Muscles responsible for body movements, stabilizing joints,

and generating heat.

Muscles generate the force required to cause movement by
contracting, a process in which proteins inside the
muscle fibers overlap more than when they are at
rest.
Skeletal Attached to bones or, for some facial muscles, to
skin
Striated muscle (because its fibers have obvious
stripes) and as voluntary muscle (because it is the
only muscle type subject to conscious control).
Cardiac Walls of the heart
Smooth Mostly in walls of hollow visceral
organs (other than the heart)
endomysium muscle fiber is enclosed in a delicate
connective tissue sheath called
perimysium Several sheathed muscle fibers
are then wrapped by a coarser fibrous membrane
fascicle form a bundle of fibers
Epimysium Many fascicles are bound together by an even
tougher “overcoat” of connective tissue
tendons providing durability and conserving space.
mostly tough collagen fibers, can cross rough bony
projections, which would tear the more delicate
muscle tissues.
Epi Upon,over, above
mys muscle
Sheath upon or over a muscle
Skeletal muscle skeletal, striated, and voluntary.
Smooth muscle has no striations and is involuntary, which means
that we cannot consciously control it.
Found mainly in the walls of hollow
(tubelike) visceral organs such as the stomach,
urinary bladder, and respiratory passages, smooth
muscle propels substances along a pathway.
visceral, nonstriated, and involuntary.
Cardiac muscle found in only one place in the
body—the heart, where it forms the bulk of the
heart walls.
cardiac, striated, and involuntary.
intercalated discs Cardiac muscle fibers are branching cells joined by
special gap junctions
ATP used to power muscle contraction, nearly three-
quarters of its energy escapes as heat.
heat is vital in maintaining normal body temperature.
sarcolemma Many oval nuclei can be seen just beneath the
plasma membrane, which is called the
light (I) bands a midline interruption, a darker area called the Z
disc,
Dark (A) bands band has a lighter central area called the H zone
M line The center of the H zone contains tiny protein rods
that hold adjacent thick filaments together.
sarcomeres myofibrils are actually chains of tiny contractile
units called
structural and functional units of skeletal muscle.
sarcomeres aligned end to end like boxcars in a train along the
length of the myofibrils.
Thick filaments made mostly of bundled molecules
of the protein myosin, but they also contain
ATPase enzymes, which split ATP to release the
energy used for muscle contraction.
thin filaments composed of the contractile protein called actin,
plus some regulatory proteins that play a role in
allowing (or preventing) binding of myosin heads to
actin.
sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum
to store calcium and to release it on
demand when the muscle fiber is stimulated to
contract.
calcium provides the final “go” signal for contraction.
myosin, and actin structure(s) is/are responsible for the
banding pattern in skeletal muscle cells
Irritability also termed responsiveness, which is the ability to
receive and respond to a stimulus.
Contractility is the ability to forcibly shorten when adequately
stimulated. This property sets muscle apart from all
other tissue types.
Extensibility is the ability of muscle fibers to stretch
Elasticity is their ability to recoil and resume their resting
length after being stretched.
motor unit consists of one neuron and all the skeletal muscle
fibers it stimulates
Axon a long, threadlike extension of the neuron,reaches
the muscle, it branches into a number of axon
terminals, each of which forms junctions with the
sarcolemma of a different muscle cell These
junctions, called neuromuscular (literally, “nerve-
muscle”) junctions
Neurotransmitter contain synaptic vesicles filled with a chemical
referred to as
acetylcholine The specific neurotransmitter that stimulates
skeletal muscle fibers
amyotrophic lateral sclerosis Motor neurons degenerate over time, resulting in
Lou Gehrig’s disease paralysis that gradually worsens.
malfunctioning mitochondria, inflammation, and
the generation of free radicals that damage DNA
and tissue much like intense UV light.
The axon ending of a motor neuron and two structures are closely associated at a
the sarcolemma of the skeletal muscle cell. neuromuscular junction
1. calcium channels open, and calcium (Ca2+)
enters the terminal
2. Calcium entry causes some of the synaptic
vesicles in the axon terminal to fuse with the cell
membrane and release acetylcholine
3. which then diffuses across the synaptic cleft and
attaches to membrane receptors in highly folded
regions of the sarcolemma
4. If enough acetylcholine is released, the
sarcolemma at that point becomes temporarily
even more permeable to sodium ions (Na+), which
rush into the muscle fiber, and to potassium ions
(K+), which diffuse out of the muscle fiber.
However, more Na+ enters than K+ leaves.
5. This movement of ions generates an electrical
current called an action potential. Once begun, the
action potential is unstoppable; it travels over the
entire surface of the sarcolemma, conducting the
electrical
Depolarization This imbalance gives the cell interior an
excess of positive ions, which reverses the resting
electrical conditions of the sarcolemma. opens
more channels that only allow Na+ entry
action potential This movement of ions generates an electrical
current
sodium and potassium cations ions enter the muscle cell during the
generation of an action potential
Graded Responses different degrees of shortening, which generate
different amounts of force.
Tetanic contraction normal and desirable. It is quite dif-
ferent from the pathological condition of tetanus
(commonly called lockjaw), which is caused by a
toxin made by bacteria.
Lockjaw causes muscles to go into uncontrollable spasms,
finally causing respiratory arrest.
muscle twitches sometimes result from certain nervous system
problems, this is not the way our muscles normally
operate.
unfused tetanus (tet′ah-nus), or incomplete As a result, the effects of the successive
tetanus. contractions are “summed” (added) together, and
the contractions of the muscle get stronger and
smoother. The muscle exhibits
fused tetanus, or complete tetanus, or in tetanic When the muscle is stimulated so rapidly that no
contraction* evidence of relaxation is seen and the contractions
are completely smooth and sustained, the muscle is
in
ATP is the only energy source that can be used directly
to power muscle activity,
must be regenerated continuously if contraction is
to continue.
creatine phosphate (CP) The unique high-energy molecule
is found in muscle fibers but not other cell types.
Aerobic respiration occurs in the mitochondria and involves a series
of metabolic pathways that use oxygen.
oxidative phosphorylation. These pathways are collectively referred to as
During aerobic respiration glucose is broken down completely to carbon
dioxide and water, and some of the energy re-
leased as the bonds are broken is captured in the
bonds of ATP molecules.
Aerobic respiration provides a rich ATP harvest (about 32 ATP per 1
glucose), it is fairly slow and requires continuous
delivery of oxygen and nutrient fuels to the muscle
to keep it going.
Glycolysis The initial steps of glucose breakdown occur via a
pathway called
Anaerobic which does not use oxygen (literally “without
oxygen”).
During glycolysis which occurs in the cytosol, glucose is broken down
to pyruvic acid, and small amounts of energy are
captured in ATP bonds (2 ATP per 1 glucose
molecule).
anaerobic glycolysis. Under these conditions, the pyruvic acid generated
during glycolysis is converted to lactic acid, and the
overall process is referred to as
(a) Direct phosphorylation Coupled reaction of creatine
phosphate (CP) and ADP
Energy source: CP
Oxygen use: None
Products: 1 ATP per CP,
creatine
Duration of energy provision:
15 seconds
Aerobic pathway Aerobic cellular respiration
Energy source: glucose; pyruvic Energy source:
glucose acid; free fatty acids from adipose
tissue; amino acids from protein catabolism
Oxygen use: Required
Products: 32 ATP per glucose,
CO2, H2O
Duration of energy provision:Hours
(c) Anaerobic pathway Glycolysis and lactic acid formation
Energy source: glucose
Oxygen use: None
Products: 2 ATP per glucose, lactic acid
Duration of energy provision: 40 seconds, or
slightly more
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) direct source of energy used by muscle fibers for
contraction
muscle fatigue If we exercise our muscles strenuously for a long
time,
A muscle is fatigued when it is unable to contract
even though it is still being stimulated.
Oxygen deficit is not a total lack of oxygen; rather, it happens
when a person is not able to take in oxygen fast
enough to keep the muscles supplied with all the
oxygen they need when they are working
vigorously.
tension (force) develops in the muscle as the actin and myosin
myofilaments interact and the myosin cross bridges
attempt to slide the thin actin-containing filaments
past the thick myosin filaments.
Isotonic contractions (literally, “same tone” or tension) are familiar to
most of us. the myofilaments are successful in
their sliding movements, the muscle shortens, and
movement occurs.
Bending the knee, lifting
weights, and smiling are all examples of isotonic
contractions.
isometric contractions Contractions in which the muscles do not shorten
(literally, “same measurement” or length). the
myosin filaments are “spinning their wheels,” and
the tension in the muscle keeps increasing. They
are trying to slide, but the muscle
is pitted against some more or less immovable
object. For example, when you push the palms of
your hands together in front of you, your arms and
chest muscles are contracting isometrically.
muscle tone This state of continuous partial contractions
is the result of different motor units, which are
scattered through the muscle, being stimulated by
the nervous system in a systematic way. Think of
these motor units as being “on duty” in case action
is required.
flaccid paralysis If the nerve supply to a muscle is destroyed (as in
an accident), the muscle is no longer stimulated in
this manner, and it loses tone. Soon after, it
becomes flaccid (fla ̆′sid), or soft and flabby, and
begins to atrophy (waste away).
spastic paralysis increases muscle tone until the muscle is no longer
controllable—for example, the disease tetanus,
which is caused by a bacterial toxin.
Muscle inactivity (due to a loss of nerve supply, immobilization, or
whatever the cause) always leads to muscle
weakness and wasting.
Aerobic exercise, or endurance exercise, such as participating in an aerobics class, jogging,
or biking results in stronger, more
flexible muscles with greater resistance to fatigue.
These changes come about, at least partly, because
the blood supply to the muscles increases, and the
individual muscle fibers form more mitochondria
and store more oxygen.
Heart enlarges (hypertrophies) and pumps out more
blood with each beat, helping to clear more fat
deposits from the blood vessel walls.
lungs more efficient in gas exchange.
Aerobic exercise does not cause the muscles to increase much in
size, even though the exercise may go on for hours.
Resistance exercise, or isometric exercise The bulging muscles of a professional bodybuilder
result mainly from
Resistance exercises require very little time and little or no special
equipment.
The Five Golden Rules of Skeletal Muscle Activity
1. With a few exceptions, all skeletal muscles cross
at least one joint.
2. Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle lies
proximal to the joint crossed.
3. All skeletal muscles have at least two
attachments: the origin and the insertion.
4. Skeletal muscles can only pull; they never push.
5. During contraction, a skeletal muscle insertion
moves toward the origin.
Origin is attached to the immovable or less movable bone
the anchor, or leverage, point.
Insertion is attached to the movable bone. When the muscle
contracts, the insertion moves toward the origin.

Flexion. is a movement, generally in

 the sagittal plane, that decreases the angle of
the joint and brings two bones closer together
Flexion. is typical of
hinge joints (bending the knee or elbow), but
it is also common at ball-and-socket joints (for
example, bending forward at the hip).
Extension. is the opposite of flexion, so it is a movement that
increases the angle, or distance, between two
bones or parts of the body (straightening the knee
or elbow).
Hyperextension Extension that is greater than 180° (as when
you move your arm posteriorly beyond its
normal anatomical position, or tip your head
so that your chin points toward the ceiling)
Rotation. movement of a bone around its longitudinal axis
common movement of ball-and-
socket joints and describes the movement of the
atlas around the dens of the axis (as in
shaking your head “no”).
Abduction. is moving a limb away (generally on the frontal
plane) from the midline, or median plane, of the
body
applies to the fanning movement of your fingers or
toes when they are spread apart.
is the opposite of abduction, so it is the movement
of a limb toward the body midline Think of
adduction as “adding” a body part by bringing
it closer to the trunk.
Circumduction. is a combination of flexion, extension, abduction,
and adduction commonly seen in ball-and-socket
joints, such as the shoulder. The proximal end of
the limb is stationary, and its distal end moves in
a circle. The limb as a whole outlines a cone as
when you do big arm circles.
Dorsiflexion and plantar flexion. Up-and- down movements of the foot at the ankle
are given special names.
Dorsiflexion Lifting the foot so that its superior surface
approaches the shin (pointing your toe toward your
head)
plantar flexion pointing the toes away from your head
Dorsiflexion of the foot corresponds to extension and hyperextension of
the hand at the wrist
plantar flexion of the foot corresponds to flexion of the hand.
Inversion and eversion. To invert the foot, turn the sole
medially, as if you were looking at the bottom
of your foot. To evert the foot, turn the sole
laterally.
Supination “turning backward”)
occurs when the forearm rotates laterally so
that the palm faces anteriorly (or up) and the
radius and ulna are parallel, as in anatomical
position.
Pronation “turning forward”)
occurs when the forearm rotates medially so that
the palm faces posteriorly (or down).
brings the radius across the ulna so that the two
bones form
an X.
Supination and pronation. refer to movements of the radius
around the ulna
Opposition. In the palm of the hand, the saddle joint between
metacarpal 1 and the carpals allows opposition of
the thumb This is the action by which you move
your thumb to touch the tips of the other fingers
on the same hand. This unique action makes the
human hand a fine tool for grasping and
manipulating objects.

prime mover The muscle that has the major responsibility

for causing a particular movement
antagonists Muscles that oppose or reverse a
movement
Synergists help prime movers by producing the same
movement or by reducing undesirable movements.
Fixators specialized synergists They hold a bone still or
stabilize the origin of a prime mover so all the
tension can be used to move the insertion bone.
Flexion A muscle that crosses on the anterior side of a joint
produces
Extension A muscle that crosses on the posterior side of a
joint produces
Abduction A muscle that crosses on the lateral side of a joint
produces
Adduction A muscle that crosses on the medial side of a joint
produces
Abduction action is being performed by a person who
sticks out his thumb to hitch a ride
Flexion and extension What actions take place at the neck when you nod
your head up and down as if saying “yes”?
Muscles are named on the basis of several criteria,
each of which focuses on a particular structural or
functional characteristic.
Rectus (straight), its fibers run parallel to that imaginary
line.
rectus femoris is the straight muscle of the thigh.
maximus (largest)
minimus (smallest)
longus (long)
gluteus maximus Is the largest muscle of the gluteus muscle group.
circular pattern fascicles are arranged in concentric rings Circular
muscles are typically found surrounding external
body openings which they close by contracting,
creating a valve.
convergent muscle is triangular or fan-shaped, such as the pectoralis
major muscle of the anterior thorax
parallel arrangement the length of the fascicles run parallel to the long
axis of the muscle, as in the sartorius of the
anterior thigh. These muscles are straplike
Fusiform A modification of the parallel arrangement results
in a spindle-shaped muscle with an
expanded belly (midsection); an example is the
biceps brachii muscle of the arm
Pennate “feather”) pattern, short
fascicles attach obliquely to a central tendon.
Unipennate In the extensor digitorum muscle of the leg, the
fascicles insert into only one side of the tendon,
and the muscle is
Bipennate If the fascicles insert into opposite sides of the
tendon, the muscle is
multipennate If the fascicles insert from several different sides,
the muscle is
Facial muscles unique because they insert into soft tissues, such as
other muscles or skin.
When they pull on the skin of the face, they permit
us to express ourselves by frowning, smiling, and so
forth.
chewing muscles Begin to break down food for the body.
Frontalis which covers the frontal
bone, runs from the cranial aponeurosis to the
skin of the eyebrows, where it inserts. This muscle
allows you to raise your eyebrows, as in surprise,
and to wrinkle your forehead.
Aponeurosis is the small occipitalis muscle, which covers the
posterior aspect of the skull and pulls the scalp
posteriorly.*
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