Chapter 6

Cell Division
 The necessity of cell division
§ Cells in the body : continuously growing, dividing, and
dying
§ e.g.:
1. outermost layer of skin => has a layer of dead cells;
• underneath the dead cell => there are living cell which
continuously dividing to replace dead cell
2. Skin is injured => cell division helps to heal the wound
3. New hair cell enable the hair to grow
4. New fingernails grow to replace broken ones
 • 2 stages of cell division: Karyokinesis & Cytokinesis
Karyokinesis Cytokinesis
A stage in cell division that the cytoplasm division stage
involves the division of nucleus
Occurs at the end of M-phase, Occurs during M-phase of cell cycle
after the nuclear division is over before the cytokinesis begins to
proceed
 • 2 type of organism's body cell : somatic cell & gamete
Somatic cell Gamete
Body cells (liver cell, skin, etc) Reproductive cells (sperm & ovum)
Produced through mitosis Produced through meiosis
Diploid (2n) => contains 2 sets of Haploid (n) => contains 1 set of
chromosomes chromosome
2n = 46 n = 23
• Diploid cells
– 1 set of chromosomes from paternal chromosomes
– 1 set of chromosomes from maternal chromosomes
– This pair of chromosomes => called homologous
chromosomes
 Cell Cycle
• The sequence of events that
involves DNA multiplication
and cell division to produce
two daughter cells
• Consists of Interphase and M
phase
• Interphase => longest phase
=> include G1, S and G2 phase
– 90% of the cell cycle in rapidly
dividing cells
• M phase is the shortest period of the cell cycle
– Last for less than an hour
• G1 stage last from 8 to 10 hours
• S phase last from 6 to 8 hours
• G2 stage lasts from 4 to 6 hours
• Altogether (interphase) last for about 23 hours
 Cell Cycle
– G1 phase (gap or growth
phase 1)
• Cells grow
• Mitochondrion and ER =>
produced
• Proteins used in the cell also
synthesised.
– Metabolic rate of the cell is high.
• Nucleus looks big
• chromosomes are not
condensed => appear as thread-
like structure called chromatin
– S phase (DNA synthesis)
• DNA undergoes replication
• Each chromosome multiplies
into 2 identical chromosomes
=> sister chromatids =>
contain identical copies of
the chromosome’s DNA
molecule
• Both chromatids => joined at
the centromeres
– G2 phase (gap or growth
phase 2)
• Cells => continue to grow and
remain active metabolically
• Energy accumulated by the
cell; completes its final
preparation for the next stage of
cell division
– M phase
• Consists of 2 major parts:
mitosis and cytokinesis
• Mitosis
– division of the nucleus of
parent cell into 2 nuclei.
– divided into 4 phases :
prophase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase (Pak
MAT) => a continuous
process
 MITOSIS
• Prophase
§ Chromatin in the nucleus condense and
become more tightly coiled
§ Chromosome appear shorter and thicker,
visible under light microscope
§ Each chromosome consists of a pair of
sister chromatids => joined together at the
centromere
§ Nucleus membrane disintegrates
§ Nucleolus dissapears
§ Centrioles move to opposite poles
§ Spindle fibres start to form
 MITOSIS
• Metaphase
– Centrioles => at the opposite poles of
the cell
– begins when the centromeres of all the
chromosomes are lined up on the
equatorial plane
– spindle fibres is fully formed => maintain
the chromosomes at the equatorial
plane.
– 2 sister chromatids still attached to one
another at the centromere
– Its ended when centromeres divide
 MITOSIS
• Anaphase
– 2 sister chromatids of each chromosome
separate at the centromere
– sister chromatids are pulled apart to
opposite poles by shortening and
contracting of the spindle fibres that
connect the chromosomes to the poles
– after separate, chromatids = daughter
chromosomes
– end of anaphase, chromatid arrives at
the poles of the cell
– 2 poles of the cell have complete and
equivalent sets of chromosomes
 MITOSIS
• Telophase
– begins when 2 sets of chromosomes
reach the opposite poles of the cell
– Chromosomes start to uncoil and
revert to theirs extended state =>
become chromatin
– Chromosomes => less visible under
microscope
– Spindle fibres disappear
– New nuclear membrane forms
– Nucleous re-forms in each nucleus
– Telophase stage is followed by
cytokinesis
 Cytokinesis

- Division of the cytoplasm

- occurs immediately at the end of telophase
- animal cells
- Plasma membrane constricts in the
middle of the cell=> cleavege furrow
- Microfilament at the point of constriction
will contract => cell will constrict until it
split to form 2 daughter cells
 Cytokinesis
Plant cells
q cytokinesis is markedly different
q no cleavage furrow
q membrane-enclosed vesicles combine to form a cell plate at the centre of the cell
q cell plate grows outwards until its edges fuse with the plasma membrane of the
parent cell
q new cell walls and plasma membranes formed => cell divided into 2 daughter cells
q end of cytokinesis => cellulose fibres are produced to strengthen the new cell walls
q new cells enter the G1 stage of interphase =>cell cycle completed
 The Necessity of Mitosis

• Ensure rapid cell growth

=> for development and
growth of embyro / living
organisms
• Replacing dead/damage
cells => if body is injured
• Produce new individuals
through the formation of
new buds => hydra
• Culturing stem cells from
animals via culturing
technique => produce meat
• Produce young plant without
going through fertilisation =>
tissue culture
• Using stem cells from bone
marrow to treat damaged
cartilage => stem cell
therapy
 Meiosis

• Process of cell division that occurs in reproductive organs to

produce gametes that contain half the number of
chromosomes (haploid) of the parent cells (diploid).
• occurs in the testis (male) and ovary (female) => humans /
animals
• Occurs in anther (male) and ovary (female) => flower
• Form gametes (sperm and ovum) through gametogenesis
• Ensures the diploid chromosome number of organisms is
always maintained from one generation to the next
generation
• produces genetic variation
§ Sexual reproduction involve
the fusion of 2 haploid
gametes during fertilisation
§ diploid zygote with 46
chromosomes formed =>
offspring will inherit traits
from both parents to ensure
the continuation of life.
Ø meiosis consists of 2 separate divisions:
Ø Meiosis 1
Ø consists of prophase I, metaphase I, anaphase I and telophase
I
Ø Meiosis 2
Ø consists of prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II and
telophase II
Ø meiosis I begins with a single diploid parent cell
Ø end of meiosis II, 4 haploid daughter cells produced => each
genetically different from the other and from the parent cell
Ø cells undergo 2 nuclear divisions; DNA of each chromosome only
replicates once.
 Meiosis I - Prophase 1

q chromatin begin to condense =>

become shorter, thicker and clearly
visible
q Pairing of homologous chromosomes
=> bivalents / tetrad formed =>
process involved = synapsis
q become four-part structure
(tetrad) => consists of two
homologous chromosomes, each
made up of two sister chromatids
 Meiosis I - Prophase 1
§ Crossing over process occurs => Non-sister
chromatids exchange genetic materials.
§ results : new combination of genes on a
chromosomes
§ Chiasmata => the point at which segments of
chromatids cross over.
§ End of prophase I,
§ nucleolus and nuclear membrane
disappear
§ 2 pairs of centrioles migrate to the
opposite poles of the cells
§ each pairs of centrioles acts as a central
point from which the spindle fibres radiate
 Meiosis I - Metaphase 1

ü Homologous chromosomes are

arranged at the equatorial plate.
ü One chromosome of each pair is
tied to the spindle fibres from
one pole
ü Its homologue is attached to the
fibre from the opposite pole
ü Centromere does not divide
 Meiosis I - Anaphase 1
§ Spindle fibre contract and pull
the homologous chromosomes
away from one another and
move them to the opposite poles
of the cell
§ Each chromosomes still consists
of 2 sister chromatids which
move as a single unit
§ Although the cell started with
four chromosomes => only 2
chromosomes move towards
each pole
 Meiosis I - Telophase 1
Ø chromosmomes arrive at the opposite
poles. q required another cell division =>
Ø each pole has a haploid chromosomes because the chromosome are still
=> contains only one set of duplicated
chromosomes q after cytokinesis, meiosis II occurs
Ø Spindle fibres disappear q no interphase
Ø Nucleus membrane reappears to q no DNA replication
surround each set of chromosomes q chromosomes
Ø Nucleolus reappears in each nucleus remain in a
§ Cytokinesis condensed state
§ occurs simultaneously with
telophase I => 2 haploid daughter
cell produced (each receive a
chromosome from homologous pair)
 Meiosis II - Prophase II

Ønuclear membranes and

nucleolus of the daughter
cell dissapear again
ØEach chromosome is
made up of sister
chromatids that are joined
at the centromere.
ØSpindle fibres re-form
 Meiosis II - Metaphase II

vChromosomes are
positioned randomly on
the equatorial plane for
each daughter cell
vEach sister chromatid is
tied to the spindle fibres at
the centromere
vMetaphase II ends when
the centromere separates
 Meiosis II - Anaphase II

• Centromeres of the sister

chromatids separate
• Sister chromatid pair
separates => move
towards the opposite poles
of the cell lead by
centromere
• Each chromatid is known
as chromosome
 Meiosis II - Telophase II
qChromosomes arrive at the pole
of the cell.
qNucleoli and nuclear membranes
re-form
qSpindle fibres dissapear
qCytokinesis occurs
q4 haploid daughter cells formed ;
each has contain half number of
chromosomes, genetically
different from parent haploid cell
qThese haploid cells will develop
into gametes
vSimilarities

q each division consists of 4 phases (prophase, metaphase, anaphase,

telophase
q involve nuclear divisions
q involve cytokinesis
q have chromatids
q spindle fibres ‘guide’ the movement of chromosomes to opposite poles
• Differences between meiosis I and meiosis II
Meiosis I Aspect Meiosis II
Reduction – reduce 2n Reduction or Division – divides the remaining
chromosomes to n division set of chromosomes in a
mitosis –like process

Chromosome already replicated. Prophase No replication

Homologous chromosomes No synapsis
synapse. No chiasma and no crossing
Chiasma forms and crossing over
over takes place.
Meiosis I Aspect Meiosis II
Paired homologous Metaphase Sister chromatids aligh at the
chromosomes align equator
at the equator

Separation of homologous Anaphase Separation of sister chromatids

chromosomes to opposite poles to opposite poles
Single cytokinesis Telophase Two cytokinesis.
Two non-identical cells Four non-identical cells
produced produced
 Comparing and Contrasting Mitosis and Meiosis

Similarities between mitosis and meiosis

ü both involve cell divisions

ü both start from diploid cells
ü Chromosomes duplicate only once
ü involve the separation of chromatids in anaphase of mitosis
and in anaphase II
ü follow similar phase : prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase
 Differences between mitosis and meiosis
Mitosis Aspects Meiosis
New cells are produced Purpose Produce gametes for
from old sexual reproduction
Somatic cells Type of cell involved Reproductive cells
all daughter cells are Genetic identity Daughter cells are
genetically identical genetically different
Single row of Alignment of chromosome Double row of
chromosomes align at the during metaphase chromosomes align at the
equator equator
Does not happen Synapsis Homologous
chromosomes synapses in
prophase I to form tetrads
or bivalent
Mitosis Aspects Meiosis
Does not happen Formation of Takes place in prophase I
chiasma and
cross-over
None Genetic variation Introduces genetic variation
during cross-over
Once Frequency of Twice
cytokinesis
Two Number of cells Four
produced
Diploid (2n) Number of Haploid (n)
chromosomes
 Issues of Cell Division on Human Health
A cell cycle is controlled by a specific control
system at each G1, S, G2 and M phase => to
ensure the cell division occurs normally
§ Control mechanism within the cell cycle:
§ determine how often and how many times
a particular cell is allowed to divide. E.g :
human skin cells divide throughout our life
§ determine that certain cells ( nerve cells
and muscle cells) are not allowed to divide
once they have specialised
§ ensure that DNA of a dividing cell is
exactly copied, any errors in the DNA are
repaired, and each daughter cell receives
a full set of chromosomes
 Uncontrolled mitosis in living things
Ø cell divides without control and regulation => cancerous cells /
tumours produced.
Ø cancer => a genetic disease caused by uncontrolled mitosis
due to severe disruption to the mechanism that controls the cell
cycle
Ø cancerous cells divide freely and uncontrollably
Ø it compete with the normal cells to obtain sufficient nutrient and
energy for growth
ØCancerous cell divides uncontrollably => tumour (an abnormal
mass of cells) is formed => can invade and destroy neighbouring
cells.
 Uncontrolled mitosis in living things
Ø cell divides without control and regulation => cancerous cells /
tumours produced.
Tumours

Benign tumour Malignant tumour

• not dangerous • cancer
• can be removed surgically • caused by several factor : radiation (x-ray,
gamma rays, uv rays), chemical substances
(tar in tobacco), carcinogens (formaldehyde,
benzene), genetic factors, bacteria, virus
• can spread can destroy normal cells
• if not identified at early stage => damage
the organs => death
• problem in meiosis process => abnormal number of chromosomes in
gametes
• formation of an abnormal zygote
• e.g. : Down’s Syndrome => 47 chromosomes
• Extra chromosome at the 21st set => known as trisomy 21
• Have certain characteristics : slanted eyes, short statue,
mental retardation and slightly protruding tongue.
• Abnormality during meiotic division => cause genetic
diseases.
– Caused by the failure of the spindle fibres to contract during
anaphase I or anaphase II
– Chromosome fails to separate (non-disjunction)
– Gametes => have an abnormal number of chromosomes (22 or
24 chromosomes)
– If fertilisation between a normal gamete and an abnormal
chromosome (24 chromosomes) occurs => zygote will carry 47
chromosomes => an abnormal condition.