0.8048 1 0.08384
Iteration: 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + ) 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝑘ℎ 1.036 0.2937

𝑘 0.0518 m–1 0.0979 m–1

𝜔
𝑐= 12.13 m s–1 5.348
𝑘
Type: Intermediate (π/10 < 𝑘ℎ < π) Shallow (𝑘ℎ < π/10 )

Wave C (with current)

𝑇𝑎 = 6 s
ℎ = 24 m
𝑈 = −0.8 m s −1
Then
2π
𝜔𝑎 = = 1.047 rad s−1
𝑇𝑎

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -3 Dr David Apsley

With current, the dispersion relation is
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈0 )2 = 𝜔𝑟2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Rearrange for iteration as
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈0 )2
𝑘=
𝑔 tanh 𝑘ℎ
i.e.
(1.047 + 0.8𝑘)2
𝑘=
9.81 tanh(24𝑘)
Solve:
𝑘 = 0.1367 m−1
𝑘ℎ = 3.2808
The speed relative to the fixed-position sensor is the absolute speed:
𝜔𝑎 1.047
𝑐𝑎 = = = 7.659 m s−1
𝑘 0.1367

Since 𝑘ℎ > π this is a deep-water wave.

Answer: A: intermediate, 12.1 m s–1; B: shallow, 5.348 m s–1; C: deep, 7.66 m s–1.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -4 Dr David Apsley

Q3.
Given:
ℎ = 15 m
𝑓 = 0.1 Hz
𝑝range = 9500 N m−2
Then,
2π
𝜔= = 2π𝑓 = 0.6283 rad s−1
𝑇

Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 0.6036 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
The LHS is small, so iterate as
1 0.6036
𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 0.8642
0.8642
𝑘= = 0.05761 m−1
ℎ
2π
𝐿= = 109.1 m
𝑘

By formula, the wave part of the pressure is

cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴 cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
cosh 𝑘ℎ
and hence the range (max – min) at the seabed sensor (𝑧 = −ℎ) is
2𝜌𝑔𝐴 𝜌𝑔𝐻
𝑝range = =
cosh 𝑘ℎ cosh 𝑘ℎ
Hence,
cosh 𝑘ℎ cosh 0.8642
𝐻 = 𝑝range × = 9500 × = 1.32 m
𝜌𝑔 1025 × 9.81

Answer: 1.32 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -5 Dr David Apsley

Q4.
On the seabed (𝑧 = −ℎ) the gauge pressure distribution is
𝜌𝑔𝐴
𝑝 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ + cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑎 𝑡)
cosh 𝑘ℎ
The average and the fluctuation of this will give the water depth and wave amplitude,
respectively:
𝜌𝑔𝐴
𝑝̅ = 𝜌𝑔ℎ , Δ𝑝 =
cosh 𝑘ℎ
i.e.
𝑝̅ Δ𝑝
ℎ= , 𝐴= cosh 𝑘ℎ
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔

Here,
98.8 + 122.6
𝑝̅ = × 1000 = 110400 Pa
2
122.6 − 98.8
Δ𝑝 = × 1000 = 11900 Pa
2
Hence,
110400
ℎ= = 10.98 m
1025 × 9.81

For the amplitude, we require also 𝑘ℎ, which must be determined, via the dispersion relation,
from the period. From, e.g., the difference between the peaks of 5 cycles,
49.2 − 6.8
𝑇= = 8.48 s
5
2π
𝜔𝑎 = = 0.7409 rad s−1
𝑇

(a) No current.

The dispersion relation rearranges as

𝜔𝑎2 ℎ
= 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
0.6144 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ

Rearrange for iteration. Since the LHS < 1 the most effective form is
1 0.6144
𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iteration from, e.g., 𝑘ℎ = 1, gives
𝑘ℎ = 0.8737

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -6 Dr David Apsley

Then the amplitude is
Δ𝑝 11900
𝐴= cosh 𝑘ℎ = × cosh 0.8737 = 1.665 m
𝜌𝑔 1025 × 9.81
corresponding to a wave height
𝐻 = 2𝐴 = 3.33 m

Finally, for the wavelength,

𝑘ℎ 0.8737
𝑘= = = 0.07957 m−1
ℎ 10.98
2π
𝐿= = 78.96 m
𝑘

Answer: water depth = 11.0 m; wave height = 3.33 m; wavelength = 79.0 m.

(b) With current 𝑈 = 2 m s −1

The dispersion relation is

(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Rearrange as
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2
𝑘=
𝑔 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Here,
(0.7409 − 2𝑘)2
𝑘=
9.81 tanh(10.98𝑘)
This does not converge very easily. An alternative using under-relaxation is
1 (0.7409 − 2𝑘)2
𝑘 = [𝑘 + ]
2 9.81 tanh(10.98𝑘)
Iteration from, e.g., 𝑘 = 0.1 m−1 , gives
𝑘 = 0.06362 m−1
and, with ℎ = 10.98 m),
𝑘ℎ = 0.6985

Then the amplitude is

Δ𝑝 11900
𝐴= cosh 𝑘ℎ = × cosh 0.6985 = 1.484 m
𝜌𝑔 1025 × 9.81
corresponding to a wave height
𝐻 = 2𝐴 = 2.968 m

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -7 Dr David Apsley

Finally, for the wavelength,
2π
𝐿= = 98.76 m
𝑘

Answer: water depth = 11.0 m; wave height = 2.97 m; wavelength = 98.8 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -8 Dr David Apsley

Q5.
There are three depths to be considered:
deep / transducer (22 m) / shallow (8 m)
The shoreward rate of energy transfer is constant; i.e.
(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)deep = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)transducer = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)shallow
We can find 𝑛 and 𝑐 from the dispersion relation at all locations, and the height 𝐻 from the
transducer pressure measurements.

Given:
𝑇 = 12 s
Then
2π
𝜔= = 0.5236 rad s −1
𝑇
Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
Solve for 𝑘ℎ, and thence 𝑘 by iterating either
𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔 1 𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔
𝑘ℎ = or (better here) 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
together with
𝜔 1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑐= , 𝑛= [1 + ]
𝑘 2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

In shallow water (ℎ = 8 m), 𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔 = 0.2236, and hence:

𝑘ℎ = 0.4912 , 𝑘 = 0.06140 m−1 , 𝑐 = 8.528 m s−1 , 𝑛 = 0.9278

At the transducer (ℎ = 22 m), 𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔 = 0.6148, and hence:

𝑘ℎ = 0.8740 , 𝑘 = 0.03973 m−1 , 𝑐 = 13.18 m s−1 , 𝑛 = 0.8139

In deep water, tanh 𝑘ℎ → 1 and so

𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘
whence
𝜔2
𝑘= = 0.02795
𝑔
The phase speed is
𝜔 𝑔
𝑐= = = 18.74 m s−1
𝑘 𝜔

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -9 Dr David Apsley

and, in deep water,
1
𝑛=
2

At the pressure transducer we have

cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝜌𝑔𝐴 = 10000
cosh 𝑘ℎ
with 𝜌 = 1025 kg m−3 (seawater) and 𝑧 = −20 m in water of depth ℎ = 22 m. Hence,
10000 × cosh 0.8740
𝐴= = 1.395 m
1025 × 9.81 × cosh[0.03973 × 2]
and hence
𝐻transducer = 2𝐴 = 2.790 m

Then, from the shoaling equation:

(𝑛𝑐)transducer 0.8139 × 13.18

𝐻deep = 𝐻transducer √ = 2.790 × √ = 2.985 m
(𝑛𝑐)deep 0.5 × 18.74

(𝑛𝑐)transducer 0.8139 × 13.18

𝐻shallow = 𝐻transducer √ = 2.790 × √ = 3.249 m
(𝑛𝑐)shallow 0.9278 × 8.528

Answer: wave heights (a) nearshore: 3.25 m; (b) deep water: 2.99 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -10 Dr David Apsley

Q6.
Given:
ℎ =1m
𝑎 = 0.1 m
𝑏 = 0.05 m

First deduce 𝑘ℎ, and hence the wavenumber, from the ratio of the semi-axes of the particle
orbits:
d𝑋 𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧0 )
=𝑢≈ cos(𝑘𝑥0 − 𝜔𝑡)
d𝑡 𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧0 )
 𝑋 = 𝑥0 − sin(𝑘𝑥0 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔2 cosh 𝑘ℎ
cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧0 )
 𝑋 = 𝑥0 − 𝐴 sin(𝑘𝑥0 − 𝜔𝑡)
sinh 𝑘ℎ

d𝑍 𝐴𝑔𝑘 sinh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧0 )

=𝑤≈ sin(𝑘𝑥0 − 𝜔𝑡)
d𝑡 𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
𝐴𝑔𝑘 sinh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧0 )
 𝑍 = 𝑧0 + cos(𝑘𝑥0 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔2 cosh 𝑘ℎ
sinh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧0 )
 𝑍 = 𝑧0 + 𝐴 cos(𝑘𝑥0 − 𝜔𝑡)
sinh 𝑘ℎ
Where, in both directions we have used the dispersion relation 𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ to simplify.

Hence,
cosh(𝑘ℎ/2)
𝑎=𝐴 = 0.1
sinh 𝑘ℎ
sinh(𝑘ℎ/2)
𝑏=𝐴 = 0.05
sinh 𝑘ℎ
Then
𝑏
= tanh(𝑘ℎ/2) = 0.5
𝑎
 𝑘ℎ = 2 tanh−1(0.5) = 1.099

1.099
 𝑘= = 1.099 m−1
1

Then wave height can be deduced from, e.g., the expression for 𝑎:
sinh 𝑘ℎ sinh 1.099
𝐴=𝑎 = 0.1 × = 0.1155
cosh(𝑘ℎ/2) cosh(1.099/2)

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -11 Dr David Apsley

 𝐻 = 2𝐴 = 0.2310 m

From the dispersion relation:

𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ ⇒ 𝜔 = 2.937 rad s −1

Finally,
2π
𝑇= = 2.139 s
𝜔
2π
𝐿= = 5.717 m
𝑘

Answer: height = 0.0268 m; period = 2.14 s; wavelength = 5.72 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -12 Dr David Apsley

Q7.
Given
ℎ = 20 m
𝐴 = 1 m (𝐻 = 2 m)

(a) Here,
𝑈 = +1 m s −1
𝑇𝑎 = 3 s
2π
𝜔𝑎 = = 2.094 rad s−1
𝑇𝑎
Dispersion relation:
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2 = 𝜔𝑟2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2
𝑘=
𝑔 tanh 𝑘ℎ
i.e.
(2.094 − 𝑘)2
𝑘=
9.81 tanh 20𝑘
to get
𝑘 = 0.3206
2π
𝐿= = 19.60 m
𝑘

The maximum particle velocity occurs at the surface and is the wave-relative maximum
velocity plus the current, i.e. from the wave-induced particle velocity
𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑢𝑟 = cos(𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑟 𝑡)
𝜔𝑟 cosh 𝑘ℎ
we have
𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈 = 2.094 − 0.3206 × 1 = 1.773 rad s−1
As the wave is travelling in the same direction as the current:
𝐴𝑔𝑘 1 × 9.81 × 0.3206
|𝑢|max = +𝑈 = +1 = 2.774 m s−1
𝜔𝑟 1.773

Answer: wavelength 19.6 m; maximum particle speed 2.77 m s–1.

(b) Now,
𝑈 = −1 m s −1
𝑇𝑎 = 7 s

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -13 Dr David Apsley

 2π
𝜔𝑎 = = 0.8976 rad s−1
𝑇𝑎
Dispersion relation is rearranged for iteration as above:
(0.8976 + 𝑘)2
𝑘=
9.81 tanh 20𝑘
to get
𝑘 = 0.1056
2π
𝐿= = 59.50 m
𝑘

Wave-relative frequency:
𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈 = 0.8976 + 0.1056 × 1 = 1.003 rad s−1
This time, as the current is opposing, the maximum speed is the magnitude of the backward
velocity:
𝐴𝑔𝑘 1 × 9.81 × 0.1056
|𝑢|max = + |𝑈| = +1 = 2.033 m s−1
𝜔𝑟 1.003

Answer: wavelength 59.5 m; maximum particle speed 2.03 m s–1.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -14 Dr David Apsley

Q8.
As the waves move from deep to shallow water they refract (change angle 𝜃) according to
𝑘0 sin 𝜃0 = 𝑘1 sin 𝜃1
and undergo shoaling (change height, 𝐻) according to
(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)0 = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)1
where subscript 0 indicates deep and 1 indicates the measuring station. Period is unchanged.

Given:
𝑇 = 5.5 s
then
2π
𝜔= = 1.142 rad s −1
𝑇

In deep water,
𝜔2
𝑘0 = = 0.1329
𝑔
1
𝑛0 =
2
𝑔𝑇 𝜔
𝑐0 = (or ) = 8.587 m s −1
2π 𝑘

In the measured depth ℎ = 6 m the wave height 𝐻1 = 0.8 m. The dispersion relation is
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

ω2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 0.7977 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
0.7977 1 0.7977
𝑘ℎ = or (better here) 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get (adding subscript 1):
𝑘1 ℎ = 1.030
1.030
𝑘1 = = 0.1717 m−1
ℎ
𝜔
𝑐1 = = 6.651 m s−1
𝑘1
1 2𝑘1 ℎ
𝑛1 = [1 + ] = 0.7669
2 sinh 2𝑘1 ℎ

Refraction

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -15 Dr David Apsley

 𝑘0 sin 𝜃0 = 𝑘1 sin 𝜃1
Hence:
𝑘1 0.1717
sin 𝜃0 = sin 𝜃1 = sin 47° = 0.9449
𝑘0 0.1329
𝜃0 = 70.89°

Shoaling
(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)0 = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)1
Hence:

(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)1 0.7669 × 6.651 × cos 47°

𝐻0 = 𝐻1 √ = 0.8 × √ = 1.259 m
(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)0 0.5 × 8.587 × cos 70.89°

Answer: deep-water wave height = 1.26 m; angle = 70.9°.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -16 Dr David Apsley

Q9.
(a)
Deep water
𝐿0 = 300 m
𝐻0 = 2 m
From the wavelength,
2π
𝑘0 = = 0.02094 m−1
𝐿0
From the dispersion relation with tanh 𝑘ℎ = 1:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘0
whence
𝜔 = √𝑔𝑘0 = 0.4532 rad s −1
This stays the same as we move into shallower water.
𝜔
𝑐0 = = 21.64 m s−1
𝑘0
𝑛0 = 0.5

Depth ℎ = 30 m

The dispersion relation is

𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 0.6281 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
0.6281 1 0.6281
𝑘ℎ = or (better here) 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get (adding subscript 1):
𝑘ℎ = 0.8856
0.8856
𝑘= = 0.02952 m−1
ℎ
2π
𝐿= = 212.8 m
𝑘
𝜔
𝑐= = 15.35 m s −1
𝑘
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] = 0.8103
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -17 Dr David Apsley

 𝑐𝑔 = 𝑛𝑐 = 12.44 m s −1

From the shoaling relationship

(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)0 = 𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐
Hence,

(𝑛𝑐)0 0.5 × 21.64

𝐻 = 𝐻0 √ = 2×√ = 1.865 m
𝑛𝑐 0.8103 × 15.35

Answer: wavelength = 213 m; height = 1.87 m; group velocity = 12.4 m s–1.

(b)
1 1 1
𝐸= 𝜌𝑔𝐴2 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 2 = × 1025 × 9.81 × 1.8652 = 4372 J m−2
2 8 8

Answer: energy = 4370 J m–2.

(c) If the wave crests were obliquely oriented then the wavelength and group velocity would
not change (because they are fixed by period and depth). However, the direction would change
(by refraction) and the height would change (due to shoaling).

Refraction:
𝑘0 sin 𝜃0 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃
Hence:
𝑘0 0.02094
sin 𝜃 = sin 𝜃0 = sin 60° = 0.6143
𝑘 0.02952
𝜃0 = 37.90°

Shoaling:
(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)0 = 𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃
Hence:

(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)0 0.5 × 21.64 × cos 60°

𝐻 = 𝐻0 √ =2×√ = 1.485 m
𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃 0.8103 × 15.35 × cos 37.90°

Answer: wavelength and group velocity unchanged; height = 1.48 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -18 Dr David Apsley

Q10.
(a) Let subscript 0 denote deep-water conditions and the absence of a subscript denote inshore
conditions (at the 9 m depth contour).

Wavenumber (at 9 m depth):

2π 2π
𝑘= = = 0.1142 m−1
𝐿 55
From the dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ = 9.81 × 0.1142 tanh(0.1142 × 9) = 0.8660 (rad s−1 )2
Hence, wave angular frequency
𝜔 = √0.8660 = 0.9306 rad s −1
and period
2π 2π
𝑇= = = 6.752 s
𝜔 0.9306

Answer: 6.75 s.

(b) The wave period and angular frequency do not change with depth. In deep water 𝑘ℎ → ∞
and tanh 𝑘ℎ → 1, so the deep-water wavenumber is given by
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘0
Hence
0.8660
𝑘0 = = 0.08828 m−1
9.81
and the deep-water wavelength is
2π
𝐿0 = = 71.17 m
𝑘0
𝑔𝑇 2
(Note: one could also use 𝐿0 = 2π directly for this part if preferred. However, 𝑘0 is needed in
the next part, so it is useful to calculate it here.)

Answer: 71.2 m.

(c) Refraction. By Snell’s law:

𝑘0 sin 𝜃0 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃
Hence,
𝑘 0.1142
sin 𝜃0 = sin 𝜃 = sin 25° = 0.5467
𝑘0 0.08828
𝜃0 = 33.14°

Answer: 33.1.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -19 Dr David Apsley

(d) Shoaling:
(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)0 = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)
Here, in deep water:
1
𝑛0 =
2
𝐿0 71.17
𝑐0 = = = 10.54 m s−1
𝑇 6.752
whilst at the inshore depth:
𝑘ℎ = 0.1142 × 9 = 1.028
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] = 0.7675
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ
𝐿 55
𝑐= = = 8.146 m s−1
𝑇 6.752

Hence:

(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃) 0.7675 × 8.146 × cos 25°

𝐻0 = 𝐻 √ = 1.8 × √ = 2.040 m
(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)0 0.5 × 10.54 × cos 33.14°

Answer: 2.04 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -20 Dr David Apsley

Q11.
(a)
𝑇 = 8s
2π
𝜔= = 0.7854 rad s −1
𝑇

Shoaling from 10 m depth to 3 m depth. Need wave properties at these two depths.

The dispersion relation is

𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
This may be iterated as either
𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔 1 𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔
𝑘ℎ = or 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
ℎ =3m ℎ = 10 m
𝜔2 ℎ
0.1886 0.6288
𝑔

1 0.1886 1 0.6288
Iteration: 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + ) 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝑘ℎ 0.4484 0.8862

𝑘 0.1495 m–1 0.08862 m–1

𝜔
𝑐= 5.254 m s–1 8.863 m s–1
𝑘
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] 0.9388 0.8101
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

𝐻 ? 1m

From the shoaling equation:

(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)3 m = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)10 m
Hence:

(𝑛𝑐)10 m 0.8101 × 8.863

𝐻3m = 𝐻10m √ = 1×√ = 1.207 m
(𝑛𝑐)3 m 0.9388 × 5.254

Answer: 1.21 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -21 Dr David Apsley

(b) The wave continues to shoal:
(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)𝑏 = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)3 m = 7.186
(in m-s units). Assuming that it breaks as a shallow-water wave, then
𝑛𝑏 = 1
𝑐𝑏 = √𝑔ℎ𝑏
and we are given, from the breaker depth index:
𝐻𝑏 = 0.78ℎ𝑏

Substituting in the shoaling equation,

(0.78ℎ𝑏 )2 √𝑔ℎ𝑏 = 7.186
⁄2
 1.906ℎ𝑏5 = 7.186
giving
ℎ𝑏 = 1.700 m
𝐻𝑏 = 0.78ℎ𝑏 = 1.326 m

Answer: breaking wave height 1.33 m in water depth 1.70 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -22 Dr David Apsley

Q12.
Narrow-band spectrum means that a Rayleigh distribution is appropriate, for which
𝐻 2
𝑃(wave height > 𝐻) = exp [− ( ) ]
𝐻rms

Central frequency of 0.2 Hz corresponds to a period of 5 seconds; i.e. 12 waves per minute. In
8 minutes there are (on average) 8 × 12 = 96 waves, so the question data says basically that
1
𝑃(wave height > 2 m) =
96

Comparing with the Rayleigh distribution with 𝐻 = 2 m:

2
2 1
exp [− ( ) ]=
𝐻rms 96
2
2
 exp [( ) ] = 96
𝐻rms

4
 2
= ln 96
𝐻rms

4
 𝐻rms = √ = 0.9361 m
ln 96

(a)
3 2 1
𝑃(wave height > 3 m) = exp [− ( ) ] = 3.463 × 10−5 =
𝐻rms 28877
This corresponds to once in every 28877 waves, or, at 12 waves per minute,
28877
= 2406 min = 40.1 hours
12

Answer: about once every 40 hours.

(b) The median wave height, 𝐻med , is such that

1
𝑃(wave height > 𝐻med ) =
2
Hence
𝐻med 2 1
exp [− ( ) ]=
𝐻rms 2

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -23 Dr David Apsley

 𝐻med 2
 exp [( ) ]=2
𝐻rms

𝐻med 2
 ( ) = ln 2
𝐻rms

 𝐻med = 𝐻rms √ln 2 = 0.9361√ln 2 = 0.7794 m

Answer: 0.779 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -24 Dr David Apsley

Q13.
(a) Narrow-banded, so a Rayleigh distribution is appropriate. Then
𝐻𝑠 2
𝐻rms = = = 1.412 m
1.416 1.416
Answer: 1.41 m.

(b)
𝐻1⁄10 = 1.800 𝐻rms = 1.800 × 1.412 = 2.542 m

Answer: 2.54 m.

(c)
𝑃(4 m < height < 5 m) = 𝑃(height > 4) − 𝑃(height > 5)
4 2 5 2
= exp [− ( ) ] − exp [− ( ) ]
1.412 1.412
= 3.235 × 10−4
or about once in every 3090 waves.

Answer: 3.2410–4.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -25 Dr David Apsley

Q14.
The Bretschneider spectrum is
5 2 𝑓𝑝4 5 𝑓𝑝4
𝑆(𝑓) = 𝐻𝑠 5 exp (− 4 )
16 𝑓 4𝑓
Here we have
𝐻𝑠 = 2.5 m
1 1
𝑓𝑝 = = Hz
𝑇𝑝 6

Amplitudes

For a single component the energy (per unit weight) is

1 2
𝑎 = 𝑆(𝑓)Δ𝑓
2
Hence,
𝑎𝑖 = √2𝑆(𝑓)Δ𝑓
In this instance, Δ𝑓 = 0.25𝑓𝑝 , so that, numerically,

0.9766 1.25
𝑎𝑖 = √ 5 exp [− 4]
(𝑓𝑖 ⁄𝑓𝑝 ) (𝑓𝑖 ⁄𝑓𝑝 )

These are computed (using Excel) in a column of the table below.

Wavenumbers

For deep-water waves,

𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘
or, since 𝜔 = 2π𝑓
4π2 𝑓𝑖2
𝑘𝑖 =
𝑔
Numerically here:
2
𝑓𝑖
𝑘𝑖 = 0.1118 ( )
𝑓𝑝
These are computed (using Excel) in a column of the table below.

Velocity

The maximum particle velocity for one component is

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -26 Dr David Apsley

 𝑔𝑘𝑖 𝑎𝑖 cosh 𝑘𝑖 (ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑢𝑖 =
𝜔𝑖 cosh 𝑘𝑖 ℎ
1
or, since the water is deep and hence cosh 𝑋 ~ 2 e 𝑋 :
𝑔𝑘𝑖 𝑎𝑖
𝑢𝑖 = exp 𝑘𝑖 𝑧
2π𝑓𝑖
Numerically here, with 𝑧 = −5 m:
9.368𝑘𝑖 𝑎𝑖
𝑢𝑖 = exp(−5𝑘𝑖 )
𝑓𝑖 /𝑓𝑝
These are computed (using Excel) in a column of the table below.

𝑓𝑖 /𝑓𝑝 𝑎𝑖 𝑘𝑖 𝑢𝑖
0.75 0.281410 0.062888 0.161410
1 0.528962 0.111800 0.316769
1.25 0.437929 0.174688 0.239372
1.5 0.316967 0.251550 0.141566
1.75 0.228204 0.342388 0.075503
2 0.168004 0.447200 0.037614
Sum: 1.961475 0.972235

From the table, with all components instantaneously in phase

𝜂max = ∑ 𝑎𝑖 = 1.961 m

𝑢max = ∑ 𝑢𝑖 = 0.9722 m s−1

Answers: (a), (b): [𝑎𝑖 ] and [𝑘𝑖 ] given in the table; (c) 𝜂max = 1.96 m, 𝑢max = 0.972 m s −1.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -27 Dr David Apsley

Q15.
Given
𝑇𝑝 = 9.1 s
then
1
𝑓𝑝 = = 0.1099 Hz
𝑇𝑝

The middle frequency of the given range is 𝑓 = 0.155 Hz. With 𝐻𝑠 = 2.1 m the Bretschneider
spectrum gives
5 2 𝑓𝑝4 5 𝑓𝑝4
𝑆(𝑓) = 𝐻 exp (− 4 ) = 1.638 m2 s
16 𝑠 𝑓 5 4𝑓
The energy density is then
𝐸 = 𝜌𝑔 × 𝑆(𝑓)Δ𝑓 = 1025 × 9.81 × 1.638 × 0.01 = 164.7 J m−2

The period of this component is

1
𝑇= = 6.452 s
𝑓
And hence, as a deep-water wave:
𝑔𝑇
𝑐= = 10.07 m s −1
2π
1
𝑛=
2
Hence,
𝑐𝑔 = 𝑛𝑐 = 5.035 m s −1

The power density is then

𝑃 = 𝐸𝑐𝑔 = 164.7 × 5.035 = 829.3 W m−1

Answer: 0.829 kW m–1.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -28 Dr David Apsley

Q16.
(a) Waves are duration-limited if the wind has not blown for sufficient time for wave energy
to propagate across the entire fetch. Otherwise they are fetch-limited, and the precise duration
of the storm does not affect wave parameters.

(b) Given
𝑈 = 13.5 m s−1
𝐹 = 64000 m
𝑡 = 3 × 60 × 60 = 10800 s
then the relevant non-dimensional fetch is
𝑔𝐹
𝐹̂ ≡ = 3445
𝑈2

The minimum non-dimensional time required for fetch-limited waves is found from
𝑔𝑡
𝑡̂min ≡ ( ) = 68.8𝐹̂ 2⁄3 = 15693
𝑈 min
but the actual non-dimensional time for which the wind has blown is
𝑔𝑡
𝑡̂ ≡ = 7848
𝑈
which is less. Hence, the waves are duration-limited and in the predictive curves we must use
an effective fetch 𝐹eff given by
2/3
68.8𝐹̂eff = 7848
whence
𝐹̂eff = 1218
Then
𝑔𝐻𝑠
≡𝐻 ̂𝑠 = 0.0016𝐹̂1/2 = 0.05584
𝑈 2 eff

𝑔𝑇𝑝 1/3
≡ 𝑇̂𝑝 = 0.286𝐹̂eff = 3.054
𝑈
from which the corresponding significant wave height and peak period are
𝐻𝑠 = 1.037 m
𝑇𝑝 = 4.203 s
The significant wave period is estimated as
𝑇𝑠 = 0.945𝑇𝑝 = 3.972 s

Answer: duration-limited; significant wave height = 1.04 m and period 3.97 s.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -29 Dr David Apsley

Q17.
Wave Properties

Given:
ℎ =6m
𝑇 = 6s
Then,
2π
𝜔= = 1.047 rad s −1
𝑇

Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 0.6705 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
0.6705 1 0.6705
𝑘ℎ = or (better here) 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 0.9223
0.9223
𝑘= = 0.1537 m−1
ℎ

Forces and Moments

The height of the fully reflected wave is 2𝐻, where 𝐻 is the height of the incident wave. Thus
the maximum crest height above SWL is 𝐻 = 1.5 m. Since the SWL depth is 6 m, the
maximum crest height does not overtop the caisson.

The modelled pressure distribution is as shown, consisting of

hydrostatic (from 𝑝1 = 0 at the crest to 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 at the SWL);
linear (from 𝑝2 at the SWL to the wave value 𝑝3 at the base);
linear underneath (from 𝑝3 at the front of the caisson to 0 at the rear).

To facilitate the computation of moments, the linear distribution on the front face can be
decomposed into a constant distribution (𝑝3 ) and a triangular distribution with top 𝑝2 − 𝑝3 .

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -30 Dr David Apsley

 p1

1 Fz
p2
Fx
3
2
My

p3
heel
4
p3

The relevant pressures are:

𝑝1 = 0
𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 = 1025 × 9.81 × 1.5 = 15080 Pa
𝜌𝑔𝐻 1025 × 9.81 × 1.5
𝑝3 = = = 10360 Pa
cosh 𝑘ℎ cosh(0.1537 × 6)

This yields the equivalent forces and points of application shown in the diagram below. Sums
of forces and moments (per metre width) are given in the table.

Region Force, 𝐹𝑥 or 𝐹𝑧 Clockwise turning moment about heel

1 1
1 𝐹𝑥1 = 𝑝2 × 𝐻 = 11310 N/m 𝐹𝑥1 × (ℎ + 𝐻) = 73520 N m⁄m
2 3
1
2 𝐹𝑥2 = 𝑝3 × ℎ = 62160 N/m 𝐹𝑥2 × ℎ = 186480 N m⁄m
2
1 2
3 𝐹𝑥3 = (𝑝2 − 𝑝3 ) × ℎ = 14160 N/m 𝐹𝑥3 × ℎ = 56640 N m⁄m
2 3
1 2
4 𝐹𝑧4 = 𝑝3 × 𝑤 = 20720 N /m 𝐹𝑧4 × 𝑤 = 55250 N m⁄m
2 3

The sum of the horizontal forces

𝐹𝑥1 + 𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑥3 = 87630 N/m
The sum of all clockwise moments
371900 N m / m

Answer: per metre, horizontal force = 87.6 kN; overturning moment = 372 kN m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -31 Dr David Apsley

Q18.
Period:
1 1
𝑇= = = 10 s
𝑓 0.1
The remaining quantities require solution of the dispersion relationship.
2π
𝜔= = 0.6283 rad s −1
𝑇
Rearrange the dispersion relation 𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ to give
𝜔2 ℎ
= 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
Here, with ℎ = 18 m,
0.7243 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Since the LHS < 1, rearrange for iteration as
1 0.7243
𝑘ℎ = [𝑘ℎ + ]
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iteration from, e.g., 𝑘ℎ = 1 produces
𝑘ℎ = 0.9683
0.9683
𝑘= = 0.05379 m−1
ℎ
The wavelength is then
2π
𝐿= = 116.8 m
𝑘
and the phase speed and ratio of group to phase velocities are
𝜔 𝐿
𝑐= (or ) = 11.68 m s−1
𝑘 𝑇
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] = 0.7852
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

For the wave power,

1 1
power (per m) = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 = × 1025 × 9.81 × 2.12 × 0.7852 × 11.68
8 8
= 50840 W m−1

Answer: period = 10 s; wavelength = 117 m; phase speed = 11.68 m s–1;

power = 50.8 kW m–1.

(b) First need new values of 𝑘, 𝑛 and 𝑐 in 6 m depth.

𝜔2 ℎ
= 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -32 Dr David Apsley

Here, with ℎ = 6 m,
0.2414 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Since the LHS < 1, rearrange for iteration as
1 0.2414
𝑘ℎ = [𝑘ℎ + ]
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iteration from, e.g., 𝑘ℎ = 1 produces
𝑘ℎ = 0.5120
0.5120
𝑘= = 0.08533 m−1
ℎ
𝜔
𝑐= = 7.363 m s −1
𝑘
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] = 0.9222
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

For direction, use Snell’s Law:

(𝑘 sin 𝜃)18 m = (𝑘 sin 𝜃)6 m
whence
(𝑘 sin 𝜃)18 m 0.05379 × sin 25°
(sin 𝜃)6 m = = = 0.2664
𝑘6 m 0.08533
and hence the wave direction in 6 m depth is 15.45°.

For wave height, use the shoaling equation:

(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)6 m = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)18 m
Hence,

(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)18 m 0.7852 × 11.68 × cos 25°

𝐻6 m = 𝐻18 m √ = 2.1√ = 2.367 m
(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)6 m 0.9222 × 7.363 × cos 15.45°

Answer: wave height = 2.37 m; wave direction = 15.5°.

(c) The Miche breaking criterion gives

𝐻
( ) = 0.14 tanh(𝑘ℎ)𝑏
𝐿 𝑏
If we are to assume shallow-water behaviour, then tanh 𝑘ℎ ~𝑘ℎ and so
𝐻𝑘
( ) = 0.14(𝑘ℎ)𝑏
2π 𝑏
whence

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -33 Dr David Apsley

 𝐻
( ) = 2π × 0.14 = 0.8796
ℎ 𝑏
or
𝐻𝑏 = 0.8796ℎ𝑏 (*)

This is used to eliminate wave height on the LHS of the shoaling equation
(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)𝑏 = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)6 m
For refraction, Snell’s Law in the form sin 𝜃 /𝑐 = constant, together with the shallow-water
phase speed at breaking, gives
sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃 sin 15.45°
( ) =( ) = = 0.03618
√𝑔ℎ 𝑏 𝑐 6m 7.363

whence
sin 𝜃𝑏 = 0.1133√ℎ𝑏

cos 𝜃𝑏 = √1 − sin2 𝜃𝑏 = √1 − 0.01284ℎ𝑏

With the shallow water approximations 𝑛 = 1, 𝑐 = √𝑔ℎ, and the relation (*), the shoaling
equation becomes
(0.8796ℎ𝑏 )2 √𝑔ℎ𝑏 √1 − 0.01284ℎ𝑏 = 36.67
or
5/2
2.423ℎ𝑏 (1 − 0.01284ℎ𝑏 )1/2 = 36.67
This rearranges for iteration:
ℎ𝑏 = 2.965(1 − 0.01284ℎ𝑏 )−1/5
to give
ℎ𝑏 = 2.988 m

Answer: 2.99 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -34 Dr David Apsley

Q19.
(a)
𝑈 = 35 m s −1
𝐹 = 150000 m
From these,
𝑔𝐹
𝐹̂ = = 1201
𝑈2
From the JONSWAP curves,
𝑡̂min = 68.8𝐹̂ 2⁄3 = 7774

(i) For 𝑡 = 4 hr = 14400 s,

𝑔𝑡
𝑡̂ = = 4036
𝑈
This is less than 7774. We conclude that there is insufficient time for wave energy to have
propagated right across the fetch; the waves are duration-limited. Hence, instead of 𝐹̂ , we use
an effective dimensionless fetch 𝐹̂eff such that
2/3
68.8𝐹̂eff = 4036
𝐹̂eff = 449.3
Then
̂𝑠 = 0.0016𝐹̂1/2
𝐻 = 0.03391
eff
1/3
𝑇̂𝑝 = 0.2857𝐹̂eff = 2.188
The dimensional significant wave height and peak wave period are
̂𝑠 𝑈 2
𝐻
𝐻𝑠 = = 4.234 m
𝑔
𝑇̂𝑝 𝑈
𝑇𝑝 = = 7.806 s
𝑔

Answer: significant wave height = 4.23 m; peak period = 7.81 s.

(ii) For 𝑡 = 8 hr = 28800 s,

𝑔𝑡
𝑡̂ = = 8072
𝑈
This is greater than 7774, so the wave statistics are fetch-limited and we can use 𝐹̂ = 1201.
Then
̂𝑠 = 0.0016𝐹̂1/2
𝐻 = 0.05545
𝑇̂𝑝 = 0.2857𝐹̂1/3 = 3.037
The dimensional significant height and peak wave period are

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -35 Dr David Apsley

 ̂𝑠 𝑈 2
𝐻
𝐻𝑠 = = 6.924 m
𝑔
𝑇̂𝑝 𝑈
𝑇𝑝 = = 10.84 s
𝑔

Answer: significant wave height = 6.92 m; period = 10.8 s.

(b) (i) The wave spectrum is narrow-banded, so it is appropriate to use the Rayleigh probability
distribution for wave heights.

In deep water 𝐻rms is known: 𝐻rms = 1.8 m. For a single wave:

𝑃(𝐻 > 3 m) = exp[−(3/1.8)2 ] = 0.06218
This is once in every
1
= 16.08 waves
𝑝
or, with wave period 9 s, once every 144.7 s.

Answer: every 145 s.

(ii) In this part the wave height is 𝐻 = 3 m at depth 10 m, but 𝐻rms is given in deep water. So
we either need to transform 𝐻 to deep water or 𝐻rms to the 10 m depth. We’ll do the former.

Use the shoaling equation (for normal incidence):

(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)0 = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)10 m

First find 𝑐 and 𝑛 in 10 m depth:

𝑇 = 9s
2π
𝜔= = 0.6981 rad s −1
𝑇
Rearrange the dispersion relation 𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ to give
𝜔2 ℎ
= 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
Here, with ℎ = 10 m,
0.4968 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Since the LHS < 1, rearrange for iteration as
1 0.4968
𝑘ℎ = [𝑘ℎ + ]
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iteration from, e.g., 𝑘ℎ = 1 produces
𝑘ℎ = 0.7688

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -36 Dr David Apsley

Then,
0.7688
𝑘= = 0.07688 m−1
ℎ
𝜔
𝑐= = 9.080 m s−1
𝑘
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] = 0.8464
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

In deep water:
𝑔𝑇
𝑐0 = = 14.05 m s −1
2π
1
𝑛0 =
2

Hence, when the inshore wave height 𝐻10 = 3 m, the deep-water wave height, from the
shoaling equation, is

(𝑛𝑐)10 0.8464 × 9.080

𝐻0 = 𝐻10 √ =3×√ = 3.138 m
(𝑛𝑐)0 0.5 × 14.05

(If we had transformed 𝐻rms to the 10 m depth instead we would have got 1.721 m.)

Now use the Rayleigh distribution to determine wave probabilities. For a single wave:
𝑃(𝐻10 > 3 m) = 𝑃(𝐻0 > 3.138 m) = exp[−(3.138/1.8)2 ] = 0.04787
This is once in every
1
= 20.89 waves
𝑝
or, with wave period 9 s, once every 188.0 s.

Answer: every 188 s.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -37 Dr David Apsley

Q20.
(a)
(i) Refraction – change of direction as oblique waves move into shallower water;
(ii) Diffraction – spreading of waves into a region of shadow;
(iii) Shoaling – change of height as waves move into shallower water.

(b)
2π 2π
𝜔= = = 0.5236 rad s−1
𝑇 12

Deep water

Dispersion relation
ω2 = 𝑔𝑘0
Hence:
𝜔2
𝑘0 = = 0.02795 m−1
𝑔
2π
𝐿0 = = 224.8 m
𝑘0
𝜔 𝐿0
𝑐0 = (or ) = 18.73 m s−1
𝑘0 𝑇
1
𝑛0 =
2

Shallow water

Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 0.1397 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as either
0.1397 1 0.1397
𝑘ℎ = or (better here) 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 0.3827
0.3827
𝑘= = 0.07654 m−1
ℎ
2π
𝐿= = 82.09 m
𝑘

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -38 Dr David Apsley

 𝜔 𝐿
𝑐= (or ) = 6.841 m s −1
𝑘 𝑇
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] = 0.9543
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

Refraction
𝑘 sin 𝜃 = 𝑘0 sin 𝜃0
Hence,
𝑘0 sin 𝜃0 0.02795 × sin 20°
sin 𝜃 = = = 0.1249
𝑘 0.07654
𝜃 = 7.175°

Shoaling
(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)5 m = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)0
Hence:

(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)0 0.5 × 18.73 × cos 20°

𝐻5 m = 𝐻0 √ =3×√ = 3.497 m
(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)5 m 0.9543 × 6.841 × cos 7.175°

Answer: wavelength = 82.1 m; direction = 7.18°; height = 3.50 m.

(c) The breaker height index is

𝐻𝑏 𝐻0 −1⁄5 3 −1⁄5
= 0.56 ( ) = 0.56 × ( ) = 1.328
𝐻0 𝐿0 224.8
Hence,
𝐻𝑏 = 1.328 𝐻0 = 3.984 m

The breaker depth index is

𝐻 𝐻𝑏
𝛾𝑏 ≡ ( ) = 𝑏 − 𝑎 2
ℎ 𝑏 𝑔𝑇
where, with a beach slope 𝑚 = 1⁄20 = 0.05:
𝑎 = 43.8(1 − e−19𝑚 ) = 26.86
1.56
𝑏= = 1.133
1 + e−19.5𝑚
Hence,
3.984
𝛾𝑏 = 1.133 − 26.86 × 9.81×122 =1.058
giving:

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -39 Dr David Apsley

 𝐻𝑏
ℎ𝑏 = = 3.766 m
𝛾𝑏

Answer: breaker height = 3.98 m; breaking depth = 3.77 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -40 Dr David Apsley

Q21.
(a)
(i) “Narrow-banded sea state” – narrow range of frequencies.

(ii) “Significant wave height” – either:

average height of the highest one-third of waves
or, from the wave spectrum,

𝐻𝑚0 = 4√̅̅̅
𝜂2 = 4𝑚0

(iii) “Energy spectrum”: distribution of wave energy with frequency; specifically,

𝑆(𝑓) d𝑓
is the wave energy (divided by 𝜌𝑔) in the small interval (𝑓, 𝑓 + d𝑓).

(iv) “Duration-limited” – condition of the sea state when the storm has blown for
insufficient time for wave energy to propagate across the entire fetch.

(b) If the period is 𝑇 = 10 s then the number of waves per hour is

3600
𝑛= = 360
𝑇

(i) For a narrow-banded sea state a Rayleigh distribution is appropriate:

2
𝑃(height > 𝐻) = e−(𝐻⁄𝐻rms )
Hence,
2
𝑃(height > 3.5) = e−(3.5⁄2.5) = 0.1409
For 360 waves, the expected number exceeding this is
360 × 0.1409 = 50.72

Answer: 51 waves.

(ii)
2
𝑃(height > 5) = e−(5⁄2.5) = 0.01832
Corresponding to once in every
1
= 54.59 waves
0.01832
With a period of 10 s, this represents a time of
10 × 54.59 = 545.9 s
(Alternatively, this could be expressed as 6.59 times per hour.)

Answer: 546 s (about 9.1 min) or, equivalently, 6.59 times per hour.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -41 Dr David Apsley

(iii) In deep water the dispersion relation reduces to:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘
or
2π 2 2π
( ) = 𝑔( )
𝑇 𝐿
Hence,
𝑔𝑇 2
𝐿=
2π
With 𝑇 = 10 s,
𝐿 = 156.1 m
𝐿
𝑐= = 15.61 m s −1
𝑇
and, in deep water
1
𝑐𝑔 = 𝑐 = 7.805 m s −1
2

Answer: wavelength = 156.1 m; celerity = 15.6 m s–1; group velocity = 7.81 m s–1.

(c) Given
𝑈 = 20 m s −1
𝐹 = 105 m
𝑡 = 6 hours = 21600 s

Then
𝑔𝐹
𝐹̂ ≡ = 2453
𝑈2
𝑔𝑡min
𝑡̂min ≡ = 68.8𝐹 2⁄3 = 12513
𝑈
But the non-dimensional time of the storm is
𝑔𝑡
𝑡̂ = = 10590
𝑈
This is less than 𝑡̂min , hence the sea state is duration-limited.

Hence, we must calculate an effective fetch by working back from 𝑡̂:

3⁄2
𝑡̂
𝐹̂eff = ( ) = 1910
68.8
The non-dimensional wave height and peak period then follow from the JONSWAP formulae:
𝑔𝐻𝑠 1 2⁄
̂𝑠 ≡
𝐻 = 0.0016𝐹̂eff = 0.06993
𝑈2

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -42 Dr David Apsley

 𝑔𝑇𝑝 1⁄3
𝑇̂𝑝 ≡ = 0.2857𝐹̂eff = 3.545
𝑈
whence, extracting the dimensional variables:
𝑈2
𝐻𝑠 = ̂
𝐻 = 2.851 m
𝑔 𝑠
𝑈
𝑇𝑝 = 𝑇̂ = 7.227 s
𝑔 𝑝

Answer: duration-limited; significant wave height = 2.85 m; peak period = 7.23 s.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -43 Dr David Apsley

Q22.
(a)
(i) Two of:
spilling breakers: steep waves and/or mild beach slopes;
plunging breakers: moderately steep waves and moderate beach slopes;
collapsing breakers: long waves and/or steep beach slopes.

(ii)
𝑇 = 7s
2π
𝜔= = 0.8976 rad s −1
𝑇

Shoaling from 100 m depth to 12 m depth. Need wave properties at these two depths.

The dispersion relation is

𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
This may be iterated as either
𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔 1 𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔
𝑘ℎ = or 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ

ℎ = 12 m ℎ = 100 m
𝜔2 ℎ
0.9855 8.213
𝑔

0.9855 8.213
Iteration: 𝑘ℎ = 𝑘ℎ =
tanh 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝑘ℎ 1.188 8.213

𝑘 0.099 m–1 0.08213 m–1

𝜔
𝑐= 9.067 m s–1 10.93 m s–1
𝑘
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] 0.7227 0.5000
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

𝜃 0º (necessarily) 0º

𝐻 ? 1.8 m

From the shoaling equation:

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -44 Dr David Apsley

 (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)12 m = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)100 m
Hence:

(𝑛𝑐)100 m 0.5 × 10.93

𝐻12 m = 𝐻100 m √ = 1.8 × √ = 1.644 m
(𝑛𝑐)12 m 0.7227 × 9.067

Answer: wave height = 1.64 m.

(iii)
The relevant pressures are:
𝑝1 = 0
𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 = 1025 × 9.81 × 1.644 = 16530 Pa
𝜌𝑔𝐻 1025 × 9.81 × 1.644
𝑝3 = = = 9221 Pa
cosh 𝑘ℎ cosh(1.188)

This yields the equivalent forces and points of application shown in the diagram.

p1

1 Fz
p2
Fx
3
2
My

p3
heel

Region Force, 𝐹𝑥 or 𝐹𝑧 Moment arm

1 1
1 𝐹𝑥1 = 𝑝2 × 𝐻 = 13590 N/m 𝑧1 = ℎ + 𝐻 = 12.55 m
2 3
1
2 𝐹𝑥2 = 𝑝3 × ℎ = 110700 N/m 𝑧2 = ℎ = 6 m
2
1 2
3 𝐹𝑥3 = (𝑝2 − 𝑝3 ) × ℎ = 43850 N/m 𝑧3 = ℎ = 8 m
2 3

The sum of all clockwise moments about the heel:

𝐹𝑥1 𝑧1 + 𝐹𝑥2 𝑧2 + 𝐹𝑥3 𝑧3 = 1186000 N m/m

Answer: overturning moment = 1186 kN m per metre of breakwater.

(b) New waves have revised properties:

𝑇 = 13 s

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -45 Dr David Apsley

 2π
𝜔= = 0.4833 rad s −1
𝑇

ℎ = 12 m ℎ = 100 m
𝜔2 ℎ
0.2857 2.381
𝑔

1 0.2857 2.381
Iteration: 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + ) 𝑘ℎ =
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝑘ℎ 0.5613 2.419

𝑘 0.04678 m–1 0.02419 m–1

𝜔
𝑐= 10.33 m s–1 19.98 m s–1
𝑘
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] 0.9086 0.5383
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

𝜃 ? 30º

𝐻 ? 1.3 m

To estimate travel time of wave groups consider the group velocity.

The previous waves had group velocity

𝑐𝑔 = 𝑛𝑐 = 5.465 m s −1
These longer-period waves have group velocity
𝑐𝑔 = 𝑛𝑐 = 10.76 m s −1
The latter have a larger group velocity and hence have a shorter travel time.

(ii) Refraction:
(𝑘 sin 𝜃)12 m = (𝑘 sin 𝜃)100 m
0.04678 sin 𝜃 = 0.02419 sin 30°
Hence,
𝜃 = 14.98°

From the shoaling equation:

(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)12 m = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)100 m
Hence:

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -46 Dr David Apsley

 (𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)100 m 0.5383 × 19.98 × cos 30°
𝐻12m = 𝐻100m √ = 1.3 × √ = 1.318 m
(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)12 m 0.9086 × 10.33 × cos 14.98°

The maximum freeboard for a combination of the two waves, allowing for reflection, is twice
the sum of the amplitudes, i.e. the sum of the heights.

Hence, the freeboard must be

1.644 + 1.318 = 2.962 m
or height from the bed:
12 + 2.962 = 14.96 m

Answer: caisson height 14.96 m (from bed level), or 2.96 m (freeboard).

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -47 Dr David Apsley

Q23.
(a)
z

SWL p

deep water

shallow water

bed

(b) Given:
ℎ =8m
𝑇 = 5s
Then,
2π
𝜔= = 1.257 rad s −1
𝑇

Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 1.289 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
1.289
𝑘ℎ =
tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 1.442
1.442
𝑘= = 0.1803 m−1
ℎ

π/10 < 𝑘ℎ < π, so this is an intermediate-depth wave.

Answer: 𝑘ℎ = 1.44; intermediate-depth wave.

(c)
(i) The velocity potential is
𝐴𝑔 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝜙= sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -48 Dr David Apsley

Then
𝜕𝜙 𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑢≡ = cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
At the SWL (𝑧 = 0) the amplitude of the horizontal velocity is
𝐴𝑔𝑘
𝜔

(ii) At the sensor height (𝑧 = −6 m) the amplitude of horizontal velocity is

𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
and hence, from the given data,
𝐴 × 9.81 × 0.1803 cosh[0.1803 × 2]
× = 0.34
1.257 cosh 1.442
Hence,
𝐴 = 0.5062
𝐻 = 2𝐴 = 1.012 m

Answer: 1.01 m.

(iii) From
𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑢= cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
we have
𝜕𝑢 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑎𝑥 =+ non − linear terms = 𝐴𝑔𝑘 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 cosh 𝑘ℎ
The maximum horizontal acceleration at the bed (𝑧 = −ℎ) is
𝐴𝑔𝑘 0.5062 × 9.81 × 0.1803
= = 0.4010 m s−2
cosh 𝑘ℎ cosh 1.442

Answer: 0.401 m s–2.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -49 Dr David Apsley

Q24.
(a) “Significant wave height” is the average of the highest 1/3 of waves. For irregular waves,

𝐻𝑠 = 4√̅̅̅
𝜂2

whilst for a regular wave

̅̅̅ 1
𝜂2 = 𝐴2
2
Hence

𝐴2
𝐻𝑠 = 4√ = 2√2𝐴 = 2√2 × 0.8 = 2.263 m
2

Answer: significant wave height = 2.26 m.

(b) “Shoaling” is the change in wave height as a wave moves into shallower water. Linear
theory can be applied provided the height-to-depth and height-to-wavelength ratios remain
“small” and, in practice, up to the point of breaking.

(c) (i) No current.

Given:
ℎ = 35 m
𝐴 = 0.8 m (𝐻 = 1.6 m)
𝑇 = 9s
Then,
2π
𝜔= = 0.6981 rad s −1
𝑇

Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 1.739 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
1.739
𝑘ℎ =
tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 1.831

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -50 Dr David Apsley

 1.831
𝑘= = 0.05231 m−1
ℎ
2π
𝐿= = 120.1 m
𝑘
𝜔 𝐿
𝑐 = (or ) = 13.35 m s −1
𝑘 𝑇
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] = 0.5941
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ
1 1
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 2 (𝑛𝑐) = × 1025 × 9.81 × 1.62 × (0.5941 × 13.35) = 25520 W m−1
8 8

Answer: wavelength = 120 m; power = 25.5 kW per metre of crest.

(ii) With current –0.5 m s–1.

𝜔𝑎 = 0.6981 rad s −1
Dispersion relation:
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2 = 𝜔𝑟2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Rearrange as
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2
𝑘=
𝑔 tanh 𝑘ℎ
or here:
(0.6981 + 0.5𝑘)2
𝑘=
9.81 tanh 35𝑘
to get
𝑘 = 0.05592 m−1
𝑘ℎ = 1.957
2π
𝐿= = 112.4 m
𝑘
𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈 = 0.6981 + 0.05592 × 0.5 = 0.7261 rad s−1
𝜔𝑟
𝑐𝑟 = = 12.98 m s −1
𝑘
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] = 0.5782
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ
1 1
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 2 (𝑛𝑐𝑟 ) = × 1025 × 9.81 × 1.62 × (0.5782 × 12.98) = 24150 W m−1
8 8
(Since power comes from integrating the product of wave fluctuating properties 𝑝𝑢 to get rate
of working, the group velocity here is that in a frame moving with the current; i.e. the ‘r’ suffix).

Answer: wavelength = 112 m; power = 24.2 kW per metre of crest.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -51 Dr David Apsley

(d) For the heading change (refraction), find the new wavenumber and then apply Snell’s Law.
For the wavenumber at ℎ = 5 m depth, 𝜔 as in part c(i), but
𝜔2 ℎ
= 0.2484 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
This is small, so iterate as
1 0.2484
𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 0.5200
0.5200
𝑘= = 0.104 m−1
ℎ

From Snell’s Law:

𝑘 sin 𝜃 = 𝑘1 sin 𝜃1
Hence:
𝑘1 0.05231
sin 𝜃 = sin 𝜃1 = sin 25° = 0.2126
𝑘 0.104
𝜃 = 12.27°

For the shoaling, the shoreward component of power is constant; i.e.

𝑃 cos 𝜃 = 𝑃1 cos 𝜃1
Hence,
cos 𝜃1 cos 25°
𝑃 = 𝑃1 = 25520 = 23020 W m−1
cos 𝜃 cos 12.27°

Answer: heading = 12.3°; power = 23.0 kW per metre of crest.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -52 Dr David Apsley

Q25.
(a) Given
ℎ = 24 m
𝑇 = 6s
Then,
2π
𝜔= = 1.047 rad s −1
𝑇
Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 2.682 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
2.682
𝑘ℎ =
tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 2.706
2.706
𝑘= = 0.1128 m−1
ℎ
2π
𝐿= = 55.70 m
𝑘
𝜔 𝐿
𝑐= (or ) = 9.282 m s −1
𝑘 𝑇

Answer: wavelength 55.7 m, phase speed 9.28 m s–1.

(b)
(i) From the velocity potential
𝐴𝑔 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝜙= sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
then the dynamic pressure is
𝜕𝜙 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑝 = −𝜌 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴 cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 cosh 𝑘ℎ

(ii) At any particular depth the amplitude of the pressure variation is

cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝜌𝑔𝐴
cosh 𝑘ℎ

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -53 Dr David Apsley

and hence, from the given conditions at 𝑧 = −22.5 m,
cosh(0.1128 × 1.5)
1025 × 9.81𝐴 × = 1220
cosh 2.706
Hence,
𝐴 = 0.8993 m
𝐻 = 2𝐴 = 1.799 m

Answer: 1.80 m.

(iii) From the velocity potential

𝐴𝑔 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝜙= sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
the horizontal velocity is
𝜕𝜙 𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑢= = cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
The maximum horizontal velocity occurs at the surface (𝑧 = 0), and is
𝐴𝑔𝑘 0.8993 × 9.81 × 0.1128
𝑢max = = = 0.9505 m s−1
𝜔 1.047

Answer: 0.950 m s–1.

(c) Kinematic boundary condition – the boundary is a material surface (i.e. always composed
of the same particles), or, equivalently, there is no flow through the boundary.

Dynamic boundary condition – stress (here, pressure) is continuous across the boundary.

(d) Determine the wave period that would result in the same absolute period if this were
recorded in the presence of a uniform flow of 0.6 m s–1 in the wave direction.

With current 0.6 m s–1.

𝜔𝑎 = 1.047 rad s −1

Dispersion relation:
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2 = 𝜔𝑟2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Rearrange as
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2
𝑘=
𝑔 tanh 𝑘ℎ
or here:

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -54 Dr David Apsley

 (1.047 − 0.6𝑘)2
𝑘=
9.81 tanh 24𝑘
to get
𝑘 = 0.1008 m−1
𝜔𝑟 = 𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈 = 1.047 − 0.1008 × 0.6 = 0.9865 rad s−1
2π
𝑇𝑟 = = 6.369 s
𝜔𝑟

Answer: 6.37 s.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -55 Dr David Apsley

Q26.
(a) Given:
ℎ = 1.2 m
𝑇 = 1.5 s
Then,
2π
𝜔= = 4.189 rad s −1
𝑇

Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

ω2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 2.147 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
2.147
𝑘ℎ =
tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 2.200

These are intermediate-depth waves – particle trajectories sketched below.

intermediate depth
(b) From
𝐴𝑔𝑘 sinh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑤= sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
we have
𝜕𝑤 sinh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑎𝑧 = + non − linear terms = −𝐴𝑔𝑘 cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 cosh 𝑘ℎ

At the free surface (𝑧 = 0) the amplitude of the vertical acceleration is

𝑎𝑧,max = 𝐴𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Substituting the dispersion relation 𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ,
𝑎𝑧,max = 𝐴𝜔2
Here,

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -56 Dr David Apsley

 2.200
𝑘= = 1.833 m−1
ℎ
Hence
𝑎𝑧,max 0.88
𝐴= 2
= = 0.05015 m
𝜔 4.1892
𝐻 = 2𝐴 = 0.1003

Also
2π
𝐿= = 3.428 m
𝑘
𝜔
𝑐= = 2.285 m s−1
𝑘
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] = 0.5540
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ
1 1
𝑃 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 = × 1025 × 9.81 × 0.10032 × 0.5540 × 2.285 = 16.01 W m−1
8 8

Answer: wavelength = 3.43 m; wave height = 0.100 m; power = 16.0 W per metre crest.

(c)
With current –0.3 m s–1.
𝜔𝑎 = 4.189 rad s −1

Dispersion relation:
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2 = 𝜔𝑟2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ
Rearrange as
(𝜔𝑎 − 𝑘𝑈)2
𝑘=
𝑔 tanh 𝑘ℎ
or here:
(4.189 + 0.3𝑘)2
𝑘=
9.81 tanh(1.2𝑘)
to get
𝑘 = 2.499 m−1
2π
𝐿= = 2.514 m
𝑘

Answer: 2.51 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -57 Dr David Apsley

(d) Spilling breakers occur for steep waves and/or mildly-sloped beaches. Waves gradually
dissipate energy as foam spills down the front faces.

Miche criterion in deep water (tanh 𝑘ℎ → 1):

𝐻𝑏
= 0.14
𝐿
where, in deep water, and with period 𝑇 = 1 s:
𝑔𝑇 2
𝐿= = 1.561 m
2π
Hence,
𝐻𝑏 = 0.14 × 1.561 = 0.2185 m

Answer: 0.219 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -58 Dr David Apsley

Q27.
(a) Period is unchanged:
𝑇 = 5.5 s
Deep-water wavelength
𝑔𝑇 2
𝐿0 = = 47.23 m
2π

Answer: period = 5.5 s; wavelength = 47.2 m.

(b)
Wave properties:
ℎ =4m
2π
𝜔= = 1.142 rad s −1
𝑇
The dispersion relation is
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 0.5318 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Since the LHS is small this may be iterated as
1 0.5318
𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ
to give
𝑘ℎ = 0.8005

Hydrodynamic pressure:
Crest: 𝑝1 = 0

Still-water line: 𝑝2 = 𝜌𝑔𝐻 = 1025 × 9.81 × 0.75 = 7541 Pa

𝜌𝑔𝐻 𝑝2
Bed: 𝑃3 = = = 5637 Pa
cosh 𝑘ℎ cosh 0.8005

(c) Decompose the pressure forces on the breakwater as shown. Relevant dimensions are:
ℎ =4m
𝐻 = 0.75 m
𝑏 =3m

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -59 Dr David Apsley

 p1

1 Fz
p2
Fx
3
2
My

p3
heel
4
p3

Region Force, 𝐹𝑥 or 𝐹𝑧 Moment arm

1 1
1 𝐹𝑥1 = 𝑝2 × 𝐻 = 2828 N/m 𝑧1 = ℎ + 𝐻 = 4.25 m
2 3
1
2 𝐹𝑥2 = 𝑝3 × ℎ = 22548 N/m 𝑧2 = ℎ = 2 m
2
1 2
3 𝐹𝑥3 = (𝑝2 − 𝑝3 ) × ℎ = 3808 N/m 𝑧3 = ℎ = 2.667 m
2 3
1 2
4 𝐹𝑧4 = 𝑝3 × 𝑏 = 8456 N/m 𝑧4 = 𝑏 = 2 m
2 3

The sum of all clockwise moments about the heel:

𝐹𝑥1 𝑧1 + 𝐹𝑥2 𝑧2 + 𝐹𝑥3 𝑧3 + 𝐹𝑧4 𝑥4 = 84180 N m/m

Answer: 84.2 kN m per metre of breakwater.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -60 Dr David Apsley

Q28.
(a)
ℎ = 23 m
For deep water:
𝑘ℎ > π
π
 𝑘> = 0.1366 m−1
ℎ
2π
 𝐿< = 46.00 m
0.1366

Also, from the dispersion relation:

𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

 𝜔 > √9.81 × 0.1366 × tanh π = 1.155 rad s −1

2π
 𝑇< = 5.440 s
1.155

Answer: largest wavelength = 46 m; largest period = 5.44 s.

(b)
(i) Given
ℎ = 23 m
𝑇 = 9s
Then,
2π
𝜔= = 0.6981 rad s −1
𝑇

Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 1.143 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
1.143
𝑘ℎ =
tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 1.319
1.319
𝑘= = 0.05735 m−1
ℎ

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -61 Dr David Apsley

 2π
𝐿= = 109.6 m
𝑘

Answer: wavenumber = 0.0573 m–1; wavelength = 110 m.

(ii) From the velocity potential

𝐴𝑔 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝜙= sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
the horizontal velocity is
𝜕𝜙 𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑢= = cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
Hence, the amplitude of the horizontal particle velocity at height 𝑧 is
𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑢max =
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
From the given data, 𝑢max = 0.31 m s −1 when 𝑧 = −20 m,
𝜔𝑢max cosh 𝑘ℎ 0.6981 × 0.31 cosh 1.319
𝐴= = × = 0.7594 m
𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧) 9.81 × 0.05735 cosh[0.05735 × 3]
𝐻 = 2𝐴 = 1.519 m

Answer: 1.52 m.

(iii) At 𝑧 = 0,
𝐴𝑔𝑘 0.7594 × 9.81 × 0.05735
𝑢max = = = 0.6120 m s −1
ω 0.6981
The wave speed is
𝜔 0.6981
𝑐= = = 12.17 m s−1
𝑘 0.05735

Answer: particle velocity = 0.612 m s–1, much less than the wave speed.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -62 Dr David Apsley

Q29.
Given
𝐻𝑠 = 1.5 m
𝑈 = 14 m s −1
𝑡 = 6 × 3600 = 21600 s
then
𝑔𝑡
𝑡̂ ≡ = 15140
𝑈

If duration-limited then this would imply an effective fetch related to time 𝑡 by the non-
dimensional relation
2/3
𝑡̂ = 68.8𝐹̂eff
or
3 ⁄2
𝑡̂
̂
𝐹eff = ( ) = 3264
68.8
and consequent wave height
𝑔𝐻𝑠 1/2
̂𝑠
≡𝐻 = 0.0016𝐹̂eff = 0.09141
𝑈2
𝑈2
𝐻𝑠 = 0.09141 × = 1.826
𝑔

But the actual wave height is less than this, so it is limited by fetch, not duration.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -63 Dr David Apsley

Q30.
(a) Kinematic boundary condition – the boundary is a material surface (i.e. always composed
of the same particles), or, equivalently, there is no flow through the boundary.

Dynamic boundary condition – stress (here, pressure) is continuous across the boundary.

(b)
(i) Given:
ℎ = 20 m
𝑇 = 8s
Then,
2π
𝜔= = 0.7854 rad s −1
𝑇

Dispersion relation:
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔

 1.258 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
Iterate as
1.258
𝑘ℎ =
tanh 𝑘ℎ
to get
𝑘ℎ = 1.416
1.416
𝑘= = 0.07080 m−1
ℎ
2π
𝐿= = 88.75 m
𝑘
𝜔 𝐿
𝑐= (or ) = 11.09 m s−1
𝑘 𝑇

Answer: wavelength = 88.7 m; speed = 11.1 m s–1.

(ii) From the velocity potential

𝐴𝑔 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝜙= sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
then the dynamic pressure is
𝜕𝜙 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑝 = −𝜌 = 𝜌𝑔𝐴 cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 cosh 𝑘ℎ

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -64 Dr David Apsley

From the given magnitude of the pressure fluctuations at the bed (𝑧 = −ℎ):
𝜌𝑔𝐴
= 6470
cosh 𝑘ℎ
Hence
6470 × cosh 𝑘ℎ 6470 × cosh 1.416
𝐴= = = 1.404 m
ρ𝑔 1025 × 9.81
𝐻 = 2𝐴 = 2.808 m

Answer: wave height = 2.81 m.

(c)
(i) For 𝑇 < 5 s,
2π
𝜔= > 1.257 rad s −1
𝑇
At the limiting value on the RHS,
𝜔2 ℎ
= 3.221
𝑔
Solving the dispersion relationship in the form
𝜔2 ℎ
= 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
by iteration:
3.221
𝑘ℎ =
tanh 𝑘ℎ
produces
𝑘ℎ = 3.220
This is a deep-water wave (𝑘ℎ > π), hence negligible wave dynamic pressure is felt at the bed.

(ii) From the velocity potential

𝐴𝑔 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝜙= sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
the horizontal velocity is
𝜕𝜙 𝐴𝑔𝑘 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑢= = cos (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑥 𝜔 cosh 𝑘ℎ
and the particle acceleration is
𝜕𝑢 cosh 𝑘(ℎ + 𝑧)
𝑎𝑥 = + non − linear terms = 𝐴𝑔𝑘 sin (𝑘𝑥 − 𝜔𝑡)
𝜕𝑡 cosh 𝑘ℎ
and the amplitude of horizontal acceleration at 𝑧 = 0 is
𝐴𝑔𝑘

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -65 Dr David Apsley

Q31.
(a) The irrotationality condition (given in that year’s exam paper) is
𝜕𝑘𝑦 𝜕𝑘𝑥
− =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
Wave behaviour is the same all the way along the coast; hence 𝜕⁄𝜕𝑦 = 0 for all variables. This
leaves
𝜕𝑘𝑦 ky k
=0
𝜕𝑥

coast
But
y 
𝑘𝑦 = 𝑘 sin 𝜃 kx
(see diagram). Hence
x
𝑘 sin 𝜃 = constant
or
(𝑘 sin 𝜃)1 = (𝑘 sin 𝜃)2
for two locations on a wave ray.

(b)
𝑇 = 7s
Hence
2π
𝜔= = 0.8976 rad s −1
𝑇
The dispersion relation is
𝜔2 = 𝑔𝑘 tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝜔2 ℎ
 = 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ
𝑔
This may be iterated as either
𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔 1 𝜔2 ℎ⁄𝑔
𝑘ℎ = or 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + )
tanh 𝑘ℎ 2 tanh 𝑘ℎ

ℎ =5m ℎ = 28 m
𝜔2 ℎ
0.4106 2.300
𝑔

1 0.4106 2.300
Iteration: 𝑘ℎ = (𝑘ℎ + ) 𝑘ℎ =
2 tanh 𝑘ℎ tanh 𝑘ℎ

𝑘ℎ 0.6881 2.343

𝑘 0.1376 m–1 0.08368 m–1

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -66 Dr David Apsley

 𝜔
𝑐= 6.523 m s–1 10.73 m s–1
𝑘
1 2𝑘ℎ
𝑛 = [1 + ] 0.8712 0.5432
2 sinh 2𝑘ℎ

𝜃 ? 35º

𝐻 ? 1.2 m

Refraction:
(𝑘 sin 𝜃)5 m = (𝑘 sin 𝜃)28 m
0.1376 sin 𝜃 = 0.08368 sin 35°
Hence,
𝜃 = 20.41°

From the shoaling equation:

(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)5 m = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)28 m
Hence:

(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)28 m 0.5432 × 10.73 × cos 35°

𝐻5 m = 𝐻28 m √ = 1.2 × √ = 1.136 m
(𝑛𝑐 cos 𝜃)5 m 0.8712 × 6.523 × cos 20.41°

The power per metre of crest at depth 5 m is

1 1
𝑃= 𝜌𝑔𝐻 2 (𝑛𝑐) = × 1025 × 9.81 × 1.1362 × (0.8712 × 6.523) = 9218 W m−1
8 8

Answer: direction 20.4°; wave height 1.14 m; power = 9.22 kW m–1.

(c) Given
𝑇 = 7s
and at depth 5 m:
𝐻 = 2.8 m
𝜃 = 0°

Breaker Height

Breaker height index (on formula sheet):

𝐻0 −1⁄5
𝐻𝑏 = 0.56𝐻0 ( )
𝐿0

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -67 Dr David Apsley

First find deep-water conditions 𝐻0 and 𝐿0 . By shoaling (with no refraction):
(𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)0 = (𝐻 2 𝑛𝑐)5 m
In deep water,
1
𝑛0 =
2
𝑔𝑇
𝑐0 = = 10.93 m s −1
2π
whilst 𝑛 and 𝑐 at depth 5 m come from part (b). Hence,
𝐻02 × 0.5 × 10.93 = 2.82 × 0.8712 × 6.523
whence
𝐻0 = 2.855 m
Also in deep water,
𝑔𝑇 2
𝐿0 = = 76.50 m
2π
Then from the formula for breaker height:
𝐻0 −1⁄5
𝐻𝑏 = 0.56𝐻0 ( ) = 3.086 m
𝐿0

Breaking Depth

From the formula sheet the breaker depth index is

𝐻 𝐻𝑏
𝛾𝑏 ≡ ( ) = 𝑏 − 𝑎 2
ℎ 𝑏 𝑔𝑇
where, with a beach slope 𝑚 = 1⁄40 = 0.025:
𝑎 = 43.8(1 − e−19𝑚 ) = 43.8(1 − e−19×0.025 ) = 16.56
1.56 1.56
𝑏= −19.5𝑚
= −19.5×0.025
= 0.9664
1+e 1+e
Hence, from the breaker depth index:
3.086 3.086
= 0.9664 − 16.56 ×
ℎ𝑏 9.81 × 72
giving depth of water at breaking:
ℎ𝑏 = 3.588 m

Answer: breaker height = 3.09 m; breaking depth = 3.59 m.

Hydraulics 3 Answers (Waves Examples) -68 Dr David Apsley