Chapter 2: Tension Members

Chapter -2
Tension Members
2.1 Introduction
Tension members are linear members in which axial forces act so as to elongate (stretch) the

member. Tension members carry loads most efficiently, since the entire cross section is subjected

to uniform stress. Unlike compression members, they do not fail by buckling theoretically, the
tension member transmitting a direct tension between two points in a structure is the simplest and
most efficient structural element. In many cases this efficiency is seriously impaired by the end
connections required to join tension members to other members in the structure. Axially loaded
tension members are used mainly as members of the roof truss, truss for bridges, Cables in cable-
stayed and suspension bridges, Bracing in frames to resist lateral forces from blast, wind and
earthquake and as tie to take horizontal forces on industrial buildings.

Concentrically loaded uniform tension members are perhaps the simplest structural elements, as
they are nominally in a state of uniform axial stress. Because of this, their load- deformation
behaviour very closely parallels the stress–strain behavior of structural steel obtained from the
results of tensile tests (see section 1.3). Thus a member remains essentially linear and elastic until
the general yield load is approached, even if it has residual stresses and initial crookedness.
However, in many cases a tension member is not loaded or connected concentrically or it has
transverse loads acting, resulting in bending actions as well as an axial tension action. Simple
design procedures are available which enable the bending actions in some members with eccentric
connections to be ignored, but more generally special account must be taken of the bending action
in design.

Tension members often have comparatively high average stresses, and in some cases the effects
of local stress concentrations may be significant, especially when there is a possibility that the
steel material may not act in a ductile fashion. In such cases, the causes of stress concentrations
should be minimised, and the maximum local stresses should be estimated and accounted for.

1
Chapter 2: Tension Members

2.2 Types of tension member

The main types of tension members are shown in Fig. 2.1.
a) open and closed single rolled sections such as angles, tees, channels and the
structural hollow sections are used as tension members in light trusses and lattice girders
for bracing.

b) Compound sections consisting of double angles or channels. At least one axis of

symmetry is present and so the eccentricity in the end connection can be minimized. When
angles or other shapes are used in this fashion, they should be interconnected at intervals
to prevent vibration, especially when moving loads are present.

c) Heavy rolled sections and heavy compound sections of built-up H - and box sections. The
built-up sections are tied together either at intervals (batten plates) or continuously (lacing
or perforated cover plates). Batten plates or lacing do not add any load-carrying capacity
to the member but they do serve to provide rigidity and to distribute the load among the
main elements. Perforated plates can be considered as part of the tension member.

d) Bars and flats. In the sizes generally used, the stiffness of these members is very low; they
may sag under their own weight or that of workmen. Their small cross- sectional
dimensions also mean high slenderness values and, as a consequence, they may tend to
flutter under wind loads or vibrate under moving loads.

e) Ropes and cables.

Typical uses of tension members are listed below as shown in fig 2.2

a) Tension chords and internal ties in trusses and lattice girders in buildings and bridges.

b) Bracing members in buildings.

c) Main cables and deck suspension cables in cable-stayed and suspension bridges.

d) Hangers in suspended structures.

2
Chapter 2: Tension Members

Rolled sections

Compound sections

Heavy rolled and built- up sections

Threaded bar Flat plate Round stand rope

Figure 2.1 Tension members

(a)

(b)

3
Chapter 2: Tension Members

Braced Suspended
(c)

(d)
Figure 2.2 Tension members in buildings and bridges. (a) Single-storey building roof and truss
bracing. (b) Bridge truss (c) Multi-storey building.. (d) Suspension bridge.

2.3 Concentrically loaded tension members

2.3.1 Members without holes

(a) Tension member (b) Axial extension e

Figure 2.3 Load-extension behaviour of a perfect tension member.

4
Chapter 2: Tension Members

The straight concentrically loaded steel tension member of length L and constant cross sectional
area A which is shown in Figure 2.3a has no holes and is free from residual stress.

The axial extension e of the member varies with the load N in the same way as does the average
strain ε = e / L with the average stress σ = N / A, and so the load-extension relationship for the
member shown in Figure 2.3b is similar to the material stress–strain relationship shown in Figure
2.3. Thus the extension at first increases linearly with the load and is equal to

NL
e= 2.1
EA
Where E is the Young’s modulus of elasticity. This linear increase continues until the yield stress
fy of the steel is reached at the general yield load.

N pl = A f y 2.2
When extension increases with little or no increase in load until strain - hardening commences.
After this, the load increases slowly until the maximum value is reached, in which f u is the
ultimate tensile strength of the steel.

N u= A f u 2.3
Beyond this, a local cross-section of the member necks down and the load N decreases until
fracture occurs.

If the tension member is not initially stress free, but has a set of residual stresses induced during
its manufacture such as that shown in Figure 2.4b, then local yielding commences before the
general yield load Npl is reached Figure 2.4c, and the range over which the load extension
behaviour is linear decreases. However, the general yield load N pl at which the whole cross-
section is yielded can still be reached because the early yielding causes a redistribution of the
stresses.

5
Chapter 2: Tension Members

(c) Load-extension behaviour

Figure 2.4 Effect of residual stresses on load-extension behaviour.
2.3.2 Plates under Tension

Frequently plates under tension have bolt holes. The tensile stress in a plate at the cross section of
a hole is not uniformly distributed in the elastic range, but exhibits stress concentration
adjacent to the hole and is calculated as below.

Stress Concentration Factor =

Maximum elastic stress adjacent ¿ thehole ¿
Average stress on the net cross section 2.7

This factor is in the range of 2 to 3, depending upon the ratio of the diameter of the hole to the
width of the plate normal to the direction of stress.

Figure 2.5 stress variation of plate with hole

6
Chapter 2: Tension Members

More stress near restraint and less stress near un-restrained / free ends, the effective area is taken
as Net Area. Holes for rivets or bolts in tension affect the member in two ways they reduce the
area of the cross section and result in non-uniform strain on cross sections in the neighborhood of
the hole. The net area of cross-section or element section shall be taken as its gross area less
appropriate deductions for all holes and openings.

2.3.3 Members with small holes

The presence of small local holes in a tension member (such as small bolt holes used for the
connections of the member) causes early yielding around the holes, so that the load deflection
behaviour becomes non-linear. When the holes are small, the member may reach the gross yield
load (equation 2.2) calculated on the gross area A, as shown in Figure 2.5, because of strain-
hardening effects around the holes. In this case, the member behaviour is ductile, and the non-
linear behaviour can be ignored because the axial extension of the member under load is not
significantly increased, except when there are so many holes along the length of the member that
the average cross-sectional area is significantly reduced. Thus the extension e can normally be
calculated by using the gross cross-sectional area A in equation 2.1.

Figure 2.5 Effect of holes on load-extension behavior

2.3.4 Members with significant holes.

When the holes are large, the member may fail before the gross yield load N pl is reached by
fracturing at a hole, as shown in Figure 2.5.

N u= A net f u 2.4

7
Chapter 2: Tension Members

The local fracture load is calculated on the net area of the cross-section A net measured
perpendicular to the line of action of the load, and is given by

Anet = A−∑ d 0 t 2.5

Where d0 is the diameter of a hole, t is the least thickness of the member at the hole, and the
summation is carried out for all holes in the cross-section under consideration. The fracture load
Nu is determined by the weakest cross-section, and therefore by the minimum net area A net . A
member which fails by fracture before the gross yield load can be reached is not ductile, and there
is little warning of failure. In many practical tension members with more than one row of holes,
the reduction in the cross-sectional area may be reduced by staggering the rows of holes Figure
2.6. In this case, the possibility must be considered of failure along a zig–zag path such as
ABCDE in Figure 2.6, instead of across the section perpendicular to the load. The net area is
calculated using equation 2.6

2
s
Anet = A−n d 0 t+t ∑ 2.6
4p

Figure 2.6 Possible failure paths with zig-zag holes

2.3.5 Resistance of angles connected by one leg

Angles are extensively used as tension members in trusses and bracings. Angles, if axially loaded
through centroid, could be designed as in the case of plates. However, usually angles are
connected to gusset plates by bolting or welding only one of the two legs, as shown below.

8
Chapter 2: Tension Members

This leads to eccentric tension in the member, causing non-uniform distribution of stress over the
cross section. Further, since the load is applied by connecting only one leg of the member there is
a shear lag locally at the end connections

Figure 2.7 Angle member connected to gusset plate

Figure 2.8 Angle member connected to gusset plate with bolts

When a single angle is used as tension member and connected by single row of bolts in one leg
may be treated as concentrically loaded over an effective net section for which the design ultimate
resistance N, has to be determined using equation

2. ( e 2−0.5 d 0 ) t f u
N u , Rd= (1 bolt) 2.7 (a)
γM2

β 2 A net f u
N u , Rd= (2 bolts) 2.7(b)
γM2

9
Chapter 2: Tension Members

β 2 A net f u
N u , Rd= (3 bolts and more) 2.7(c)
γM2

β values depends on the pitch distance between holes and is taken from table no ?? any
intermediate values are calculated by using interpolation

Table 2.1. β value

Distance (p1) ≤ 2.5 d0 ≥ 5d0

2 bolts (β2) 0.4 0.7
3 bolts and more (β3) 0.5 0.7

When two lines of bolts are connected as shown in figure, the ultimate resistance is calculated
using

2. ( e 2+ p 2−1.5 d 0 ) t f u
N u , Rd= 2.8
γM2

Figure 2.9 member connected with two rows of bolt

2.4 Shear lag

10
Chapter 2: Tension Members

Figure 2.10 shear lag of member

In steel structures, sections such as angles, channels, and hollow sections, among others, are
generally used as tension members in bracings and truss configurations. As such, only part of the
cross section is usually connected to the gusset plate, which causes non uniform distribution of
stresses in the tension member near the connecting element In addition, the line of action of the
load usually does not coincide with the centroidal axis of a tension member, and hence, eccentric
loading and bending of the member is induced. The combination of these effects leads to the shear
lag phenomenon and possible member rupture in the connection area. This effect reduces the
design strength of the member because the entire cross section is not fully effective at the critical
section location.

In order to increase the efficiency of the outstanding leg and to reduce the effect of shear lag and
decrease the length of the end connections, sometimes a short length angle at the ends are
connected to the gusset and the outstanding leg of the main angle directly, as shown in Figure
2.11 Such angles are referred to as lug angles.

Figure 2.11 lug angle connection

11
Chapter 2: Tension Members

Effective connection of the lug angle will be if

It is terminated at the end of the member

Connection start in advance of the member of the gusset plate

Minimum of two bolts, rivets or equivalent welds

Lug angle to gusset plate = 10% more than the force in outstanding leg

Lug angle to main member = 20% more than the force in outstanding leg

Advantages of using lug angles

1. When a tension member is connected to a gusset plate at its end, a large number of bolts are
required, especially when the tensile load is large, necessitating the provision of big size
gusset plate.

2. Size of the gusset plate decreased

3. Providing extra gauge lines for accommodating the required number of bolts.

4. Increase the efficiency of the outstanding leg and to decrease the length of the end
connections.

2.5 Block Shear

(a) Tension (b) block shear in member (c) block shear in gusset plate

12
Chapter 2: Tension Members

(d) tension and shear area

Figure 2.12 block shear failure
Bolted beam-to-column connection may fail as a result of block shear. Failure occurs in shear at a
row of bolt holes parallel to the applied force, accompanied by tensile rupture along a
perpendicular face. This type of failure results in a block of material being torn out by the applied
shear force as shown in Figure 2.12. Block shear is, in some ways, similar to tensile rupture in
that the main part of the member tears away from the connection. This failure mechanism
combines a tensile failure on one plane and a shear failure on a perpendicular plane. If the
centroid of bolt pattern is not located between the heel of the angle and the center line of the
connected leg, the connection shall be checked for block shear strength, a tension member may
fail along end connection due to block shear. Block shear failure can be avoided by ensuring that
the applied shear force does not exceed the block shear capacity. For a symmetric bolt group
subjected to concentric and eccentricity loading the design block tearing resistance, V eff ,1 , RD is
given by equation 2.9 and 2.10

V eff ,1 , RD=f u A nt /γ M 2 + ( 1/ √ 3 ) f y Anv /γ M 0 2.9

V eff ,2 , RD=0.5 f u A nt /γ M 2 + ( 1/ √ 3 ) f y Anv /γ M 0 2.10

A vg= = gross area subjected to shear

Anv = net area subjected to shear

13
Chapter 2: Tension Members

Ant = net area subjected to tension

2.6 SLENDERNESS RATIO

Even if tension members are not under the action of reversal stress, to avoid damages during
transportation and erection of members, its slenderness ratio is limited to 350. This value does not
apply to cables.

2.7 SPLICES
When the available length is less than the required length of a tension member, splices are
provided. The various types of splices that can be provided are shown in Figs 2.13(a) to (c). If the
sections are not of the same thickness, packings are introduced, as shown in Fig. 2.13(d).
Moreover, reduction in capacity of bolt has to be considered for long joints.

Figure 2.13 Splices in tension members

2.8 GUSSET PLATE
A gusset plate is a plate provided at the ends of tension members through which the forces are
transferred to the main member. Gusset plates may be used to join more than one member at a
joint. The lines of action of truss members meeting at a joint should coincide. If they do not
coincide, secondary bending moments and stresses are created, which should be considered in the
design. The size and shape of the gusset plates are decided based on the direction of various
members meeting at a joint. The plate outlines are fixed so as to meet the minimum edge
distances specified for the bolts that are used to connect the various members at a particular joint.

14
Chapter 2: Tension Members

The shape of the gusset plate should be such that it should give an aesthetic appearance, in
addition to meeting the edge distances of bolts, as mentioned earlier.

Example 1 Determine the design tensile strength of the plate (200 X 10 mm) with the holes as
shown below, if the yield strength and the ultimate strength of the Fy=235MPa and Fu = 360Mpa
and 20 mm diameter bolts are used also determine the efficiency of the joint.

Figure 2.13 problem 1

Solution:
Calculation of net area
Case 1: chain bolting An 1=(200 – 3 x 22)1 0=13 40 mm2

( )
2
50
Case 2: zig zag bolting An 2= 200−4 × 22+2 X 10=¿1536.67 mm2
4 ×30
2
50
Case 3: zig zag bolting An 3=(200−5× 22+4 X )10=1733.332 mm2
4 ×30
Therefore net area will be the least of above = 1340 mm2
Check for
1) Plastic design resistance of the gross section.
2
Gross area A=200 x 10=2000 mm
kN
Yield strength f y =235 2
mm

15
Chapter 2: Tension Members

∂ safety factor γ M 1 =1.0

2000 ×235
N pl , Rd= =470 kN
1.0
2) Ultimate design resistance of the section at the bolt holes.
2
Effective area Aeff =1340 mm .
2
Ultimate resistance f u=360 N /mm
∂ safety factor γ M 2=1.25
0.9 ×1340 × 360
N u , Rd= =347.328 kN
1.25
Therefore, the design force is 347.328 KN (Brittle failure)
designtensile force
Efficiency of the plate with holes = gross area ¿ x 100
strength due ¿

347.28
= x 100=73.88 %
470

Example 2: Determine the design strength of two angles 100 x 100 x 10. Grade of steel S 275 and
area of one angle 1920 mm2

Figure 2.14 Problem 2

Solution

Because there are no holes (welded connection), only design plastic resistance must be checked.

A f y 2 ×1920 ×275
The design plastic resistance is: N pl , Rd= = =1056 kN
γM1 1.0

16
Chapter 2: Tension Members

Example 3: Determine the design strength for the two angles of previous problem. if now angles
are connected by bolted with single row of 16.5 mmholes at each leg of the angle. Gross area
3840 mm2 . Grade of steel S 275.

Solution

The effective area is the net area. Anet =3840 – 4 x 16.5 x 10=3180 mm2

0.9 Anet f u 0.9 ×3180 × 430

N u , Rd= = =984.528 KN < 1056 KN (plastic resistance)
γ M2 1.25

Therefore, the design strength of the bolted bracing member is controlled by the ultimate strength
of the section. N u , Rd=984.52 kN

Example 4: Check the section used as a main tie of the roof truss shown in the Figure below. The
section is formed with 2 unequalleg angle 100 ×75 ×8 mm . Steel grade S 275is used. The joint was
made with 7 bolts diameter 20 mmas shown. The acting tensile force is 630 KN .

Figure 2.15 problem 4

Solution

Gross area for one angle 100 ×75 × 8=13.50 cm2 (from table)

d hole =d+ 2=20+2=22 mm

2.9 Plastic resistance of the gross section:

2 ×1350 ×275
N pl , Rd= =742.5 kN
1.0

2.10 Ultimate resistance of the net section at the bolt holes.

17
Chapter 2: Tension Members

Calculation of the Aeff . S=35 mm∧ p=41 mm.

1) An1 = (167 – (1x 22)) 8 = 1160 mm2

2
35
2) An2 = ( 167 – ( 2 x 22) + (1 x )) x 8 = 691.75 mm2
4 x 41
net area = 691.75 x 2 = 1383.51mm

0.9 A eff f u 0.9× 1383.51× 430

N u , Rd= = =428.33 kN
γM2 1.25
Checking for the maximum slenderness ratio.

Slenderness ratio=Leff /k min

Minimum radius of gyration k min=1.60 mm . (from table)

Slenderness ratio=300/1.60=185<350 OK !.

The design tension resistance capacity of the cross-section is 428.3 kN

Nplrd > Nurd (brittle failure)

Problem 5: Calculate the block shear strength of the single angle tension member considered
The single angle 100 X 100 X 15 mm made from S235 steel is connected to the gusset plate with
14mm diameter bolts as shown below. The bolt spacing is 80mm. center-to-center and the edge
distances are 40mm and 50mm.

Section A – A

Figure 2.16 problem 5

Solution

Area of angle from steel table = 2790mm2

18
Chapter 2: Tension Members

d= 14 mm d0 = 14+1 = 15mm.

An= (2790 – (1 x 15)15)=2565 mm2

2.5 x 15 = 37.5mm ; 5 x 15 = 75mm and β = 0.7 (for 3 bolts)

A f y 2790 ×235
The design plastic resistance is: N pl , Rd= = =655.65 kN
γM1 1.0

0.7 A net f u 0.7 ×2565 × 360

The design ultimate resistance is: N u , Rd= = =517.104 KN
γM2 1.25

Block Shear Calculation. Ag = 2790 mm2 ; Anet = 2565 mm2

Gross Shear Area (AGV) = 1x (40+80+80) X 15 = 3000
mm2
Net Shear Area (ANV) = 3000 – 2.5 x (15 X 15) x1 =
2437.5 mm2

For concentric loading

V eff ,1 , RD=f u A nt /γ M 2 + ( 1/ √ 3 ) f y Anv /γ M 0

(360 x 2565) 235 x 2437.5

V eff ,1 , RD= + = 1069.42 KN
1.25 √3 x 1
For eccentric loading

V eff ,2 , RD=0.5 f u A nt /γ M 2 + ( 1/ √ 3 ) f y Anv /γ M 0

0.5 X (360 x 2565) 235 x 2437.5

V eff ,2 , RD= + = 700.07 KN
1.25 √3 x 1
Therefore design strength is taken as 517.10KN (brittle failure)

EXAMPLE 6: Determine the design tension strength for a single channel C380 x 100 connected
to a 14mm. thick gusset plate as shown in Figure 2.17. Assume that the holes are for 20 mm
diameter bolts and that the plate is made from structural steel with yield stress (F y) equal to
235MPa and ultimate stress (Fu) equal to 360 MPa.

19
Chapter 2: Tension Members

Figure 2.17 problem 6

Solution

from steel table Ag = 6870 mm2 and Tw =9.5 mm

ANET = 6870 - (3(22) * 9.5 )= 6243 mm2

2.5 x 22 = 55 mm ; 5 x 22 = 110 mm ; β = 0.68 (for 3 bolts)

A f y 6870 ×235
2.11 The design plastic resistance is: N pl , Rd= = =1614.45 kN
γM1 1.0
0.68 A net f u 0.68 ×6243 ×360
The design ultimate resistance is: N u , Rd= = =1222.69 KN
γ M2 1.25

Ag = 6870 mm2 ; ANET = 6870- (3(22) * 9.5 )= 6243 mm2

Gross Shear Area (AGV) = 4 * (40+75+75)X 9.5 = 5700 mm2

Net Shear Area (ANV) = 5700 – 2.5 * (22 X 9.5) * 4= 3610 mm2

For concentric loading

V eff ,1 , RD=f u A nt /γ M 2 + ( 1/ √ 3 ) f y Anv /γ M 0

(360 x 6243) 235 x 3610

V eff ,1 , RD= + = 2287.77 KN
1.25 √3 x 1
For eccentric loading

V eff ,2 , RD=0.5 f u A nt /γ M 2 + ( 1/ √ 3 ) f y Anv /γ M 0

0.5 X (360 x 6243) 235 x 3610

V eff ,2 , RD= + = 1388.7 KN
1.25 √3 x 1

20
Chapter 2: Tension Members

Therefore design strength is taken as 1 222.69 (brittle failure)

21