CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

8.1 TOPIC 1 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

KEY CONCEPT OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
Learners should (ATTITUDES, SKILLS AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES RESOURCES
be able to: KNOWLEDGE) AND NOTES
8.1.1  Calibrate - calibration and  Calibrating eyepiece  Relevant
Microscopy eyepiece measurement graticule. reference
graticule materials
- units of measurement  Observing cells using  ICT tools
 Draw and (millimetre, micrometre and light microscope.  Braille
determine linear nanometre)  Measuring linear software/Jaws
dimensions of dimensions of  Light
specimens specimens. Microscope (X4,
X10, X40
 distinguish -magnification and  Discussing the objective
between resolution (refer to light and concepts magnification lenses)
magnification electron microscopes) and resolution.  Hand lenses
and resolution  Graticules
- wet mounts  Mounting temporary  Stage
 prepare - staining slides. micrometers
temporary slides  Staining wet mounts  Stains
with appropriate stains.  Prepared slides

MICROSCOPY

— Microscopy is the examination of minute objects with the aid of microscopes.

— Cells are too small to be studied by a naked eye. Therefore microscopes are used.
— Microscopes are instruments which magnify the image of a biological specimen so
that it appears larger.
— Microscopes have two functions, namely magnification and resolution.

 Explain the difference between magnification and resolution.

Magnification
 The number of times an image is greater in size than the object.
 Increases the ability to see details

Resolution
 The ability to distinguish two close objects/points as separate from each other.
 The ability to distinguish between two points on an image.
 Allows details to be seen with more clarity
 Determined by the wavelength (λ) of light or electron beam.
 The smaller the wavelength of radiation used the greater the resolution.

 The smaller the objects that can be distinguished then the higher the resolution.
 Wavelength of beam of electrons is smaller than that of light
 Therefore electron microscope resolution is greater than that of light
microscope.
 So we can see much more fine detail of a cell with electron microscope than with
a light microscope.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 1
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Explanation of resolution
— The resolution of an image is limited by the wavelength of radiation used to view
the sample.
— This is because when objects in the specimen are much smaller than the
wavelength of the radiation being used, they do not interrupt the waves, and so
are not detected.
— The wavelength of light (min. – violet is 400nm) is much larger than the
wavelength of electrons, so the resolution of the light microscope is a lot lower.
— The actual resolution is often half the size of the wavelength of radiation used.
Thus, for the light microscope the maximum resolution is about 200nm.
— In other words, if two objects in the specimen are closer than 200nm in real life,
then they will only show up as one object on the image.
— Using a microscope with a more powerful magnification will not increase this
resolution any further. It will increase the size of the image, but objects closer
than 200nm will still only be seen as one point.
— In light microscopes, the wavelength of the light used for illumination falls in the
visible range (400-750 nm). If light of shorter wave length is used within this
range the resolution will be higher. For example, blue light has a shorter
wavelength than red light. Greater resolution can be obtained by using a blue
light as a source of illumination than a red light.
— To improve the resolution power a shorter wavelength of light is needed, and
sometimes microscopes have blue filters for this purpose (because blue has the
shortest wavelength of visible light).

TYPES OF MICROSCOPES

— The two fundamental types of microscopes are:

1. the light microscopes which use visible light, two or more lenses, and a
specimen – usually stained to make structures more visible.
2. the electron microscopes which use a beam of electrons, a number of
electromagnetic lenses (that focus and diverge the beam of electrons), a piece of
photographic film (like X-ray film), and a specimen

LIGHT MICROSCOPES

 Light microscopes are of two types namely the simple microscope (hand lens)
and the compound light microscope (“compound” means it uses several lenses to
obtain high magnification).
 A compound light microscope with one eyepiece (ocular) is called a monocular light
microscope.
 A compound light microscope with two eyepieces (oculars) is called a binocular
light microscope.
 Specimens are illuminated with light, which is focused using glass lenses and
viewed using the eye or photographic film.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 2
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

 Different stains are used that stain specific parts of the cell such as DNA, lipids,
cytoskeleton, etc.
 Light microscopy has a resolution of about 200 nm, which is good enough to see
cells, but not the details of cell organelles.

Label the parts of a light microscope

DIAGRAM: Side view of a monocular light microscope.

Parts of the compound light microscope and their functions:

 Eyepiece lens: magnifies the image; closest to the observer‟s eye.
 Objective lens: magnifies the image; closest to the specimen.
 Stage: holds the specimen (slide).
 Diaphragm: controls the amount of light.
 Light source/mirror: sends light up through the stage and specimen.
 Fine/coarse focus wheels: make fine/large adjustments to the clarity of the image.

 Basic Principles of Light microscopy

— Light is produced from either an internal or external light source and passes through
the iris diaphragm, a hole of variable size which controls the amount of light reaching
the specimen.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 3
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

— The light then passes through the condenser which focuses the light onto the
specimen.
— The slide is held on the stage at 90 degrees to the path of light which next travels
through the specimen.
— The objective lens magnifies the image of the specimen before the light travels
through the barrel of the microscope.
— The light finally passes through the eyepiece lens and into the viewer‟s eye which
sends impulses to the brain which in turn interprets the image.

PICTURE: Monocular light microscope.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 4
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

DIAGRAM: Side view of a binocular light microscope.

3D DIAGRAM of a binocular light microscope

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 5
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

 Distinguish between light and electron microscopes.

TABLE: Comparison of light and electron microscope

FEATURE LIGHT MICROSCOPE ELECTRON MICROSCOPE
Illumination and Light from lamp Electrons from hot wire
source High voltage (50 kV)
Electromagnetic Visible light. Electrons.
spectrum used 400 nm – 750 nm Approximately 4nm.
Image colour Natural colour maintained All images in black and white
(Colours visible) (monochrome)
Focusing Glass lenses Electromagnets
Detection Human eye (retina) or Fluorescent (TV) screen or
photographic film photographic film
Magnification 1 500 x 500 000 x
Resolution 200 nm 0.1 nm
Specimen Living or dead Dead
Staining Coloured dyes Heavy metals
Interior Air filled Vacuum
Distortion Material rarely distorted by Preparation distorts material
preparation
Portability Small and portable Large and requires special rooms
Preparation Simple and easy Lengthy and complex
Operation cost Cheap to operate Expensive to produce electron beam
Buying cost Cheap to purchase Expensive to buy

 Electron microscopes are also of two types namely the transmission electron
microscope (TEM) and the scanning electron microscope (SEM).

Electron microscope uses a beam of electrons, rather than electromagnetic radiation, to

"illuminate" the specimen. This may seem strange, but electrons behave like waves and
can easily be produced (using a hot wire), focused (using electromagnets) and detected
(using a phosphor screen or photographic film). A beam of electrons has an effective
wavelength of less than 1 nm, so can be used to resolve small sub-cellular
ultrastructure. The development of the electron microscope in the 1930s revolutionized
biology, allowing organelles such as mitochondria, ER and membranes to be seen in
detail for the first time.
The main disadvantage with the electron microscope is that specimens must be fixed in
plastic and viewed in a vacuum, and must therefore be dead. Other problems are that
the specimens can be damaged by the electron beam and they must be stained with an
electron-dense chemical (usually heavy metals like osmium, lead or gold).

Basic Principles of Electron Microscopy

Electron Microscopy

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 6
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

— A negatively charged platinum metal electrode (the cathode) emits a beam of high
velocity negatively charged electrons.
— The electromagnets on the side of the barrel focus the beam of electrons on the
specimen in the same way that the glass lenses on a light microscope focus the
beams of light.
— The specimen is introduced via an air lock so as to maintain the internal vacuum
conditions.
— The transmitted or reflected beam of electrons, depending on type of microscope are
focused by the electromagnets onto a fluorescent screen to produce the image which
is then viewed by the operator.

TRANSMISSION AND SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPES

— Both use beams of electrons produced from a hot filament by thermionic

emission.
Transmission electron microscopes pass a beam of electrons through the specimen.
The electrons that pass through the specimen are detected on a fluorescent screen on
which the image is displayed.
— Thin sections of specimen are needed for transmission electron microscopy as
the electrons have to pass through the specimen for the image to be produced.
Scanning electron microscopes pass a beam of electrons over the surface of the
specimen in the form of a „scanning‟ beam.
— Electrons are reflected off the surface of the specimen as it has been previously
coated in heavy metals.
— It is these reflected electron beams that are focused of the fluorescent screen in
order to make up the image.
— Larger, thicker structures can thus be seen under the scanning electron
microscope as the electrons do not have to pass through the sample in order to
form the image.
— However the resolution of the scanning electron microscope is lower than that of
the transmission electron microscope.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 7
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

DIAGRAM: Principal features of a light microscope, a transmission electron microscope

(TEM), and a scanning electron microscope (SEM), drawn to emphasize the similarities
of overall design. The TEM and SEM require that the specimen be placed in a high-
vacuum environment.

 Distinguish between compound light microscope, transmission electron

microscope and scanning electron microscope.
 State the resolution and magnification that can be achieved by a light
microscope, a transmission electron microscope and a scanning electron
microscope.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 8
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Light Microscope Transmission Electron Scanning Electron

Microscope (TEM) Microscope (SEM)
Uses light Uses a beam of electrons Uses a beam of electrons
Light passes through thin Beam of electrons pass beam of electrons bounce
specimen sample through the sample off the surface of the
specimen
Sample living or non-living Sample non-living Sample non-living
Low magnification = x1 500 High magnification High magnification
= x500 000 = x100 000
Low resolution = 200nm High resolution = 0.1nm High resolution = 0.1nm
(half the λ of visible light) (The λ of electron beam). (The λ of electron beam).
Creates a 2D image Creates a 2D image. Creates a 3D image of the
Contrast is created by surface.
structures of different
densities: Dense structures
absorb more electrons and
so appear darker
Stains - Dyes Stains Stains
 Iodine  salts of heavy metals  salts of heavy metals
 methyl blue
 acetic orcein
Easy and cheap to create Difficult and expensive to Difficult and expensive to
samples create samples. create samples.
Easy and cheap to setup Difficult and expensive to Difficult and expensive to
setup and use. setup and use.
 Use the table above to distinguish between transmission electron microscope
scanning electron microscope.

Explain the need for staining samples for use in light and electron microscopy.

 It is necessary to give contrast between structures.

 Stains are taken up differently by objects with different densities.
— Light microscopy: e.g. iodine, methyl blue, acetic orcein
— Electron microscopy: e.g. salts of heavy metals

CELL SIZE

Units of measurement (millimetre, micrometre and nanometre)

— Most animal and plant cells are 0.01 – 0.10 mm in size. The smallest thing seen with
the naked eye is about 0.05 mm.
— For all cells we need a microscope to see them in much detail.
— The best unit to measure most cells is the micrometre, symbol μm.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 9
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

— For some sub-cellular structures, for instance ribosomes, or organisms such as

viruses, it‟s best to use a smaller unit – the nanometre, symbol nm.
— One metre can be broken down into the following measurements:

Standard form

— When writing and working with very large or very small numbers, we use standard
form.
— Standard form shows the size of numbers as powers of ten.
— Standard form numbers are written as:

 A × 10n
 A is a number greater than one but less than 10
n
 is the index or power, always in powers of 10

Using standard form for large numbers

 A population of 120 000 000 microorganisms could be written as 1.2 × 108.

 This number can be written as 120 000 000.0.
 If the decimal place is moved eight spaces to the left we get 1.2.
 So we put x 108 after 1.2 to show this.
 Because the original number is greater than one metre the minus sign before the
8 is not needed.
 It makes a very large number easier to write down.

Using standard form for small numbers

 A red blood cell's diameter of 7 μm or 0.000007 m could be written as 7 × 10 -6 m.

 This number can be written as 0.000007.
 If we move the decimal place six spaces to the right we get 7.0
 So we put x 10-6 after 7 to show this.
 Because the original number is less than one metre we put a minus sign before
the 6.
 It makes a very small number easier to write down.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 10
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

How to calculate the actual size and linear magnification of an image

Mnemonics I AM

How to work out the actual size of an object when told how much it has been
magnified

1. The magnification is given in the question.

2. The image micrograph or drawing is also given.
3. Use a ruler to measure its length in mm.
4. Convert length in mm to μm by multiplying by 1000 (since 1mm = 1000 μm).
5. Substitute this value into the equation.

Actual size =

Worked example

1. The drawing of this mitochondrion has been magnified 100 000 times.

a) Use your ruler to find its length in mm.

b) Convert the length to μm.
c) Calculate the actual (real) length of this mitochondrion.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 11
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Answer
a) Length = 50 mm.
b) 50 x 1000 = 50 000 μm.
c) Actual size =

= 0.5 μm
The actual length of the mitochondrion is 0.5 μm.

2. In a book, a micrograph of the dividing cell measured 100 mm. The real size of the
cell shown is 0.05 mm.

(a) Calculate the magnification of the cell.

Magnification =

= x2000

N.B It‟s important to work in the same units when calculating magnification. Sizes of
most cells are given in micrometres, symbol μm.

To calculate magnification using the same formula in micrometres, convert the

measurement of the cell above from mm into micrometres:

Cell measurement = 100 mm

1 mm = 1000 μm

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 12
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

100 mm = 100 x 1000 μm

100 mm = 100 000 μm

The real size of the cell above in micrometres is 50 μm.

The magnification of the image:

Magnification =

= x2000

From this we know that the image has been magnified 2000 times.

3. You can also use a scale bar to do a similar calculation, for example, for this drawing
of a chloroplast.

 Measure the length of the scale bar.

20 mm = 20 000 μm

 Calculate its magnification

Magnification =

= x10 000

 Measure the length of the image of the chloroplast in mm

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 13
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Length = 80 mm

 Convert length to μm

Length = 80 x 1000

= 80 000 μm

 Calculate its actual size using the formula

Actual size =

= 8 μm

Calculating microscope magnification

Microscopes magnify an image using a lens found in the eye-piece, which is also known
as the ocular lens. The image is further magnified by the objective lens. Thus the
magnification of a microscope is:

Microscope magnification = Eyepiece magnification power x Objective lens

magnification power

Example: if the eyepiece magnification is 5X and the objective lens' magnification is

10X, the image of the object viewed under the microscope is 50X bigger than the object:

Microscope magnification = Eyepiece power x Objective power

= 5 x 10

= x 50

Magnification is 50 times the original size.

Magnification worked examples

Worked example 1: Calculating overall magnification

Question

Calculate the overall magnification of a compound light microscope with a magnification

of 10 X due to the eyepiece and a magnification of a 100X due to the objective lens.

Solution

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 14
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Using the formula:

Microscope magnification = Eyepiece power x Objective power

= 10 x 100

= x 1000

Magnification is 100 times the original size.

Worked example 2: Calculating size of object from its microscopic image

Question

If the measured length of the magnified beetle larva image shown below was 2 cm (20
mm), the eyepiece magnification of the microscope is 5 X and you are using an
objective lens magnification of 10 X, what is the actual length of the larva in mm?

Solution

Step 1: Calculate the total magnification

Use the same formula as above

Microscope magnification = Eyepiece power x Objective power

= 5 x 10

= x 50

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 15
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Magnification is 50 times the original size.

Step 2: Now calculate the size of the object

If the image is 50 X larger than the object, what is the size of the object? Calculate this
by simple proportion given in the formula below.

Worked example 3: Calculating actual size given of a structure given scale bar on
an image

QUESTION
Calculate the actual length of AB from the image shown in the micrograph given with
the scale bar given below.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 16
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Solution

Step 1: Measure the length AB shown in the diagram

This should be approximately 20 mm

Step 2: Work out the length AB

Given that the measured length of the scale bar is approximately 5 mm, work out the
length AB:

MEASURING CELLS USING A GRATICULE

— An eyepiece graticule is a little scale bar that you can place in the eyepiece of your
light microscope. When you look down the microscope, you can see the graticule
as well as the specimen.
— The graticule is marked off in „graticule units‟, so you can use the graticule to
measure the specimen you are viewing in these graticule units. Just turn the
eyepiece so that the graticule scale lies over the object you want to measure. It will
look something like this:

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 17
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

— Select one cell and measure its width. We can see that the width of one cell is 23
graticule units.
— The graticule units have to be converted to real units, such as mm or μm. This is
called calibration. To do this, you use a special slide called a stage micrometer that
is marked off in a tiny scale. There should be information on the slide that tells you
the units in which it has been marked. The smallest markings are often 0.01mm
apart – that is 10μm apart.
— Take the specimen off the stage of the microscope and replace it with the stage
micrometer. Focus on it using the same objective lens as you used for viewing the
specimen.
— Line up the micrometer scale and the eyepiece graticule scale. You can do this by
turning the eyepiece, and by moving the micrometer on stage. Make sure that two
large markings on each scale are exactly lined up with each other. You should be
able to see something like this:

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 18
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

— You can see that the 50 mark on the stage micrometer is lined up with the 1.0 mark
on the eyepiece graticule. Move along towards the right until you see another two
lines that are exactly lined up. There is a good alignment of 68 on the stage
micrometer and 90 on the eyepiece graticule. So you can say that:

80 small eyepiece graticule markings = 18 stage micrometer markings

80 small eyepiece graticule markings = 18 x 0.01 mm

= 0.18 mm

Multiply by 1000 to convert mm to μm.

80 small eyepiece graticule markings = 0.18 x 1000

= 180 μm

Therefore 1 small eyepiece graticule marking = 180/80

= 2.25 μm

— Now we can calculate the real width of the plant cell we measured.

It was 23 eyepiece graticule units long in this case. So its real width is:

23 x 2.25 = 51.75 μm

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 19
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

— If you want to look at smoothing using a different objective lens, you will have to do
the calibration of the eyepiece graticule units all over again using this lens. Once you
have it, you can save your calibrations for the next time you use the same
microscope with the same eyepiece graticule and the same objective lens.

Question 1

What would be the real length of a plant cell that was 35 divisions on this graticule?

Answer

Each eyepiece graticule division is 2.25 μm

The real length of the cell is 35 × 2.25 μm = 78.75 μm

Question 2

How many graticule divisions would a single celled organism that was 108 μm take
up?

Answer

Each graticule division is 2.25 μm

An organism that measured 240 μm would take up 108/2.25 divisions = 48 divisions

PRACTICAL: VIEWING PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

— Slide: small glass plate on which specimen are placed for viewing
— Wet mount slide: temporary way to prepare a slide; 1-2 drops of liquid (usually
water) goes on specimen; always uses a cover slip.
— Cover slip: a small plastic or glass piece that is used to cover a water drop on a
slide.

Experiment: to view animal and plant cells, stained and unstained, using the light
microscope at 100X and 400X

Equipment:

 Cotton wool buds (to obtain human cheek cells)

 Onion
 Microscope slides
 Coverslips
 Methylene blue (for animal cells)
 Iodine (for plant cells)
 Mounted needle

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 20
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

 Tissue
 Water
 Light microscope

Method for viewing animal cells (human cheek cells):

1. Using a cotton wool bud, rub the inside of your mouth and smear the bud onto a
clean, dry glass slide.
2. Place a drop of methylene blue on top of the smear and allow to soak in for 5
minutes.
3. Tip the slide at an angle onto tissue paper to allow the excess stain to fall off.
4. Add a drop of water to the stained smear.
5. Lower a coverslip slowly using a mounted needle from a 45º angle to avoid
trapping air bubbles.
6. View slide under the light microscope at 40X, focus and then move to higher
powers and sketch field of view at 100X and 400X.

PICTURE: Human cheek cells as seen under a light microscope.

Method for viewing plant cells (onion):

1. Cut a piece of onion and remove a single layer of cells and place on the glass
slide.
2. Place a few drops of iodine onto the onion layer and allow to soak in for 5
minutes.
3. Tip the slide at an angle onto tissue paper to allow the excess stain to fall off.
4. Add a drop of water to the onion layer.
5. Lower a coverslip slowly using a mounted needle from a 45º angle to avoid
trapping air bubbles.
6. View slide under the light microscope at 40X, focus and then move to higher
powers and sketch field of view at 100X and 400X.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 21
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

PICTURE: Onion plant cells as seen under a light microscope

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 22
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

8.1.2 PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

KEY OBJECTIVES CONTENT SUGGESTED SUGGESTED
CONCEPT Learners should (ATTITUDES, SKILLS AND LEARNING ACTIVITIES RESOURCES
be able to: KNOWLEDGE) AND NOTES
8.1.2  identify plant and - Ultrastructure of the  Observing plant and  Photomicrographs
Plant and animal cells plant and animal cells animal cells.  Print media
Animal  Drawing plant and  ICT tools
Cells  compare plant - Rough and smooth animal cells.  Braille
and animal cells endoplasmic reticula, Golgi software/Jaws
body, mitochondria,  Discussing the  Microscope
ribosomes, chloroplasts, cell similarities and  Prepared slides
surface membrane, differences between  Models
nuclear envelope, plant and animal cells.
centrioles, nucleus and
nucleolus
8.1.3  outline the - Functions of  Discussing functions of  Photomicrographs
Organelles functions of organelles listed cell organelles.  Print media
and their organelles above  ICT tools
functions  Braille
software/Jaws
8.1.4  compare - Structure of eukaryotic and  Observing and drawing  Prepared slides
Eukaryotic eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells eukaryotic and  Microscope
and prokaryotic cells prokaryotic cells.  Print media
Prokaryotic  Discussing the  ICT tools
Cells similarities and  Braille
differences between software/Jaws
the cells.
Eukaryotic and Prokaryotic Cells
— All living organisms are made of cells, and cells are the smallest units that can be
alive.
— Life on Earth is classified into five kingdoms, monera (bacteria), animals, plants,
fungi and protoctista. Each kingdom has its own characteristic kind of cell.
— However there are two major divisions based on the type of cells and these are
prokaryotic cells belonging to the prokaryote kingdom (the bacteria) and
eukaryotic cells belonging to the eukaryote kingdom composed of the other four
kingdoms (animals, plants, fungi and protoctista).
— Prokaryotic cells are smaller and simpler than eukaryotic cells, and do not have a
nucleus.

Prokaryote = "pro – Before; karyon - carrier bag (Nucleus)" i.e. without a nucleus.
Eukaryote = "eu –True; karyon carrier bag (Nucleus)" i.e. with a nucleus.

Understanding:
Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalisation

1. Outline the major differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 23
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

2. List the functions of the following structures of a prokaryotic cell: cell membrane,
nucleoid, plasmid, cytoplasm, ribosome, cell wall, pili, capsule, flagella- Define
extracellular.
3. Contrast the size of eukaryotic and prokaryotic ribosomes

— Prokaryotes are organisms whose cells lack a nucleus ('pro' = before ; 'karyon' =
nucleus)
— They belong to the kingdom Monera and have been further classified into two
distinct domains:
 Archaebacteria – found in extreme environments like high temperatures,
salt concentrations or pH (i.e. extremophiles)
 Eubacteria – traditional bacteria including most known pathogenic forms
(e.g. E. coli, S. aureus, etc.)

Characteristics of Prokaryotes

 Prokaryotes are the single-celled organisms and much smaller than eukaryotic
cells.
 The size of most prokaryotes is between 1 µm and 10 µm, but can vary in size
from 0.2 µm to 750 µm.
 The prokaryotes are divided into two domains: the bacteria, unicellular
microorganisms that have wide range of shapes and ubiquitous in habitat and the
archaea, single-celled prokaryotic microorganisms similar to bacteria but possess
some genes and several metabolic pathways that are closely related to those of
eukaryotes.
 Exists in different shapes like, coccus, bacillus, spirillum, coccobacillus, and
spirochete. While some of the prokaryotes are pleomorphic i.e. do not possess
constant shape and some exists as aggregate communities.

Features of Prokaryotes

Cell wall – rigid outer covering made of peptidoglycan (murein); maintains shape and
prevents bursting (lysis)
Slime capsule – a thick polysaccharide layer used for protection against desiccation
(drying out) and phagocytosis
Flagella – Long, slender projections containing a motor protein that enables movement
(singular: flagellum)
Pili – Hair-like extensions that enable adherence to surfaces (attachment pili) or mediate
bacterial conjugation (sex pili)
Cell membrane – Semi-permeable and selective barrier surrounding the cell
Cytoplasm – internal fluid component of the cell
Nucleoid – region of the cytoplasm where the DNA is located (DNA strand is circular
and called a genophore)
Plasmids – autonomous circular DNA molecules that may be transferred between
bacteria (horizontal gene transfer)

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 24
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Ribosomes – complexes of RNA and protein that are responsible for polypeptide
synthesis (prokaryote ribosome = 70S)

DIAGRAM: Prokaryotic cell e.g. bacteria cell.

They have a more complex structure and are believed to have evolved from prokaryotic
cells (via endosymbiosis)
Prokaryotic cells are fundamentally different in their internal organization from
eukaryotic cells. Notably, prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membranous organelles.
The nucleus is bounded by the nuclear envelope, a double membrane with many
nuclear pores through which material enters and leaves.

Eukaryotes can be divided into four distinct kingdoms:

 Protista – unicellular organisms; or multicellular organisms without specialised

tissue
 Fungi – have a cell wall made of chitin and obtain nutrition via heterotrophic
absorption
 Plantae – have a cell wall made of cellulose and obtain nutrition autotrophically
(via photosynthesis)
 Animalia – no cell wall and obtain nutrition via heterotrophic ingestion

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 25
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Prokaryotes divide by binary fission.

 Define asexual reproduction.

 Outline the four steps of binary fission.

Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction used by prokaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells divide by binary fission. This involves the replication of their DNA and
elongation of the cell such to the point that it will partition or divide into two cells. ...
Binary fission is a form of asexual reproduction and this means that the two cells
produced are genetically identical to the original cell.

In the process of binary fission:

 The circular DNA is copied in response to a replication signal

 The two DNA loops attach to the membrane
 The membrane elongates and pinches off (cytokinesis), forming two cells

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 26
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS ARE EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Understanding:
Eukaryotes have a compartmentalised cell structure.

 State the meaning and advantages of eukaryotic cells

being “compartmentalized.”

Eukaryotes are organisms whose cells contain a nucleus („eu‟ = good / true ; „karyon‟ =
nucleus)
The close detail of a cell, with all organelles visible, that can be seen by using an
electron microscope is referred to as the ultra-structure.
ANIMAL CELLS

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 27
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

DIAGRAM: Ultrastructure of a generalized animal eukaryotic cell

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 28
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

PLANT CELL

DIAGRAM: Ultrastructure of a generalized plant eukaryotic cell

Differences between plant and animal cells

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 29
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Functions of cell organelles

Universal Organelles

 Ribosomes - these organelles consist of RNA and proteins and are responsible
for protein production. Ribosomes are found suspended in the cytosol or bound
to the endoplasmic reticulum.
 Cytoskeleton - these structures are filamentous scaffolding within the cytoplasm
(fluid portion of the cytoplasm is the cytosol). The cytoskeleton provides internal
structure and mediates intracellular transport (less developed in prokaryotes)
 Plasma membrane - this is a phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins (not
an organelle, but a vital structure). The plasma membrane is a semi-permeable
and selective barrier surrounding the cell.

Organelles of Eukaryotes

Nucleus

- The nucleus is a membrane bound structure that contains the cell's hereditary (DNA)
information and controls the cell's growth and reproduction.
- The presence of a nucleus is the primary factor that distinguishes eukaryotes from
prokaryotes.
- The nucleus is the largest cell organelle.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 30
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

- The structure of the nucleus is described below:

 Nucleoplasm is the semifluid matrix inside nucleus, i.e. everything within the
nucleus that is not part of the nucleolus.
 Nuclear envelope: two lipid membranes that are studded with special proteins
that separate the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm. Outer membrane
is granular whereas the inner one is smooth.
 Nuclear pores: tiny holes, 40 – 100 nm in diameter, found in the nuclear
envelope. These help to regulate the exchange of materials (such as RNA and
proteins) between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
 Chromatin: thin long strands of DNA and protein.
 Nucleolus: the nucleolus makes RNA another type of nucleic acid.
— Functions of the nucleus:
1. Contains the hereditary/genetic material in the form of chromosomes.
2. Controls the activities of the cell (growth, reproduction and metabolism).
3. Production of ribosomes and DNA
4. Involved in cell division.
5. Carries instructions in the nuclear DNA for the synthesis of proteins.

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

— The ER is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells only.

— Extensive network of membranes composed of both regions with ribosomes (rough
ER) and regions without ribosomes (smooth ER). This organelle manufactures
membranes, secretory proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and hormones.
— The ER is located in the cytoplasm and is connected to the nuclear envelope.
— There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: smooth and rough ER.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 31
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

— Smooth ER: does not have any ribosomes attached. It is involved in the synthesis of
lipids, including oils, phospholipids and steroids. It is also responsible for metabolism
of carbohydrates, regulation of calcium concentration and detoxification of drugs.
— Rough ER: is covered with ribosomes giving the endoplasmic reticulum its rough
appearance. It is responsible for protein synthesis and plays a role in membrane
production. The folds present in the membrane increase the surface area allowing
more ribosomes to be present on the ER, thereby allowing greater protein production.
— Here is a summary of the functions of ER:
1. Form a transport network throughout the cell.
2. Provide a large surface area for chemical reactions.
3. Collect and store manufactured material.
4. Form a structured skeleton to help maintain the shape of the cell.
5. Rough ER plays a role in:
— protein synthesis.
— membrane production.
6. Smooth ER:
— produces lipids and steroids.
— is responsible for metabolism of carbohydrates.
— regulates calcium concentration in the cell.
— plays a role in detoxification of drugs.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 32
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 33
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Mitochondria

— A mitochondrion is a membrane bound organelle found in eukaryotic cells.

— They are rod shaped, being 5 μm long and 0.2 μm wide.
— Their wall consists of two membranes, the inner one which is folded to form cristae.
— Mitochondria are the sites of cell respiration. Enzymes which catalyse respiration are
attached to the inner membrane and cristae or occur in the matrix.
— During respiration, mitochondria generate chemical energy for the cell by releasing
energy stored in food molecules and using it to produce ATP (adenosine
triphosphate). ATP is a special type of "energy carrying" molecule.
— Thus cells which use lots of energy have numerous mitochondria with many cristae
e.g. muscle cells, liver cells and kidney cells.
— Since mitochondria produce energy for the cell, they are often referred to as „the
power house of the cell‟.
— Mitochondria are also involved in other cell processes such as cell division and
growth, as well as cell death.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 34
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Structure and function of the mitochondrion

Mitochondria contain two phospholipid bilayers: there is an outer membrane, and an inner
membrane. The inner membrane contains many folds called cristae which contain specialised
membrane proteins that enable the mitochondria to synthesise ATP. Inside the inner membrane is
a jelly-like matrix. Listed from the outermost layer to the innermost compartment, the
compartments of the mitochondrion, are:

 Outer mitochondrial membrane

 Intermembrane space
 Inner mitochondrial membrane
 Cristae (folds of the inner membrane)
 matrix (jelly-like substance within the inner membrane)

The table below relates each structure to its function.

Structure Function Adaptation to function

Outer Transfer of nutrients (e.g Has large number of channels to facilitate transfer
mitochondrial lipids) to mitochondrion. of molecules.
membrane
Intermembrane Stores large proteins allowing Its position between two selectively permeable
space for cellular respiration. membranes allows it to have a unique composition
compared to the cytoplasm and the matrix.
Inner membrane Stores membrane proteins Contains folds known as cristae which provide
that allow for energy increased surface area, thus enabling production of
production. ATP (chemical potential energy).
Matrix Contains enzymes that allow The matrix is contains a high quantity of protein

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 35
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

for the production of ATP enzymes which allow for ATP production.
(energy).
NOTE: In Biology it is important to note that whenever a structure has an increased surface
area, there is an increase in the functioning of that structure.

Golgi apparatus - also called the dictyosomes, this structure is responsible for
manufacturing, warehousing, and shipping certain cellular products, particularly those
from the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Golgi body

The Golgi body is found near the nucleus and endoplasmic reticulum. The Golgi body consists of
a stack of flat membrane-bound sacs called cisternae. The cisternae within the Golgi body
consist of enzymes which modify the packaged products of the Golgi body (proteins).

DID YOU KNOW? The Golgi body was discovered by the Italian physician Camillo Golgi. It
was one of the first organelles to be discovered and described in detail because it's large size
made it easier to observe.

Functions of the Golgi body

It is important for proteins to be transported from where they are synthesised to where they are
required in the cell. The organelle responsible for this is the Golgi body. The Golgi body is the
sorting organelle of the cell.

Proteins are transported from the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) to the Golgi. In the Golgi,
proteins are modified and packaged into vesicle. The Golgi body therefore receives proteins
made in one location in the cell and transfers these to another location within the cell where they
are required. For this reason the Golgi body can be considered to be the 'post office' of the cell.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 36
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Vesicles and lysosomes

Vesicles are small, membrane-bound spherical sacs which facilitate the metabolism, transport
and storage of molecules. Many vesicles are made in the Golgi body and the endoplasmic
reticulum, or are made from parts of the cell membrane. Vesicles can be classified according to
their contents and function. Transport vesicles transport molecules within the cell.

Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body and contain powerful digestive enzymes that can
potentially digest the cell. Lysosomes are formed by the Golgi body or the endoplasmic
reticulum. These powerful enzymes can digest cell structures and food molecules such as
carbohydrates and proteins. Lysosomes are abundant in animal cells that ingest food through
food vacuoles. When a cell dies, the lysosome releases its enzymes and digests the cell.

Peroxisomes - Like lysosomes, peroxisomes are bound by a membrane and contain

enzymes. Peroxisomes help to detoxify alcohol, form bile acid, and break down fats.

Vacuole - these fluid-filled, enclosed structures are found most commonly in plant cells
and fungi. Vacuoles are responsible for a wide variety of important functions in a cell
including nutrient storage, detoxification, and waste exportation.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles are membrane-bound, fluid-filled organelles that occur in the cytoplasm of most plant
cells, but are very small or completely absent from animal cells. Plant cells generally have one
large vacuole that takes up most of the cell's volume. A selectively permeable membrane called
the tonoplast, surround the vacuole. The vacuole contains cell sap which is a liquid consisting of
water, mineral salts, sugars and amino acids.

Functions of the vacuole

 The vacuole plays an important role in digestion and excretion of cellular waste and
storage of water and organic and inorganic substances.

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 37
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

 The vacuole takes in and releases water by osmosis in response to changes in the
cytoplasm, as well as in the environment around the cell.
 The vacuole is also responsible for maintaining the shape of plant cells. When the cell is
full of water, the vacuole exerts pressure outwards, pushing the cell membrane against
the cell wall. This pressure is called turgor pressure.
 If there is not sufficient water, pressure exerted by the vacuole is reduced and the cells
become flaccid causing the plant to wilt.

Centrioles - these cylindrical structures are found in animal cells, but not plant cells.
Centrioles help to organize the assembly of microtubules during cell division.

Centrioles

Animal cells contain a special organelle called a centriole. The centriole is a cylindrical tube-like
structure that is composed of 9 microtubules arranged in a very particular pattern. Two centrioles
arranged perpendicular to each other are referred to as a centrosome. The centrosome plays a
very important role in cell division. The centrioles are responsible for organising the
microtubules that position the chromosomes in the correct location during cell division. You will
learn more about their function in the following chapter on Cell Division.

A TEM micrograph of a cross-section of a centriole in an animal (rat) cell.

Cilia and Flagella - cilia and flagella are protrusions from some cells that aid in cellular
locomotion. They are formed from specialized groupings of microtubules called basal
bodies

Animals Only

Lysosome - membranous sacs filled with hydrolytic enzymes that will breakdown /
hydrolysis of macromolecules (presence in plant cells is unsure)

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 38
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Plants Only

Plastids

Plastids are organelles found only in plants. There are three different types:

1. Leucoplasts: White plastids found in roots.

2. Chloroplasts: Green-coloured plastids found in plants and algae.
3. Chromoplasts: Contain red, orange or yellow pigments and are common in ripening
fruit, flowers or autumn leaves.

Plastids perform a variety of functions in plants, including storage and energy production.

NOTE: The colour of plant flowers such as an orchid is controlled by a specialised organelle in
a cell known as the chromoplast.

Chloroplast - this chlorophyll containing plastid is found in plant cells, but not animal
cells. Chloroplasts absorb the sun's light energy for photosynthesis.

Chloroplast

The chloroplast is a double-membraned organelle. Within the double membrane is a gel-like

substance called stroma. Stroma contains enzymes for photosynthesis. Suspended in the stroma

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 39
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

are stack-like structures called grana (singular = granum). Each granum is a stack of thylakoid
discs. The chlorophyll molecules (green pigments) are found on the surface of the thylakoid
discs. Chlorophyll absorbs energy from the sun in order for photosynthesis to take place in the
chloroplasts. The grana are connected by lamellae (intergrana). The lamellae keep the stacks
apart from each other.

The structure of the chloroplast is neatly adapted to its function of trapping and storing energy in
plants. For example, chloroplasts contain a high density of thylakoid discs and numerous grana
to allow for increased surface area for the absorption of sunlight, thus producing a high quantity
of food for the plant. Additionally, the lamellae keeping the thylakoids apart maximise
chloroplast efficiency, thus allowing as much light as possible to be absorbed in the smallest
surface area.

Cell Wall - this rigid outer wall is positioned next to the cell membrane in most plant
cells. Not found in animal cells, the cell wall helps to provide support and protection for
the cell.

Comparison of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 40
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the

function of specialised cells

 Explain why cells with different functions will have different structures.
 Identify ultrastructures visible in a micrograph of a eukaryotic cell.
 Given a micrograph of a cell, deduce the function of the cell based on the
structures present

A micrograph is a photo or digital image taken through a microscope to show a

magnified image of a specimen. While organelles have identifying structures, specific
shapes may vary depending on the location of cross-sections

Mitochondria – Cells with many mitochondria typically undertake energy-consuming

processes (e.g. neurons, muscle cells)
ER – Cells with extensive ER networks undertake secretory activities (e.g. plasma cells,
exocrine gland cells)
Lysosomes – Cells rich in lysosomes tend to undertake digestive processes (e.g.
phagocytes)
Chloroplasts – Cells with chloroplasts undergo photosynthesis (e.g. plant leaf tissue but
not root tissue)

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 41
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Lab Drawing Skills

Drawing Materials: All drawings should be done with a sharp pencil line on white,
unlined paper. Diagrams in pen are unacceptable because they cannot be
corrected. Lines are clear and not smudged. There are almost no erasures or stray
marks on the paper. Color is used carefully to enhance the drawing. Stippling is used
instead of shading.

Positioning: Center drawing on the page. Do not draw in a corner. This will leave
plenty of room for the addition of labels.

Size: Make a large, clear drawing; it should occupy at least half a page.

Labels: Use a ruler to draw straight, horizontal lines to the right of the side of the
drawing. The labels should form a vertical list. All labels should be printed
(not cursive).

Accuracy: Draw what is seen; not what should be there. Avoid making
“idealized”drawings. Do not necessarily draw everything that is seen in the field
of view. Draw only what is asked for. Show only as much as necessary for an
understanding of the structure – a small section shown in detail will often suffice. It is
time consuming and unnecessary, for example, to reproduce accurately the entire
contents of a microscopic field. When drawing low power plans do not draw individual
cells. Show only the distribution of tissues. When making high power drawings, draw
only a few representative cells; indicate thickness of walls, membranes, etc.

Technique: Keep looking back at your specimen whilst you are drawing. If using a
microscope, while observing increase the magnification to observe more details and
reduce the magnification to get a more general view. Use the focusing controls on
the microscope to observe at different depths of the specimen. Move the specimen
around; do not just concentrate on one part. Observe the general appearance first.

Title: The title should state what has been drawn and what lens power it was drawn
under (for example, phrased as: drawn as seen through 400X magnification). Title is
informative, centered, and larger than other text. The title should always include the
scientific name (which is italicized or underlined).

Scale: Include how many times larger the drawing is compared to life size and a scale
line that indicates relative size. To determine magnification, use the equation:

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 42
 CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

BEST ‘A’ LEVEL BIOLOGY NOTES. Compiled by TARUVINGA G  +263 772 980 253 Page 43