水泥生产工艺

Cement
RAISING AMBITIONS,
REDUCING EMISSIONS
C E M E NT: R AI S I N G AM B ITI O N S, R E DU C I N G E M I S S I O N S
Contents
Foreword 4
Executive Summary 6
Section 1 Heating up 10
Section 2 Why cement matters 12
Section 3 Cement production 14
Section 4 Current trends, future consequences 18
Section 5 Options 22
Section 6 Barriers 30
Conclusion 34
Commissioned by Ecocem
Author: Joanne Hart
Date: November 2022
3
Foreword
4
If ever proof were needed that we face a climate ingredient in traditional cement; the glue that
emergency, this year has provided it. For some, binds concrete together and is responsible
it was a case of record temperatures, raging for over 90% of concrete’s carbon footprint.
wildfires and droughts; for others it was floods Accordingly, focusing on the root cause of
of biblical proportions. For all, it is proof of cement and carbon emissions can bring dramatic
the tragic and mounting costs of unchecked results. Low-clinker cement and concrete
global warming. technologies could decarbonise the cement and
concrete industries by over 50% over the next
The consequences of inaction are far-reaching. decade without excessive cost — and they are
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change already available. Shifting to these low-carbon
points to the need to reduce greenhouse gas alternatives could reduce the cement industry’s
emissions by 48% by 2030. This is less than eight emissions by up to 1.6 billion tonnes, equivalent to
years away. UN Secretary General, Antonio 4% of global emissions — almost 60% of the EU’s
Guterres, has said: “Preventing irreversible climate CO2 emissions.
change is the race of our lives.” With global energy
and industrial emissions topping 36 billion tonnes These technologies need to be industrialised,
in 2021 and heading in the same direction this incentivised, and rolled out without delay
year, global warming is running faster than our because acting early matters. Yet, despite their
responses are. dramatic and short-term potential impact,
these processes remain largely unsupported
Action cannot be postponed on the presumption by public policy and funding. This needs to change.
that some miraculous technological fixes lie just
around the corner. Halving emissions by 2030 CCUS can be a valuable part of the cement
is possible with today’s technology. Doing so is industry’s longer term decarbonisation strategy
a matter of will, pace and scale. but if this high-emitting sector is to play a
meaningful role in global carbon reduction targets
The cement industry accounts for over 7% of now and during the remainder of this decade,
global emissions — some 2.5 billion tonnes. Cement then public policy support and funding for a range
is the critical ingredient in concrete, already the of significant additional solutions is not only
most used substance on earth after water, and warranted but essential.
expected to become even more widely deployed,
as urbanisation continues across the globe. The cement industry has traditionally been averse
to change, but the winds of change are blowing.
There is a clear and urgent need to decarbonise The pathway to decarbonisation requires creative
this industry. To date, however, efforts to address leadership, a firm resolve to act, and the full
cement emissions have focused on energy exploitation of technological and scientific know-
efficiency and, lately carbon capture, utilisation, how we now have. Only then, can we deliver the
and storage (CCUS) — whereby producers capture transformation required to support the cement
the carbon on site and transport it to places industry, serve the wider common good and
where it can be used or buried. When and if this safeguard our planet.
technology matures, it will undoubtedly help the
cement industry to address the IPCC’s long-term This report offers a timely update on the state of
carbon reduction goals. the cement nation and the opportunities available
to the industry to accelerate decarbonisation.
But, in the near term, CCUS faces multiple
challenges. It is hugely expensive, will only be
suitable for a small number of cement plants,
is commercially unproven and unlikely to be
available for wide roll-out until the mid-2030s.
In the meantime, CO2 emissions will continue PAT COX
to rise and the pressure to act will intensify. CHAIR OF ECOCEM
FORMER PRESIDENT
Most of the CO2 in cement and concrete comes
OF THE EUROPEAN
from the production of clinker, the critical PARLIAMENT 2002–2004
5 FO R E WO R D
Executive summary
The cement industry

accounts for over 7%
of global emissions —
some 2.5 billion tonnes.
6
Climate change is widely recognised as the Shifting to renewable energy helps but it does not
most pressing issue facing society today. go far enough. This leaves two major options for
The world is heating up, suffering is acute and cement producers if they are to hit EU targets and
there is a growing awareness that we need reduce emissions by 55% by 2030.6 First, capture
to act decisively now before we lose control. as much of the carbon produced as possible
through carbon capture, utilisation and storage
Targeted action is most likely to deliver results. (CCUS) technology. Second, reduce the volume
Of the 36 billion1 tonnes of greenhouse gas emitted of emissions produced to begin with by creating
in 2021, three-quarters was generated by four scalable, low-carbon cements.
sectors: heating and electricity, transport, steel
and iron production and cement production. Whilst CCUS will undoubtedly play a major role
Cement alone generates around 2.52 billion tonnes in any industrial decarbonisation strategy, it is
of CO2 annually, more than aviation, shipping and not a panacea. It will not work in every location.
long-haul trucking combined. If it were a country, It will almost certainly require extensive taxpayer
the cement industry would equate to India, the support. And it will take years to become fully
third biggest polluter in the world, after China and operational. The technology remains immature,
the US.3 and it will add huge cost and disruption to an
industry as low cost and fragmented as cement.
Yet, even as other industries make tangible strides Indeed, it has been noted that CCUS could cost
towards a low-carbon future, emissions from the more than $500 billion to install, with associated
cement industry are going the other way, more expenditure taking the bill to almost $800 billion,
than doubling between 2000 and 2020. With the 4
over twice the value of the industry’s entire
World Economic Forum (WEF) estimating that asset base.7
demand for cement could increase by 45% by
2050,5 urgent action is imperative. Low-carbon cements have been available for
decades. The technology behind them involves
Why is cement in such demand? Because cement a reduction in clinker, the central ingredient in
is the main ingredient of concrete and concrete is cement and the one that generates most of its
used in infrastructure and construction projects emissions. Widespread adoption of these low-
across the world. But cement is a major emitter carbon cements has been hampered to date by
of CO2. As awareness of its environmental impact their inability to scale up or by their technical
increases, the cement industry is facing intense performance. However, recent advances in cement
and growing challenges from stakeholders, technology, concrete technology and chemical
including customers, capital providers and admixtures, offer an opportunity to substantially
regulators. Its social licence to operate may even reduce the amount of clinker needed by cement
be called into question. manufacturers, whilst maintaining both output
and quality. Indeed, such cements could, in
There is a way forward, however. Breakthrough the near term, reduce the carbon footprint of
technological advances offer significant hope traditional cement by more than 1.6 billion tonnes
that the industry can move to a path of rapid a year, equivalent to some 4% of global emissions,
decarbonisation, far faster than could have been without excessive cost or disruption to the cement
imagined even a few years ago. manufacturing processes.
Drastically reducing CO2 output at source will give

the cement industry time to refine and develop
CCUS technology, and research other carbon-
reducing options too.
1
https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-co2-emissions-in-2021-2
2
https://www.iea.org/reports/cement
3
IEA, Global Energy Review https://www.iea.org/reports/global-energy-review-co2-emissions-in-2021-2
4
Statista https://www.statista.com/statistics/1299532/carbon-dioxide-emissions-worldwide-cement-manufacturing/
5
WEF Net Zero Industry Tracker 2022
6
https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/HIS/?uri=CELEX:52021PC0551
7
WEF Net Zero Industry Tracker 2022
7 E XEC UTIVE S U M MARY

But, this low-clinker, low-carbon cement needs Today, governments and policymakers are
support on three fronts to deliver against at a crossroads with respect to cement
its potential. decarbonisation. As they consider how best to
hit near and long-term decarbonisation targets,
• First, financial: CCUS for cement plants there is clear evidence from other high-emitting
has received an estimated €600 million 8
sectors that a multi-channel approach is likely
in grants and funding from the EU’s to prove most effective, helping the cement
Innovation fund alone. Scalable low-carbon industry to decarbonise faster, more simply and at
cement technologies have received little substantially lower cost. With strong stakeholder
or nothing. They would benefit hugely from support, cement producers can rapidly
financial support to drive further research decarbonise. They can save time, save money
and development and demonstrate their and prove that even this hard-to-abate industry
effectiveness on the ground. can contribute to a better future for all.
• Second, regulatory: standards and regulations

around cement and concrete are understandably
rigorous but they are also highly complex and
act as an obstacle to innovation and progress.
If they were modified and updated, low-clinker
cement could be in use before 2025.
• Third, sector buy-in: no technology can deliver

results unless it is used by the industry for
which it has been developed. This technology
could be rapidly deployed by cement producers
the world over. Those in the vanguard are
already keen to use it. The more adopters there
are, the quicker the industry can achieve its
emissions targets.
8
https://climate.ec.europa.eu/system/files/2022-03/c_2022_1571_annex_en.pdf
8 E XEC UTIVE S U M MARY

Section 1
Heating up
10
In 1938, the British engineer Guy Callendar

showed that temperatures had risen over the
past century, at the same time as CO2 emissions
had increased. His conclusion — that the two
were linked — was widely dismissed. At the time,
annual carbon emissions were just over 4 billion
tonnes. By the time the Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) was formed,
50 years after Callendar’s findings, annual
carbon emissions had soared more than fivefold
to 22 billion tonnes. Today, annual emissions are
more than 36 billion tonnes, having stubbornly
exceeded 30 billion tonnes for the past 15 years.9
Rapid growth in emissions, rising temperatures fallen dramatically and take-up of technologies
and increasingly frequent ‘weather events’ have such as wind and solar power has been extensive.
prompted a profound shift in sentiment and in
April of this year, the IPCC issued a stark warning: The transport sector has made tangible progress
global greenhouse gas emissions need to fall by too. Investment in the electrification of transport
48%10 in the next eight years, if the world is to was a record $273bn in 2021.13 More than 70% of
limit global warming to 1.5°C. And CO2 emissions global rail activity was powered by electricity or
need to reach net zero by 2050 in order to stabilise hydrogen in 2020, while electric cars are gaining
global temperatures. rapidly in popularity, accounting for almost 10% of
new car sales last year.14
In the words of IPCC co-chair,
Jim Skea: “It’s now or never if we But certain sectors are lagging. Carbon emissions
from iron and steel and cement production
want to limit global warming to
doubled between 2000 and 2020, far outpacing
1.5°C. Without immediate and deep every other sector of the economy.15
emissions reductions across
all sectors, it will be impossible.” The transition to electricity-based production
methods is already underway in many US and
Ambitious targets have been set in response: European steelmakers, but cement makers face a
the European Union aims for a 55% reduction in far greater challenge. Only 33% of their emissions
emissions by 2030, compared to 2005. The US relate to energy usage: the remaining 67%16 are
aims to halve emissions over the same timeframe. 11
generated by a chemical reaction that takes place
within the production process itself. Even if the
Among the highest emitting sectors of the industry transitioned entirely to renewable energy,
economy, some have made considerably more it would still be a major emitter. To deliver a 48%
progress than others. Global investment in the reduction in emissions by 2030 and reach net zero
renewable energy sector reached a record $366 by 2050, more must be done.
billion in 2021;12 the cost of renewable energy has
9
Source: Global Carbon Project
10
IPCC Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
https://www.carbonbrief.org/in-depth-qa-the-ipccs-sixth-assessment-on-how-to-tackle-climate-change/
11
The United States Department of State. The Long-Term Strategy Of The United States: Pathways to Net-Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions by 2050,
November 2050. https://www.whitehouse.gov/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/US-Long-Term-Strategy.pdf
12
Source: European Innovation Council (2022 Investment Trends) and BloombergNEF
13
European Innovation Council (2022 Investment Trends) and BloombergNEF
14
IEA
15
IEA
16
Washington State Industrial emissions Analysis – cement case study July 2021
https://uploads-ssl.webflow.com/5d8aa5c4ff027473b00c1516/6187eb9c1f28f854f87eb2d2_Washington%20State%20Industrial%20Emissions%20
Analysis%20Green%20Cement%20Case%20Study%20July%2030%2C%202021%20Draft.pdf
11 S ECTI O N 1: H E ATI N G U P
Section 2
Why cement matters
12
Demand for cement is driven principally by its When mixed with water, cement hardens, binding
use in concrete, the most consumed substance together sand and aggregates to form concrete.
on earth, after water.17
Demand for concrete is fuelled primarily by
Concrete, a unique, low-cost, durable substance population growth, urbanisation and even the
has revolutionised our world over the past 200 green transition, where every new megawatt of
years,18 becoming the cornerstone of modern onshore wind power requires around 1,700 tonnes
infrastructure. Concrete is used in almost every of concrete.19 And demand is accelerating. The
part of the built environment: from homes to world will build the equivalent of an entire New York
hospitals; roads to railways; offices to industrial City every month over the next four decades.20
warehouses, and power stations to renewable
energy sites. Cement itself is now the world’s largest
manufactured product by mass. 21 Annual
And concrete would not exist without cement. production exceeds 4 billion tonnes, 22 equivalent
Cement is the glue that makes concrete the most to over 0.5 tonne of cement for every person
resilient, easy to use and effective construction on the planet. To put this in context, according
material in the world. to a 2018 report some 8.3 billion tonnes of plastic
had been produced over the last 70 years.23
Cement makers take just two years to create
CONSTITUENT PARTS OF CONCRETE that volume of material. Ongoing demand for this
fundamental material is expected to foster a 45%
increase in cement production to over 6 billion
tonnes per annum by the early 2050s.24
AIR
1%
Yet cement has a major issue. It is the source
of around 2.5 billion tonnes of carbon emissions
annually,25 and, if it were a country, it would be the
AGGREGATES
third biggest producer of emissions after China
44%
and the USA.
SAND
32%
WATER
8%
CEMENT
15%
17
United Nations Environmental Programme, Eco-efficient cements:
Potential economically viable solutions for a low-CO2 cement-based materials industry, 2017
18
Irish Cement | History of Cement
19
Why Europe needs a comprehensive carbon capture and storage strategy: Clean Air Task Force
20
That’s a lot of Cement and Steel: Bill Gates, Gates Notes, February 2019
21
U nited Nations Environmental Programme, Eco-efficient cements:
Potential economically viable solutions for a low-CO2 cement-based materials industry, 2017
22
US Geological Survey
23
https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/line-sand-global-commitment-eliminate-plastic-pollution-source
24
https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_NetZero_Industry_Tracker_2022_Edition.pdf
25
https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_NetZero_Industry_Tracker_2022_Edition.pdf
13 S ECTI O N 2: WHY C E M E NT MAT TE R S

Section 3
Cement production
14
Cement production is well established, highly During stage two, the Cold Cycle, clinker is ground
effective, and has barely changed since in a mill with other ingredients such as gypsum,
it was first developed nearly 200 years ago. and so-called supplementary cementitious
The process comprises two stages, the ‘Hot materials. Together, these create the final product,
Cycle’ and the ‘Cold Cycle’. a cementitious powder which hardens when it is
mixed with water.
During stage one, the Hot Cycle, a mixture
of calcareous materials (e.g., limestone) and The unavoidable chemical reaction that occurs
siliceous materials (e.g., clay) is heated in a rotary during the transformation of the limestone and
kiln to temperatures of around 1,450°C. At this clay mixture to clinker, known as calcination
point, the mixture is transformed into a reactive, (process emissions), together with the energy
semi-finished product called clinker, the key required to achieve the necessary kiln heat
component in cement. Given its high temperature and operate mechanical components (energy
requirements, making clinker is one of the most emissions), result in an immense carbon footprint:
energy-intensive industrial processes. approximately 0.8 tonnes of CO2 is released for
every tonne of clinker produced. 25
HOT CYCLE COLD CYCLE
CLINKER CEMENT
LIMESTONE QUARRY PRE-HEATER KILN COOLER CLINKER GRINDER STORAGE

STORAGE SILOS
STAGE 1: LIMESTONE STAGE 2: MATERIAL FROM THE PRE-HEATER STAGE 3: THE COOLING PROCESS STAGE 4: CLINKER AND SMALL QUANTITIES
AND SMALL QUANTITIES IS FED INTO THE KILN WHERE IT IS HEATED CAUSES THE OUTPUT FROM THE OF OTHER CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS
OF OTHER MATERIALS, TO 1450°C (2640°F). KILN TO FORM SMALL CYLINDRICAL SUCH AS GYPSUM AND LIMESTONE ARE
INCLUDING CLAYS, ARE FED NODULES KNOWN AS CLINKER. GROUND TOGETHER TO FORM CEMENT.
INTO THE PRE-HEATER
TRANSFORMING LIMESTONE TO CLINKER
67%
PROCESS
33% EMISSIONS
ENERGY CHEMICAL REACTION
RELEASES C02 FROM
EMISSIONS THE HEATED LIMESTONE
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
LIMESTONE & CLAYS CLINKER
FEEDSTOCK HEATED TO 1450˚C OUTPUT
26
Global Cement and Concrete Association, 2019 data.
15 S ECTI O N 3: C E M E NT PRO DU CTI O N

On average, process emissions represent THE DILEMMA

two-thirds of all cement emissions, with energy The world relies heavily on cement. Alternatives to
emissions making up the balance. As such, cement — and concrete — are certainly considered
even a shift to 100% renewable energy, would by businesses and individuals looking for a cleaner
only address approximately one-third of the solution. But each comes with its own set of
industry’s emissions. challenges. Wood, for example, is often cited —
and sometimes deployed — as an alternative to
Sonya Bhonsle, Global Head of concrete; but replacing just 25% of cement
Value Chains and Regional Director used in construction with timber would require
cutting down a forest 1.5 times the size of India
Corporations at global disclosure
every year.27
specialist, CDP:
“In its current form, the industry is There is no real alternative to cement. Already
not compatible with the commitments extensively deployed in developed economies,
made at COP21 in Paris to limit global cement now has a vital role to play in emerging
warming to 1.5°C. As the majority of markets, helping developing nations to build the
the sector’s emissions are inherent infrastructure they need so they can create
flourishing and economically secure societies.
to its production process, the cement
industry must make fundamental Today, however, change is afoot. Fiscal regimes
changes in order to reach net-zero.” are changing, investor attitudes are changing,
customer and societal demands are changing.
As one of the largest industrial emitters in the
world, the cement industry is under increasing
pressure to decarbonise. In such an environment,
cement production cannot continue in the same
vein as it has in the past.
27
Source: Climate action in the cement industry: Bellona
16 S ECTI O N 3: C E M E NT PRO DU CTI O N

Section 4
Current trends,
future consequences
18
To align with the Paris Climate Accords,

cement producers need to decarbonise at
pace. To date, they are lagging behind.
The gap between global emission targets, RISK
IVE PO
TIT
and the planned rate of decarbonisation M
PE
LI
TI
C
CO
in the cement industry, could have grave
AL
&
RE
consequences. Cement industry emissions
GU
LATOR RISK
have actually doubled since 2000. The Global RISK OF VALUE
Y
DESTRUCTION
Cement and Concrete Association (GCCA) is
IN VE
aiming for 20% reductions by 2030. Cembureau
ST O
(the representative organisation of the cement
R
RI
S
industry in Europe), forecasts a reduction of
K
S K
RI
AL
just 15% in cement’s carbon footprint between LE G
2017 and 2030. Even long-term roadmaps fall

substantially short of net-zero unless external
factors are taken into account.
Stakeholders across the value chain are As political preferences shift, environmental
increasingly concerned about climate change; agendas are likely to gain greater prominence,
they recognise the need for urgent action, putting heavy emitters under increasing pressure.
and they are reluctant to accept the status quo. In the words of McKinsey: ‘Governments are now
The risks for cement manufacturers increasingly asking for environmental impact
are multifaceted. assessments before deciding whether to commit
funding. As public scrutiny of CO2 emissions
POLITICAL increases, the risk remains that cement players
As concerns mount around climate change, could be “shamed,” similar to oil and gas or mining
politicians are under pressure to address voters’ companies in the past.’29
fears by pushing for action from heavy emitters.
FISCAL
Sonya Bhonsle, CDP: Taxation is one of the most effective tools in
“Policymakers and regulators have policymakers’ armoury: legislative trends suggest

they are not afraid to use it.
an important part to play in
accelerating action in the industry.” The EU has been a pioneer in this space,
introducing the Emissions Trading System (ETS)
Across the political spectrum, there is a growing
in 2005 — a carbon market that puts a price on
recognition of the need for collective action.
industry emissions. The price of carbon credits
In August, the US signed the ground-breaking
within the system has soared in recent years,
Inflation Reduction Act, the EU’s Green Deal has
from around €25 per tonne of CO2 in 2019, to
received widespread support, and COP events
approximately €76 per tonne in November 2022
and initiatives are increasingly high profile.
this year. Heavy industry has been largely
Simultaneously, political affiliations are changing.
protected from the European ETS to date,
The Green Party now holds a share of power
and cement producers are no exception, with
in six European countries, 28 including Germany,
87% of their emissions covered by free carbon
the industrial powerhouse of Europe.
allowances in 2021.30
But the EU is now scaling up its ambitions with

the Fit for 55 packages, a parcel of measures
designed to reduce European carbon emissions
by at least 55% by 2030. It is expected that
28
How Green Politics are Changing Europe, 2021, BBC https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-58910712
29
McKinsey: Laying the Foundation for zero-carbon cement
30
The EU Transaction Log
19 S ECTI O N 4: C U R R E NT TR E N D S, FUTU R E CO N S EQ U E N C ES
free carbon allowances under the ETS will be The Science Based Targets Initiative (SBTi) has
phased out completely by 2035 at the latest also turned its focus onto the cement industry.
under this package, in favour of the Carbon Established to drive change across the corporate
Border Adjustment Mechanism (CBAM), a system sector, the SBTi recently issued a guidance report
which will leave heavy industries fully exposed so that cement producers and users, including
to carbon tariffs. construction businesses, can set science-based
targets in line with 1.5°C.35 Its rationale — the
Estimates suggest that this new mechanism will cement sector is the third-largest industrial
add an estimated €12 billion of carbon taxes per energy user and the second largest industrial CO2
annum by 2035 to the European cement industry, 31
emitter in the world.
or more than €90 per tonne of clinker produced.
While some institutions tend to push for change
While Europe is leading the way in taxing carbon, behind the scenes, activist investors are more
other jurisdictions have followed suit, or are vocal, and seek to engage directly with companies
planning to do so, including the UK, Korea, Canada, to drive change — and those advocating for
certain US states and China, which established the climate action are growing in number. US hedge
basis of a carbon tax system in 2021. fund, Engine No. 1, exemplifies the trend, with three
seats on the Exxon board and a mandate for a
FINANCIAL future free of fossil fuels.36
Environmental concerns have become a central
issue for the providers of capital. Under pressure In response to investor concerns, some cement
from policymakers, regulators and end-customers, producers appear to be divesting assets as a
many debt and equity providers are turning their method of reducing their global carbon footprint,
backs on heavy-emitting industries, in effect selling subsidiaries in emerging markets and
driving up the cost of capital. using the resultant cash to drive decarbonisation
efforts closer to home or, indeed, reinvesting
The Global Fossil Fuel Divestment Commitments the capital into products outside of cement
Database tracks fossil fuel divestment production altogether. Such asset sales have
commitments made by institutions globally. provoked censure in some quarters, with critics
Their 2021 report showed that 1,485 institutions, suggesting that disposals do not resolve the larger
with assets of over $39.2 trillion (greater than issue of emissions, and in fact may aggravate the
the combined annual GDP of the USA and China), problem over the longer term.37
have committed to fully or partially divest from
fossil fuels.32 The pressure on heavy industry will likely
continue to intensify over the coming decade,
Over 117 banks, representing $70 trillion33 in assets, as investment bank Jefferies explains:
have committed to align lending and investment ‘We expect investors to become increasingly
with net-zero emissions by 2050, under the UN- aware of the diverse range of low-carbon
convened Net-Zero Banking Alliance. In achieving investment opportunities in Europe and the
their ambition, the signatory banks have each set resilience it brings to portfolio construction.’ 38
intermediate targets for 2030 or sooner.34
31
Based on a price of €120/t of CO2 and Cembureau’s projected clinker factor per tonne of cement.
32
Divestment Database https://divestmentdatabase.org/report-invest-divest-2021/
33
Members – United Nations Environment – Finance Initiative (unepfi.org)
34
Net-Zero Banking Alliance https://www.unepfi.org/net-zero-banking/
35
https://sciencebasedtargets.org/sectors/cement
36
Engine No.1 https://engine1.com/transforming/articles/exxon-mobil-one-year-later
37
Washington Post Companies Should Go Green Abroad, Not Just at Home — The Washington Post
38
Jefferies: ESG Research — The Thirty Years’ War on Carbon
COMPETITION LEGAL
In such a period of transition, failure to adapt Climate litigation is on the increase, as individuals,
opens up opportunity for competitors. The investors and NGOs turn to the courts to try
cement sector has long been dominated by well- and accelerate change at a corporate and even
established major players, but a changing market national level.
can create new openings for nimble-footed
pioneers. The signs are already apparent. More than 2,000 climate litigation cases have
Breakthrough Energy, a $2bn investment fund been recorded around the world, almost 500
founded by Bill Gates, has invested in a number of which were filed between 2020 and the first
of companies developing ground-breaking low- half of 2022.39
carbon cement technologies, including established
players such as Ecocem, and start-ups, including In May 2021, a Dutch court ruled that Royal Dutch
Brimstone and CarbonCure. Shell must cut its CO2 emissions by 45% compared
to 2019 levels.40
Hoffmann Green Cement Technologies was
established in 2014. Five years later, it listed Baltimore state is currently suing ExxonMobil,
on the Euronext Growth exchange at a market BP, Chevron and other oil groups, claiming they
capitalisation of €240m. deceived the public about the dangers associated
with their fossil-fuel products.41
Perhaps, however, the biggest potential source
of competitive concern for cement producers And in the first major climate action against
could be their number one customer — the a cement producer, residents of an Indonesian
concrete industry. This industry is likely to come island started legal proceedings in 2022 seeking
under increasing pressure to decarbonise, payment for both damages and the development
as its customers, construction firms and the of flood defences.42
real estate sector more broadly, strive to
reduce their environmental footprint. If the The policy report Global trends in climate change
cement industry cannot provide the solutions litigation: 2022 snapshot notes that cases are
that concrete producers require, they may now being filed against a more diverse range
seek their own solutions, even sourcing raw of corporate actors and suggests: “While
materials and blending low-carbon cements future trends are hard to predict with certainty,
and concretes themselves. the increase in litigation against agricultural
companies may suggest that other high emitting
Low-carbon cement and concrete producers sectors such as heavy-duty industry (e.g. steel
may also find themselves at a significant and cement), textiles, shipping and aviation may
advantage, as incumbent cement operators be the next targets for litigants”.43
face mounting costs from carbon taxes. Unlike
traditional producers, innovators will be able to The cement industry will need to navigate a variety
offer materials that are cost-effective, simple of challenges in the coming years as momentum
to use and in compliance with end-customers’ builds towards greener economies. Two points
increasingly stringent environmental targets. are clear however: the industry will come under
increasing scrutiny and the risks associated with
being a major polluter will increase. To prepare,
the industry must act now.
39
Global trends in climate change litigation: 2022 snapshot, Joana Setzer and Catherine Higham
40
https://uitspraken.rechtspraak.nl/inziendocument?id=ECLI:NL:RBDHA:2021:5339
41
Reuters https://www.reuters.com/legal/litigation/baltimore-gets-venue-win-climate-case-against-exxon-bp-2022-04-07/#:~:text=(Reuters)%20
%2D%20A%20federal%20appeals,to%20take%20a%20second%20look
42
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jul/20/indonesian-islanders-sue-cement-holcim-climate-damages
43
Global trends in climate change litigation: 2022 snapshot, Joana Setzer and Catherine Higham
Section 5
Options
22
Clinker production is the primary source of now widely deployed within cement manufacturing.
emissions in cement and concrete: for every Whilst much of the low-hanging fruit has been
tonne of clinker produced, 0.8 tonnes of plucked, there remains some potential in reducing
CO2 are emitted. these emissions further.
The proportion of clinker per tonne of cement However much work is done to reduce energy
varies from region to region — as high as 89% in emissions, clinker-related emissions, known as
the US;44 as low as 66 per cent in China;45 around process emissions, remain a key issue. Process
77% in Europe.46 On a global average however, the emissions are the result of a chemical reaction
so-called clinker factor is around 74%, yet it is that occurs when limestone, subjected to intense
responsible for approximately 90% of cement’s heat with other raw materials, calcines (or
carbon footprint. decomposes) into quicklime, the key component
of clinker. This process creates an unavoidable
When cement is mixed with aggregates, sand and release of CO2.
water to form concrete, clinker is just 10% of the
mass of overall constituents, but it is responsible Given the very nature of clinker production, there
for 90% of concrete’s carbon footprint. are only two realistic ways to radically decarbonise
the cement sector:
Approximately one third of clinker-related
emissions occur as a result of energy • Capture as much of the CO2 emitted as
emissions, arising from the heating of kilns possible through the implementation of
and operation of the mechanical machinery. carbon capture utilisation and storage (CCUS)
A great deal of commentary has focused on technologies and supporting infrastructure.
technologies available to minimise this aspect
of clinker production. Mitigating measures • Produce less CO2 in the first instance by
such as alternative fuel use, kiln efficiency and manufacturing cements with lower levels of
electrification of processes and transport are clinker content — known as clinker substitution.
CLINKER CEMENT CONCRETE
100%
CONCRETE
100%
100% CEMENT 85% OTHER
CLINKER (AGGREGATES &
26% OTHER WATER)
(GYPSUM & SCMs) 15% CEMENT
74% CLINKER 10% CLINKER
100% 100% 100%

CLINKER CEMENT CONCRETE
6% OTHER
5% OTHER
(MAINLY
ELECTRICITY) 95% CEMENT
94% CLINKER 90% CLINKER
44
Global Cement and Concrete Association
45
https://www.iea.org/reports/cement
46
Global Cement and Concrete Association
23 S ECTI O N 5: O PTI O N S
Attracted by the benefits of this technology,

THE RELATIVE MERITS OF CCUS CCUS has been heavily prioritised by governments
AND LOW-CARBON CEMENTS and the cement industry alike. Through the
European Innovation Fund, the European Union has
Developing and implementing dedicated an estimated €600m to cement related
CCUS technologies CCUS projects over the past two years. And a
major European cement manufacturer recently
Carbon capture technology aims to capture announced seven CCUS projects at a capital cost
carbon emissions directly from the production of €1.5bn by 2030.49
process and separate CO2 from other gases.
Expectations for CCUS are high. The GCCA
CO2 capture technology has been used since the (Global Cement and Concrete Association) has
1920s to separate marketable gases from the indicated that CCUS will be responsible for 36%
rest. More recently, investment in CCUS is being
47
of the cement industries’ roadmap to net zero,
driven by the oil and gas industries, as well as although the technology is only expected to make
cement, iron and steel, and chemical production, a meaningful contribution beyond 2030.50
in the push for decarbonisation.
Clearly, CCUS has an important role to play in
Once it is separated from other gases, the cement’s ultimate decarbonisation. But it is not a
CO2 is compressed, transported, and injected panacea. Still in its infancy, the technology has yet
underground for permanent storage, or, reused to prove how effective it really will be.
within certain industries, including the concrete
industry, to a small degree. According to the IEA: “The story
of CCUS has largely been one of
Many are hoping that CCUS will make a crucial
unmet expectations.”51
contribution to global net zero targets, amid
predictions that CCUS will capture 7.6 billion
The IEA estimates that global capacity of CCUS
tonnes of CO2 annually by 2050.48
needs to reach 1.6 billion tonnes of CO2 by 2030
to be on target for net-zero emissions by 2050.
There are a number of advantages in using CCUS
Yet, in 2021, just over 40 million tonnes of CCUS
to decarbonise the cement industry. In theory, the
capacity existed globally, with capacity added at
technology allows hard-to-decarbonise industries
a rate of less than three million tonnes per annum
to continue to make their products unabated,
over the previous decade.52 A 40-fold increase in
on the assumption that the CO2 released will be
capacity this decade seems ambitious, even to
captured. Furthermore, carbon capture facilities
the technology’s most ardent supporters.
could be implemented at industrial hubs, where
multiple facilities could feed into the same unit,
leading to economies of scale.
47
IEA GHG Technology Collaboration Programme https://ieaghg.org/docs/General_Docs/Publications/Information_Sheets_for_CCS_2.pdf
48
IEA, Net Zero by 2050, May 2021 https://www.iea.org/reports/net-zero-by-2050
49
Heidelberg Capital Markets Day 2022 Capital Markets Day 2022 | Heidelberg Materials.
50
GCCA-Concrete-Future-Roadmap-Document:
https://gccassociation.org/concretefuture/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/GCCA-Concrete-Future-Roadmap-Document-AW.pdf
51
IEA, Energy Technology Perspectives, 2020, Special report on Carbon Capture Utilisation and Storage, 2020
52
Carbon Capture in 2021: Off and running of another false start, IEA.
Moreover, of the circa 2.5bn tonnes of CO2 emitted •

Fragmentation: As a low-cost commodity,
by the cement industry annually, none has been it is rarely economical to transport cement
captured using CCUS to date.53 While pilot projects further than 300km.55 As a result, the world
are under way at a limited number of cement is heavily populated with clinker production
facilities, several obstacles stand in the way of a facilities. There are over 200 clinker production
successful roll-out of CCUS at scale: sites56 compared to less than 30 steel blast
furnace sites.57 To roll-out CCUS and related
•
Timing: CCUS is in its infancy as a technology infrastructure to so many dispersed clinker
and, while there are high hopes that it will facilities would be a significant and time-
mature over the coming decade, it is as consuming undertaking. Furthermore, the
yet unclear when that will be. By current initial capital outlay to put in place CCUS
estimates, it is unlikely to be utilised at scale in infrastructure is significant — potentially
developed nations until the mid-2030s at the costing the same as a new cement production
earliest, leaving billions of tonnes of emissions facility.58 Whilst some major cement
unchecked in the meantime. manufacturers may be able to rationalise these
costs, smaller players will not. That gives rise
• Cost: It has been estimated that installation, to multiple questions as to how these facilities
capturing, processing and storing CO2 could would be funded, not only in wealthy continents
cost €75–€145 per tonne of CO2,54 more than like Europe or North America, but at a global
doubling the cost of producing cement. level, where capital is far less abundant.
That makes CCUS a high-cost solution for
a low-cost commodity.
CLINKER PRODUCTION
SITES IN EUROPE
53
Net Zero by 2050, A Roadmap for the Global Energy Sector, IEA.
54
Q3 2021 Aker Carbon Capture Investor Presentation – Cost based on 25 year levelised cost calculation, discounted at 7.5%.
55
Cembureau, key facts and figures https://cembureau.eu/about-our-industry/key-facts-figures/
56
Global Cement Report — 14th Edition
57
Eurofer
58
Cembureau, key facts and figures https://cembureau.eu/about-our-industry/key-facts-figures/
•
Logistics: Given the geographically fragmented •
Utilisation: Some companies are exploring
nature of clinker plants, transporting large re-carbonation — where CO2 is deliberately
volumes of carbon from these sites is difficult, re-absorbed into concrete and other
Pipelines would need to be laid underground, construction materials under controlled
almost certainly creating numerous objections conditions. Other initiatives include using
from landowners. And international borders CO2 to create synthetic fuels; capturing
would need to be crossed, creating further CO2 to cultivate algae and convert it into
potential issues. CCUS appears to be best animal feed and taking CO2 emitted from
suited to sites close to ports, allowingeasier cement production for use in food and drink
access to shipping and offshore storage in manufacturing. Whilst these are positive shifts,
exhausted oil or gas fields. To that end, the most initiatives are at an early stage and may
French national roadmap for decarbonising not be sufficiently developed to move the dial
the cement sector states that only 20% of as 2030 approaches.
production facilities would be suitable for
CCUS.59 As Professor Vaclav Smil, Distinguished •
Scope: CCUS is expected to capture and store
Professor Emeritus in the Faculty of Environment less than half the emissions produced by the
at the University of Manitoba notes, mass cement industry. The GCCA forecasts that
scale carbon capture of over 1 gigaton of gas 1,370Mt CO2 is forecast to be captured and
per year: “Would necessitate the creation of utilised/stored by 2050,61 half of today’s annual
an entirely new gas-capture-transportation- output. A minuscule amount is expected to be
storage industry that every year would have to captured over the course of this decade.
handle 1.3–2.4 times the volume of current US
crude production, an industry that took more Overall therefore, while CCUS is a promising
than 160 years and trillions of dollars to build.”60 initiative that will play an important role in the
ultimate decarbonisation of the cement industry,
•
Leakage: There are further concerns too. the technology will not be a silver bullet.
Most oil and gas wells are secured with
concrete produced using Portland cement, It will be expensive, disruptive to current
which forms a protective sheath around the processes and difficult to implement in a heavily
wells themselves. The most widely used cement fragmented industry, such as cement. It makes
in the world, Portland cement is robust and sense therefore to urgently seek out solutions
resilient, but concerns have been raised as to that cut cement’s emissions profile at the point
its CO2 resistance. Research carried out at the of production, by reducing the amount of clinker
Technische Universität of Munich, for example, required during the process itself. This would
suggests that Portland cement is not fully minimise reliance on CCUS, to the benefit
resistant to CO2 , creating a risk of leakage. of producers, their customers and society
This would have widespread consequences, more broadly.
even though the oil wells are far from land.
Dr Johann Plank, Professor of Chemical Building Materials at the Munich Institute

of Technology: “If CO2 is released, it will change the PH of the sea water,
which could have a significant impact on ocean life. Furthermore, the oceans
continuously absorb substantial quantities of CO2. If leakage occurs, then
that capacity will be compromised. I believe that Portland cement should not
be used for carbon capture and storage wells because this cement can be
corroded and is ultimately completely decomposed by CO2. Hence leakages
might occur in the future and that would be a disaster.”
59
Feuille de Route de la Filière Ciment, Conseil National de l’Industrie
60
How the world really works: a scientist’s guide to our past, present and future
61
GCCA Concrete Future Roadmap
https://gccassociation.org/concretefuture/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/GCCA-Concrete-Future-Roadmap-Document-AW.pdf
Developing low clinker, low carbon cements The amount of each ingredient varies slightly
from region to region but in Europe, cement’s
Clinker, an energy and carbon intensive average composition is around 74% clinker, 20%
cementitious material, is the primary cause reactive binders and 6% filler material, usually
of emissions in cement production. By ground limestone.62
substituting clinker with lower energy and lower
carbon intensive cementitious materials, the To date, attempts to reduce cement’s carbon
carbon footprint of cement reduces. These footprint have focused on increasing the amount
other materials are known as supplementary of alternative reactive binders 63 used, to reduce
cementitious materials (SCMs). The higher the the percentage of highly polluting clinker.
percentage of SCMs in the final cement product, But these attempts face two key obstacles:
the more cement’s carbon footprint is reduced.
•
Scalability: Ground granulated blast-furnace
SCMs include any other cement component that slag (GGBS) and fly ash are among the most
is not clinker. An integral component of the final widely used reactive SCMs today. But they are
cement, these materials can be split into two in limited, and declining, supply. GGBS is derived
distinct categories — reactive binders and fillers. from blast furnace steel production, and fly
ash from coal power energy generation, both of
•
Reactive binders — these are cementitious which are being partially or wholly phased out
materials with hydraulic properties which as part of the green transition.
act similarly to clinker: they react when they
come into contact with water, eventually •
Technical Maturity: Whilst new SCMs have been
hardening and binding the constituents of developed, using widely available materials,
concrete together. most are at an early stage and require both
investment and industry adoption if they are to
•
Fillers — these are non-reactive materials be deployed at scale.
which are used to “fill-out” the cement blend,
reducing the amount of reactive binder within
the overall cement blend.
SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS (SCMs)
ACTIVE NONPOZZOLANIC ACTIVE POZZOLANIC

FILLER
ADDITION ADDITION
NATURAL ARTIFICIAL ARTIFICIAL NATURAL ARTIFICIAL

Limestone Marble powder Granulated blast Pumice Granulated blast
furnace slag furnace slag
Concrete Tuff
powder Burnt shale Siliceous fly ash
Diatomaceous
Calcareous earth Metakaolin
fly ash
Opaline rock Silica fume
Moler Agroforestry waste
Gaize Masonry waste
Clays Mixed C&DW
Ornamental
stone waste
Paper sludge
Bentonite
Calcined clay
Glass powder
62
GCCA Data 2019
63
Fillers and additions from industrial waste for recycled aggregate concrete, 2022.
Cesar Medina Martinez, I.F. Sáez del Bosque, G. Medina, M. Frías, M.I. Sánchez de R
A Breakthrough Technology: Traditional cement generates approximately

High-Filler Cements 600kg of CO2 per tonne of cement.65 High-filler,
low-clinker cements can reduce that to just
High-Filler Cements are a new departure for the 150kg per tonne, an instant 75% reduction in
cement industry. Unlike previous low-carbon cement’s carbon footprint. Importantly too, the
initiatives, these products reduce the amount filler material used is generally limestone, a hugely
of clinker in cement by maximising the use of abundant resource, so production can be scaled
inert, low-carbon fillers. Whereas fillers typically up in a way that no other low-carbon cement has
account for around 6% of European cement, new achieved to date.
technologies take that percentage up to around
70%, simultaneously reducing the clinker content Cement is turned into concrete with the addition
from 74% to as little as 30%. Not only does this of sand, aggregates and water. The proportion
dramatically reduce cement’s carbon footprint of water used is critical. Use too much water and
but it can do so without reducing the mechanical the concrete loses strength and becomes less
strength or durability of concrete.64 The remaining durable. Use too little water and the concrete
clinker can even be partially substituted with cannot be poured. Low-clinker, high filler cements
low-carbon SCMs, further driving down cement’s have wrestled with this challenge, because they
carbon footprint. Cement blends that incorporate work best with much less water than traditional
50% limestone filler, around 30% low carbon SCMs, cement. However, significant research, coupled
and only 20% clinker or less are now proven. with developments in the chemical additives and
concrete industries mean that this challenge can
now be overcome. State-of-the-art High-Filler
Cements can deliver concrete that uses very little
water, flows well, develops strength quickly and
retains all the performance and workability of
traditional concrete.
64
Fillers in cementitious materials — Experience, recent advances and future — Potential, 2018.
(Authors… Vanderley M. Johna, Bruno L. Daminelia, Marco Quattronea, Rafael G. Pileggia
65
IEA Cement Report, September 2022 https://www.iea.org/reports/cement
28
In short, there are several significant advantages •

Cost: Given that High-Filler Cements will
to these technologies: often have lower energy requirements than
traditional cement, they need little additional
•
Low Carbon Footprint: High-Filler Cements use capital expenditure and deliver a substantial
as little as 20% clinker, blended with inert fillers reduction in emissions, the cost: benefit
and a range of low-carbon SCMs. This reduces analysis associated with them is compelling.
cement’s carbon footprint by more than 70%.
•
Water reduction: Many parts of the world,
•
Scalability: The main constituent of clinker is including Southern Europe and large parts of
limestone, an abundant and easy to extract the US, suffer from an increasing lack of water.
rock. Low-carbon cements have historically High-Filler Cements can reduce, by as much as
been made with SCMs, which are in limited and a half, the amount of water needed to produce
decreasing supply. Current High-Filler Cements concrete, a further environmental and societal
are different because limestone filler is benefit.
the largest single ingredient within the mix.
This means they can be scaled to an •
Availability in the short term: Unlike most
exceptional degree. other decarbonisation technologies for the
cement industry, high-filler, low-clinker cement
• E nergy Security: High-Filler Cements need as technologies can be made available at scale
little as a third 66 of the amount of thermal in the short term. If widely deployed, these
energy used in the production of high clinker cements have the potential to reduce the
cements. They also need the same or less cement industry’s carbon footprint by up to
electrical energy. As a result, noxious gases 50% by 2030, reducing the substantial burden
such as SOx and NOx, and particulate on other technologies, such as CCUS.
emissions, are reduced by around 70%.67
The UN Environmental Programme report68
•
Lack of Process Disruption: High-Filler Cements suggests that low-clinker cement technologies
bring little disruption to existing operations provide the clearest path to decarbonising the
and processes within the cement and concrete cement industry. They provide low cost, scalable
industries, beyond some extra grinding and and immediate solutions to a huge issue —
storage capacity. As such, additional capital clinker process emissions. And they do so whilst
expenditure required is likely to be minimal. maintaining and even improving the technical
performance of concrete, including its mechanical
strength and durability.
66
GCCA Data 2019.
67
Assume 1,199g/t of clinker (NOx) and 302g/t of clinker (SOx)
68
High-Filler Cements: Potential economically viable solutions for a low-CO2 cement based materials industry, UN Environmental Programme
29
Section 6
Barriers
30
WHY POLICY MATTERS The distribution of free allowances to the industry

The cement and concrete industries have is linked directly to the volume of clinker produced,
traditionally been regarded as hard-to-abate. so a significant reduction in clinker volumes would
High-Filler Cements could allow them to change result in a reduction in free allowances. This has
that status, reducing their carbon footprint at had the unintended consequence of providing a
speed and at scale. Yet, there are concerns strong incentive to keep clinker levels high, even
about the pace at which these new cements though clinker is the primary source of cement
can proceed towards industrialisation. These emissions. Many believe that free allowances
concerns are not rooted in technical performance have also discouraged the cement industry from
but, rather, in policy. Such concerns need to be exploring alternative ways to reduce their carbon
addressed so that High-Filler Cements can make footprint beyond CCUS.
a meaningful contribution to global net-zero
targets. Europe in particular has an opportunity When cement production does become fully
to take a leadership role in this regard. The EU has exposed to carbon taxes (as a result of CBAM),
been at the forefront of industrial decarbonisation customers and consumers will almost certainly
in many sectors. But there is a danger that it will look for substitute products. Why? Because
lag behind other administrations if policy changes cement is an inelastic product meaning that,
are not enacted swiftly around the cement and unless substitutes are available, increased
concrete industries. production costs associated with carbon taxes
could be passed onto the customer with no
There are a number of areas where change guarantee of any commensurate decarbonisation.
could deliver tangible results and enable these If consumers are to be offered an alternative to
technologies to contribute to decarbonising the paying for high clinker, high carbon, high-cost
cement industry. cement, low-cost alternatives need to be brought
to market. And this is where standards and
CARBON TAX POLICY regulations have a key role to play.
It is now an accepted economic theory that if
decarbonisation is to occur, carbon emissions
need to have an associated cost through the
“polluter pays” principle. This should encourage
polluters to explore lower carbon ways of
producing their products. However, even though
there have been carbon tax policies in place in
Europe since 2005, major industrial emitters have
been largely shielded from carbon taxes through
the free allocation of carbon credits.
The European cement industry has historically

been seen in Europe as a carbon leakage risk.
In other words, policymakers worried that if
producers were taxed for their carbon emissions,
they might relocate outside Europe or increase
imports into Europe.69 As a result, the industry has
received billions of euros in free carbon allowances,
essentially meaning it has avoided the bulk of
carbon tax. In 2021, 87% of its carbon emissions
were covered by free allowances,70 avoiding over
€5 billion in carbon tax.71
69
Carbon Market Watch https://carbonmarketwatch.org/2014/08/29/carbon-leakage/
70
European Union Transaction Log
71
EU transaction log and based on an average 2021 price of €54/t of CO2
31 S ECTI O N 6: BAR R I E R S
STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS

From constructing a house to building a major dam, Recognition in the European cement standard,
certain characteristics are essential, in particular however, is not sufficient for a cement to be
safety, and structural integrity. For good reason automatically used in concrete. Concrete is
therefore, rigorous attention is given to both regulated by its own separate standard which,
cement and concrete standards across the world. to add complication, is a non-harmonised
Europe is a global leader in this space, with many standard (a European recommendation that
developing nations accepting and adopting EU can be amended as required by each member
construction standards. 72 state through a national annexe). While only a
recommendation and not legally binding, nearly
Cement and concrete standards are often all concrete producers comply with the European
particularly prescriptive in nature, setting out concrete standard as adopted in their respective
exactly what ingredients, and in what proportion, countries, primarily since insurance cover is not
each ingredient can be used in the production possible when operating outside the relevant
process. These standards have proved invaluable, country concrete standard.
not only ensuring the durability and longevity of
structures, but also bringing conformity and a Like the cement standard, any cement approved
sense of familiarity to engineers. by the concrete standard requires further testing
to demonstrate its performance in concrete.
However, in a generation where technical
development is rapid, standards, such as those for As concrete standards are non-harmonised,
cement and concrete, can lag behind innovation before a cement can be used across the EU within
and act as a barrier to widespread adoption of the concrete, each of the 27 EU member states must
latest and best available technology. individually recognise that cement in their national
annexe to the European concrete standard. This
In Europe, changing standards is a bureaucratic has clear consequences for High-Filler Cements.
and often-protracted process. Cement and Even though they are ready for deployment and
concrete standards are no exception. Cements can dramatically reduce cement emissions,
across Europe are largely controlled by a market acceptance is hampered by the very
harmonised standard (a European standard standards that aim to protect society.
adopted by all member states). For a newly
developed cement to be included in the This situation has attracted criticism
cement standard, it must not only successfully from several quarters. Justin Wilkes,
complete extensive performance testing, but
executive director, Environmental
also undergo a protracted process whereby the
Coalition on Standards (ECOS):
relevant authorities must agree the necessary
amendments to the existing standard. Historically, “Ultimately, the standardisation
such a process has taken as long as 10 years. system is broken.”
Tiffany Vass of the International Energy Other jurisdictions have taken different
approaches to the issue of standardisation.
Agency (IEA) identified this as an area
The US, for example, has introduced a standard
that would benefit from a change in for performance-based cements, which sets
approach: “Governments may need to out the performance requirements of a cement,
change or develop regulations to foster rather than dictating its exact ingredients.
technology uptake. Shifting from Other possible approaches include a fast-track
prescriptive to performance-based process that recognises when new cements are
using raw materials already included in the existing
design standards, for instance, would
cement standards.
enable greater uptake of lower-carbon
blended cements and cements that Given the EU’s status as a standard-setter, there
include alternative binding materials.” is now an opportunity to address the barriers
72
The Eurocode map, European Union, 2017.
created by standards from the past and deliver almost exclusively on CCUS, singling out this
standards that are fit for the future. But action technology as the solution to cement’s carbon
is needed. As Justin Wilkes point out: “The EU challenges. Since the inception of the Innovation
wants to be seen as a standards-maker, not a Fund, five CCUS projects associated with the
standards-taker.” cement industry have been awarded grants; none
has been awarded to low carbon substitutes.
Philippe Babey, former general It appears too as if policy is centred on the
manager, LafargeHolcim: “Policy is decarbonisation of individual plants rather than

the industry in general. Given the fragmented
the biggest stumbling block.
nature of the cement sector in Europe (and
If standards changed, it would give beyond), this could be regarded as a narrow-
more space to alternatives.” sighted solution, particularly when low-carbon
substitute products are readily available and could
FUNDING be rapidly industrialised.
Significant funding is available in the developed
world to support the green transition. Europe has To facilitate a broader set of solutions, the level
committed billions, including €38 billion73 under the of funding available for industrial ‘scale-ups’
Innovation Fund alone, while the US has committed needs to be greatly increased. Often a hotbed
$369 billion. Government funding has been a force of ideas and new technologies, scale-ups have
in driving change in other industries such as the ample opportunity to access funding for grants
energy sector. Under the European Emissions of between €250k to €5m. But industrialisation
Trading System emissions from the combustion requires capital to the tune of €50m–€150m, in
of fuels for example, fell 35% from 2013 to 2020,74 order to move technologies from the laboratory
while energy consumption remained virtually or testing site to full-scale commercialisation.
unchanged across the EU.75 Such funding is hard to find, yet the return on
investment can be substantial.
The energy sector has derived clear benefits from
funding across multiple clean energy production This seems misguided. While CCUS units require
processes. Logic would suggest that multiple funding for each individual structure, High-Filler
potential solutions should also be supported in a Cements need to be proved at industrial scale just
bid to decarbonise cement, a major and complex once, and subsequently incentivised, to proliferate.
industrial sector. Such an approach could unlock private funding,
encourage standards to move, drive rapid change
Nevertheless, it appears that multiple and, most importantly, deliver a meaningful
governments and supra-governance have focused reduction in global emissions.
73
h
ttps://climate.ec.europa.eu/eu-action/funding-climate-action/innovation-fund/what-innovation-fund_en#:~:text=The%20Innovation%20
Fund%20will%20provide,support%20its%20transition%20to%20climate
74
Eurostat European Environment Agency
75
Eurostat
Conclusion
Something needs
to be done.
34
Cement has a problem. The process is highly Low-clinker cement cannot single-handedly take
polluting, releasing more than 2.5 billion tonnes the industry to net-zero either, at least not yet.
of CO2 per year, responsible for more than 7% But it is ready for adoption, it is cost-effective,
of global greenhouse gas emissions, and easy to use, and could reduce cement producers’
demand is growing. Something needs to be done. emissions by up to 1.6 billion tonnes of CO2,
equivalent to 4% of global emissions.
Leading producers, innovators and external
specialists believe there are two principal ways to There is a risk that the cement industry is
reduce cement’s carbon emissions. being incentivised not to change by the current
approach to policy and funding. Indeed, they can
• First, reduce the amount of clinker in cement. be penalised for trying to decarbonise in many
• Second, capture the carbon and either use it instances. Europe has so far led the way in driving
or store it. environmental policy across numerous sectors of
industry. As home to some of the world’s largest
To date, policymakers and industry incumbents cement producers, Europe is in a unique position
have focused on the second option. This will to lead the way in the cement industry too.
almost certainly play a key role in cement’s long- Widespread implementation of low-clinker cement
term decarbonisation journey, but it has yet could reduce emissions by 50% this decade alone,
to yield meaningful results and there are many with further reductions before 2050. Combined
hurdles to overcome. Crucially too, this single- with CCUS technology, net zero is not just in sight,
focus approach is not the way that change has it is an achievable goal.
been delivered in other high-emitting sectors.
In a scenario where rapid decarbonisation of the
In energy, public sector support and private sector global economy is a must, failure is not an option.
enterprise have provided research and funding There needs to be shift in approach, a need to
for a range of solutions — wind, solar, hydropower, look beyond a single solution and consider all
nuclear and others. These efforts have delivered viable low-carbon options. Supportive policies and
tangible results. Prices have fallen dramatically; standards, balanced funding and a more dynamic
usage has increased, and renewable energy standard-setting framework would present a real
now makes up a significant proportion of total opportunity to drive down emissions from one of
usage in many parts of the world. The transport the most polluting sectors on the planet.
sector has also seen significant change, driven
by wide-ranging research, development and There is no time to lose.
financial backing.
The cement industry would benefit from similar

dynamics — a multi-pronged approach that could
collectively drive down emissions. Carbon capture,
utilisation and storage cannot do it alone. Trade
bodies know it. Producers know it. Investors know
it. While the technology will have a major impact
on emissions, it will cost almost $800 billion to
implement, it will be logistically impractical for
many plants and far too expensive for many more.
35 CO N C LU S I O N
The future. Built better
W ecocemglobal.com
T + 353 1 678 1800

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Cement

The cement industry

Drastically reducing CO2 output at source will give

7 E XEC UTIVE S U M MARY

• Second, regulatory: standards and regulations

• Third, sector buy-in: no technology can deliver

8 E XEC UTIVE S U M MARY

In 1938, the British engineer Guy Callendar

13 S ECTI O N 2: WHY C E M E NT MAT TE R S

HOT CYCLE COLD CYCLE

LIMESTONE QUARRY PRE-HEATER KILN COOLER CLINKER GRINDER STORAGE

TRANSFORMING LIMESTONE TO CLINKER

CaCO3 CaO + CO2

LIMESTONE & CLAYS CLINKER

FEEDSTOCK HEATED TO 1450˚C OUTPUT

15 S ECTI O N 3: C E M E NT PRO DU CTI O N

On average, process emissions represent THE DILEMMA

16 S ECTI O N 3: C E M E NT PRO DU CTI O N

To align with the Paris Climate Accords,

2017 and 2030. Even long-term roadmaps fall

“Policymakers and regulators have policymakers’ armoury: legislative trends suggest

But the EU is now scaling up its ambitions with

CLINKER CEMENT CONCRETE

100% 100% 100%

Attracted by the benefits of this technology,

Moreover, of the circa 2.5bn tonnes of CO2 emitted • 

Dr Johann Plank, Professor of Chemical Building Materials at the Munich Institute

SUPPLEMENTARY CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS (SCMs)

ACTIVE NONPOZZOLANIC ACTIVE POZZOLANIC

NATURAL ARTIFICIAL ARTIFICIAL NATURAL ARTIFICIAL

A Breakthrough Technology: Traditional cement generates approximately

In short, there are several significant advantages • 

WHY POLICY MATTERS The distribution of free allowances to the industry

The European cement industry has historically

STANDARDS AND REGULATIONS

manager, LafargeHolcim: “Policy is decarbonisation of individual plants rather than

The cement industry would benefit from similar

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• Second, regulatory: standards and regulations

• Third, sector buy-in: no technology can deliver

Moreover, of the circa 2.5bn tonnes of CO2 emitted •

In short, there are several significant advantages •