CHAPTER 8: LET THERE BE LIGHT!

QUANTUM THEORY
The quantum theory of light was proposed by Max Planck in1900. According to this theory,
WAVES - are disturbances propagating in a medium or in a vacuum, carrying energy with
light is emitted in discrete packets of energy called QUANTA. Albert Einstein referred to
them.
each quantum of energy as a photon.
 Waves that need a medium to propagate are called MECHANICAL WAVES.
Examples are: sounds, ripples, earthquakes, tsunamis, waves traveling through the strings
SPEED OF LIGHT
of guitar, stadium waves generated by spectators in an exciting game.
The term “speed of light” represented by lower case letter c, actually refers to speed of
 Waves that can propagate in a vacuum are ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES.
light in vacuum. Aristotle, Hero of Alexandria, Johannes Kepler and Rene Descartes
Examples are visible light, microwaves, radio waves, infrared rays, ultraviolet rays, x-rays
believed that light travels in vacuum at an infinite speed. Other scientists believed that
and gamma rays.
light travels in a vacuum at a finite speed, which they tried to determine through
experiments.
CLASSIFICATION OF WAVES
 Galileo is often credited with being the first scientist to determine the speed of
 TRANSVERSE WAVE – is one in which the particles of the medium vibrate
light by measuring the time it took for light to travel the distance between two
perpendicularly to the direction of wave propagation. (All electromagnetic waves)
hilltops that were mile apart.
 LONGITUDINAL WAVE – like the sound wave is one in which the particles of the
 In 1676, Danish astronomer Ole Roemer made first astronomical determination of
medium vibrate parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
the speed of light based on the eclipse of Io, one of Jupiter’s moons.
FREQUENCY (f) – of a wave source, is the number of waves it produces in a given
 Using Roemer’s data, Huygens performed the calculation and came up with a value
amount of time.
of approximately 220 000 km/s. This is roughly 27% lower than the actual value
- its SI unit is the hertz, defined as one cycle per second (1/s or s -10
for the speed of light.
*The reciprocal of frequency is the period represented by letter T.
 English physicist James Bradley determined the speed of light in 1728 using
PERIOD – is the time for the source to produce one complete wave.
apparent changes in the position of stars due to the motion of the Earth around
WAVELENGTH (λ) – is the distance between any two successive points in a wave that
the sun. He came with the value of 301 000 km/s.
are in phase with each other.
 French physicist Armand-Hippolyte-Louis Fizeau conducted the first successful
*Two points are said to be in phase with each other if they have the same mode of
terrestrial determination of the speed of light in 1849. The speed of light was
vibration.
calculated using the formula
THE NATURE OF LIGHT 2d
c=
∆t
Wave Theory where d is the distance between the second mirror and the toothed wheel. He
In 1960, Dutch scientist Christian Huygens proposed the wave theory of light. He obtained a value of 313 000 km/s.
compared light not with water waves but with sound waves.  In 1862, French Physicist Leon Foucault used another method. Using an 8 sided
According to him, light is a longitudinal wave propagating in all directions at constant mirror instead of a rotating wheel, he came up with the value of 299 796 km/s.
velocity in a homogeneous medium. The propagation of light in vacuum is explained by  Working on the method of Foucault, American Physicist Albert Michelson began
assuming the presence of a hypothetical medium called ETHER. experimenting on the speed of light in 1878 and obtained a value of 2.99798 x 10 8
m/s.
Corpuscular Theory  With the use of precision of devices like cesium clocks, the speed of light was
Isaac Newton proposed the corpuscular theory of light in 1704. According to this theory, accurately determined to be 299 792 458 m/s. For practical purposes, this value is
light consists of tiny particles or corpuscles coming from a luminous object. rounded to 3 x 108 m/s.
*The different colors of light are attributed to the different sizes and masses of the
particles that have different refrangibility. Answer Me!
REFRANGIBILITY – Is the capability of a light ray to be refracted. According to Newton 1. Discuss briefly how Galileo measure the time it took for light to travel between the two
“To the same degree of refrangibility ever belongs the same color and to the same color hilltops which is a mile apart.
ever belongs the same degree of refrangibility. 2. How did Ole Roemer considers eclipse to measure the speed of light?
3. What is the discrepancy of Huygens calculation about the speed of light?
Electromagnetic Theory
Toward the end of the 19th century, Scottish scientist James Clerk Maxwell proposed that
light is a transverse wave having electrical and magnetic properties. In addition, light as a GEOMETRIC OPTICS
transverse wave can propagate in a vacuum, and hence no hypothetical ether is required.
Light can be absorbed, transmitted, refracted, reflected, dispersed, or scattered when it n2 – index of refraction of medium 2
encounters matter. A combination of these takes place in nature. θ 1 – angle of incidence
2 Branches of Optics θ 2 – angle of refraction
1. Geometric optics models light as a ray and explores the phenomena of reflection and
*The ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to the speed of light in a medium is called the
refraction.
index of refraction or refractive index and is represented by the lowercase letter n. In
2. Physical optics considers light as a wave. Included in physical optics are scattering,
symbols,
diffraction, polarization, dispersion, transmission and absorption of light.
c
n= , where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the speed of light in the
REFLECTION – is the turning back of light to the original medium from where it has been v
traveling after hitting a surface.
*The ray that strikes the surface is the INCIDENT RAY; the ray that rebounds from the Answer Me!
surface is the REFLECTED RAY. A line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence 6. What are the Laws of Refraction?
is the NORMAL.
*The angle between the incident ray and the normal is the ANGLE OF INCIDENCE and is medium. The higher the index of refraction, the lower is the speed of light in that medium.
represented by θ i.
*The angle between the reflected ray and the normal is the angle of reflection ( θ r). PHYSICAL OPTICS
Light is an electromagnetic wave with a frequency range of 4 x 10 14 Hz to 7.9 x 1014 Hz
Reflection of light is governed by the ff. laws: and a wavelength ranging from 380 nm to 750 nm.
1. The incident ray, the reflected ray, and the normal lie on the same plane. Visible light is made up of colors. I order of increasing frequency, these colors are red,
2. The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection. orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and violet.
 Reflection from smooth surfaces is described as REGULAR/SPECULAR; reflection *Among the colors of visible light, red light is the least energetic because it has the lowest
from rough surfaces is diffuse. frequency.
CONCAVE MIRROR – converges reflected light and may produce an inverted or upright *Most of the sun’s radiation is emitted in the form of visible light. But there is a significant
image depending on the distance of the object from it. portion of solar radiation emitted as infrared, and a small amount of ultraviolet as well.
CONVEX MIRROR – diverges reflected light and always forms an image that is upright
and smaller than the object. Answer Me!
7. Explain why the skin gets sunburned more easily under ultraviolet light rather than
Answer Me! under visible light.
4. Describe what happens when you look at yourself at the front part of the
Dispersion of Light
spoon(concave) at a considerable distance? When you move the spoon closer? Prism – is a piece of glass or a transparent material usually triangular in shape. Prisms
5. Describe what happens when you look at yourself at the back part of the allow visible light to pass through. In doing so, visible light is separated into its component
spoon(convex)? colors, a process called DISPERSION.
*Each component color is refracted twice: 1. when it enters the prism; 2. when it leaves
the prism.
Light travels at different speeds in different media. *Red, having the longest wavelength, is refracted the least. Violet, having the shortest
REFRACTION – the change in the speed of light when it passes from one medium to
another is referred to as refraction.
Answer Me!
The refraction of light is governed by the ff. laws: 8. Based on the examples given (red and violet), what is then your conclusion regarding
1. The incident ray, the normal, and the refracted ray lie in the same plane.
the relationship of wavelength to the number of refraction?
2. When the light speeds up in passing from one medium to another, it is bent away from
the normal. When light slows down, it is bent toward the normal. 9. Give a very brief explanation regarding the formation of rainbow. (1 sentence)
3. The Snell’s Law, named after the Dutch mathematician Willebrord Snell, applies to all
wavelength, is refracted the most.
cases of refraction. In symbols,
Scattering Light
n1sinθ 1 = n2sinθ 2
Some particles of the sky called SCATTERERS are capable of redirecting light in a process
where called SCATTERING, of which there are 2 general types: RAYLEIGH SCATTERING & MIE
n1 – index of refraction of medium 1 SCATTERING.
 RAYLEIGH SCATTERING – Named after Lord Rayleigh (John William Strutt), Some optical phenomena such as the twinkling of the stars, haloes, sun dogs, rainbows,
occurs when the scatterers are smaller compared to the wavelength of light and mirages are made possible by the refraction of sunlight caused by the small variations
interacting with them. in the index of refraction of Earth atmosphere.
- Rayleigh scattering accounts for the blue sky and the red-orange sunrise and *When light from a star enters the atmosphere, it is refracted several times as it moves
sunset. When sunlight enters the atmosphere, violet and blue lights are scattered from one mass of air to another that is of different index of refraction. This results in what
the most.q-521 is technically called STELLAR SCINTILLATION, or the twinkling of a star.

Answer Me! CHAPTER 9: BESTFRIENDS FOREVER

10. When sunlight enters the atmosphere, violet and blue lights are scattered the
most. In this regard, kindly explain in one sentence, why the sky appears to be blue? ELECTRICAL CHARGES
11. Explain the red-orange sunrise and sunset results. Since 600 BCE, humans have been aware of the attracting ability of some natural
substances or materials.
MIE SCATTERING – named after Gustav Mie, occurs when the particles are of the  Thales of Miletus investigated the ability of amber to attract nearby objects when
same size as, or larger than, the wavelength of light being scattered. Dust, pollen, rubbed with a piece of cloth.
water vapor, water droplets and smoke are common Mie scattering particles.  In 1600, William Gilbert found that many other materials, when rubbed against
Clouds contain a lot of water droplets and ice crystals that are large enough to another material, exhibit the same ability of amber. He coined the term electricity
scatter almost equally all components of visible light. This causes clouds to appear from the word electron(Greek word for amber) to associate to this observed
white. However, as clouds gather more water droplets and ice crystals, they property.
become heavier and thicker. Clouds that contain too much water droplets are RAIN Lodestone, now known as magnetite or magnetized iron core, is another substance with a
CLOUDS. More light is scattered, resulting in less light penetrating all the way somewhat similar property. It can attract iron even without rubbing it with another
through them. substance or material.
The ability to attract iron is called MAGNETISM, and the materials having this property are
called MAGNETS.
Answer Me!
12. Why does rain clouds appear dark? The Nature of Charges
2 subfields of electric charges:
Interference
1. Electrostatics – studies the phenomena associated with charged particles at rest.
- refers to the combination of waves traveling in the same medium at the same
2. Electrodynamics – studies those involving moving charges.
time. Waves may combine constructively or destructively in accordance with the
superposition principle. BENJAMIN FRANKLIN
Superposition Principle states that when two or more waves interfere, the resultant wave - In 1752, conducted experiments using glass rods rubbed with silk, and rubber rods
is the sum of the individual waves.
rubbed with fur. He observed that the 2 rods repelled each other. The 2 rubber
Constructive Interference – occurs when monochromatic waves from 2 or more
rods also repelled each other. But the glass rod and rubber rod attracted each
coherent sources of the same frequency arrive in phase at a point.
other.
- The amplitude of the resultant wave is the sum of the amplitudes of the individual
- He concluded that there were two types of charges – the charge of the glass rod
waves. This means that the waves reinforce each other.
which he designated as positive, and that of the rubber he designated as negative.
Destructive Interference – results when 2 or more waves arrive at a point half a
- Positive and negative charges are the two types of electric charges. In line with
cycle out of phase.
this, Franklin also formulated the Law of Conservation of Charges, which states
- The amplitude of the resultant wave is the difference between the individual
that for an isolated system, the sum of the charges before and after an interaction
amplitudes. The waves cancel each other if their amplitudes are equal.
must be constant.
This ability of materials to attract or repel other materials is explained using the concept of
Diffraction
electron gain or loss during an interaction.
- is the bending of light around an obstacle and subsequent spreading of light waves
into the region behind the obstacle.
- The obstacle may be a slit, a wire, a hole, strands of hair, feathers, strings, or a Answer Me!
straightedge, and the lik 13. How does electron gain and loss be related to electrical charges?
ATMOSPHERIC OPTICS 14. What can you conclude about the repulsion and attraction of materials in relation to
electrical charges?
 In 1269, French Scholar Pierre Pelerin de Maricourt discovered that a magnet has two
poles, the North Pole N and the South Pole S, and that magnetism is concentrated at
these poles.
The combination of North Pole and South Pole is called DIPOLE.
COULOMB’S LAW

How strong is this attractive or repulsive force? The Law of Magnetic Poles
French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb conducted experiments to determine how -states that like poles repel and unlike poles attract. Coulomb proposed that the force of
the force of attraction or repulsion between stationary charged particles is affected by the attraction (or repulsion) between poles is similar to that between electrical charges.
magnitude of their charges and the distance between them.
COULOMB’S LAW – states that the magnitude of the electrostatic force (F) exerted by a Magnetic Field
point charge on another point charge on another point charge is directly proportional to Surrounding a magnet is MAGNETIC FIELD. A magnetic field exists in a region of space
the product of the magnitudes of their charges and inversely proportional to the square of where a magnet is capable of exerting force on another magnetic material.
the distance (d) between them.  In the 1830s, Michael Faraday introduced the idea of the magnetic field as made
up of lines of force.
ELECTRIC FIELD  Magnetic field lines point from North Pole to South Pole.
 Unlike electrical field lines, magnetic field lines do not have endpoints; they form
Surrounding a charge is a region of space where an electric field is said to exist. The closed loops.
electric field at a point is defined as the force that would be experienced by a unit of MAGNETIC Flux – is the number of lines of force passing through an area perpendicular to
positive test charge. it.
The number of magnetic field lines per unit area and is represented by beta. Its SI unit is
ELECTRIC CURRENT tesla (T), named after Nikola Tesla. A smaller unit is the gauss (G).
Electric current (I) is defined as the quantity of charge passing through a given point per
unit time. The SI unit is the ampere, represented by a capital letter A. Thus, a current of ELECTROMAGNETISM
one ampere constitutes a flow of one coulomb of charge in one second. -is the branch of physics that studies the relationship between electricity and magnetism.
-it is based on the fact that an electric current produces a magnetic field, and a changing
 Historically, scientists have assumed that it is the positively charged particles that magnetic field produces an electric current
flow in a circuit.
 Hence, the current assumed to flow from the positive terminal to the negative Magnetism from Electricity
terminal of a voltage source (e.g battery) is reffered to as CONVENTIONAL  Danish physicist Hans Christian Oersted discovered that a moving charge or a
CURRENT. current-carrying wire produces a magnetic field around it in addition to its
 However, it was proven that it is the negatively charged particles –the electrons- electrical field.
that flow in the circuit.  French physicist Andre-Marie Ampere conducted experiments and concluded that
 Thus, electric current actually flows from the negative terminal to the positive electric current passing through a coil or a solenoid produces a magnetic field.
terminal, and is termed ELECTRON FLOW. SOLENOID – is simply a long coil of several turns of wire.
 If the charges move around a circuit in the same direction at all times, then  The magnetic field produced is stronger than the straight wire.
current is said to be a DIRECT CURRENT (DC) as produced by batteries.  Ampere later formulated a law for computing the magnetic field for different
 If current periodically change direction that is from positive to negative to positive conductor configurations.
and so on the current is called ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC).  Jean-baptiste Biot and Felix Savart formulated the Biot-Savart Law for determining
the magnetic field at a point in space due to an electric current.
AMPERE’S FORCE LAW
Answer Me! -allows for the determination of the magnitude and direction of the magnetic
15. How does conventional current differ from electron flow? forces acting upon two current-carrying wires in proximity to one another.
- is also the basis for the standard definition of a current.
 A current of one ampere is the constant current which, if maintained in a two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section,
MAGNETISM
and placed one meter apart in a vacuum, would produce between these
conductors of force equal to 2 x 10-7 N per unit length.
Electricity from Magnetism Suppose the event is moving at the speed of light (c) with respect to the stationary frame.
If electric current produces a magnetic field, then the reverse is also true – a changing According to Galilean Relativity, the speed of the event in the moving frame is
magnetic field can produced electric current in a process called ELECTROMAGNETIC (vx)m = c -u
INDUCTION. To solve for c,
c = (vx)m + u
 The current and the electromotive force produced are called INDUCED CURRENT This equation contradicts the implication of Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory that the
and INDUCED EMF respectively. speed of light is constant in whatever frame of reference.
TWO MAJOR LAWS GOVERN ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION *To resolve this contradiction, Albert Einstein came up with his two-part theory of
1. FARADAY’S LAWS – states that an induced current (and hence induced EMF) is relativity:
produced whenever there is a change in magnetic flux in a circuit. 1. SPECIAL RELATIVITY – deals with inertial frames of reference
2. LENZ’S LAW – states that the induced current flows in a direction so as to oppose the - describes the motion of particles in an inertial frame of reference with speeds
change causing it. ranging from zero to a value close to the speed of light in vacuum.
-has two postulates:
Unifying Electricity and Magnetism  PRINCIPLE OF RELATIVITY – which states that the laws of physics must be the
 James Clerk Maxwell realized that the results of independent studies about same in all inertial frames of reference.
electricity and magnetism revealed that they are not distinct phenomena.  CONSTANCY OF THE SPEED OF LIGHT – states that the speed of light in a vacuum
 Electricity and magnetism are but manifestations of a single force – is constant in all frames of reference independent of the motion of the source.
ELECTROMAGNETIC FORCE. 2. GENERAL RELATIVITY – deals with accelerating frames
ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY
Maxwell devised a set of 4 mathematical equations that unified electric and magnetic Accelerating or Rotating Frames of Reference is not inertial. But Earth, despite its rotation,
phenomena into what is known as ELECTROMAGNETIC THEORY. It consists of: is considered an inertial frame because its angular speed of 7.27 x 10 -5 radians is very
 Like charges repel, unlike charges apart. small.
 Magnetic monopoles does not exist.
 A changing electrical field produces a magnetic field. Consequences of Special Relativity
 A changing magnetic field produces electrical field.  Time Dilation – the difference of time interval between two events measured by
an observer in a stationary frame and by another observer in a moving frame.
Discovery of Radio Waves Two events are simultaneous to an observer if he sees the events happening at the same
Heinrich Hertz was credited for having discovered radio waves in the late 1880s. time. Under Galilean-Newtonian relativity, events simultaneous to one observer are also
Hertz reasoned out that the sparks in the transmitter set up changing magnetic and simultaneous to all other observers.
electric fields that propagated as waves to the receiver *However, because of time dilation, two events which are simultaneous to one observer in
The waves were formerly called Hertzian waves and later radio waves. The unit of general will not be simultaneous to one observer.
frequency is hertz, in honor of Heinrich Hetz  Length Contraction
Another consequence of special relativity is that an object moving at a speed near the
CHAPTER 10: BEYOND EVERYDAY EXPERIENCE speed of light experiences length contraction, as measured or seen by someone in
reference frame that is moving with the object.
SPECIAL RELATIVITY  Mass Increase
The mass of an object moving at a speed approaching the speed of light in vacuum is
An EVENT or position of a point in space must be specified by the 3 coordinates (x, y and greater than its mass when at rest relative to the observer.
z) and time (t).  Relativistic Newton’s Second Law
- In Newtonian mechanics, an unbalanced force causes a body to accelerate. The
GALILEAN-NEWTONIAN RELATIVITY – one principle that explains relativity of motion acceleration produced is directly proportional to the unbalanced force and inversely
which is valid when the velocities of the objects involved are much less than the speed of proportional to the mass of the body.
light, and when inertial reference frames are considered. - Although force is constant, the acceleration of the particle decreases as the
- also considers time to be independent of the frame of reference, which means that velocity increases. As velocity approaches the speed of light, acceleration
the time determined in a stationary frame must be equal to the time determined in approaches to zero. If the speed of the object is equal to c, the object stops
a moving frame. accelerating.
 Mass-energy Equivalence
INERTIAL REFERENCE FRAME – is a special type of reference frame where the observed A major consequence of special relativity is the mass-energy equivalence given by the
object is at rest or in uniform motion relative to the observer. famous equation E = mc2.
 - This means that mass and energy are equivalent. A gain or loss in mass may be Pointers:
NOTE:
considered as the gain or loss in energy. 1. Motions in the Sky
This is true for nuclear reactions, which may be classified into nuclear fusion and nuclear - the celestial sphere Oct. 14 – Oral Test (Deadline of
fission. - precession of equinoxes Output)
- diurnal and annual motion Oct 15 – Review
Answer Me! 2. Models of the Universe Oct. 16 – Long Test
3. Kinematics of Translation
16. Cite one example showing Time Dilation. - distance versus displacement
17. As velocity approaches the speed of light, acceleration approaches to zero. What - speed and velocity
is your conclusion with the given statement in relation to acceleration and the speed - acceleration
of light? 4. Types of Motion
18. What is the difference of nuclear fusion and fission and its relation to the mass- - Free Fall
energy equivalence? - Projectile Motion
5. Motion Graphs
- Uniform Motion
GENERAL RELATIVITY - Uniformly Accelerated Motion
- formulated by Albert Einstein to account for gravity. 6. Newton’s Laws of Motion
Principle of Equivalence – which Einstein considered as his happiest idea and is the - Inertia
backbone of general relativity. - Acceleration
- a homogeneous gravitational field as completely equivalent to a uniformly - Interaction
accelerated reference frame. 7. Waves
Consequences of General Relativity 8. The Nature of Light
1. Warping of Space-Time - Wave Theory
Newton’s law of universal gravitation considers gravity as the result of an attractive force - Corpuscular Theory
between two objects by virtue of their masses. - Electromagnetic Theory
*General Relativity considers gravity as the product of curving or warping of space-time - Quantum Theory
due to the presence of mass or energy. Thus, gravity is not a force but a product of space- -Speed of Light
time warping. 9. Geometric Optics
2. Gravitational Lensing – Light can be bent when it travels along warped surface near a -Reflection
massive object. - Refraction
- today, it is measured by the deflection of radio waves emitted by distance galaxies called 10. Physical optics
QUASARS. - Dispersion of Light
3. Planetary Orbits - Scattering of Light
Planets rotate in elliptical orbits around the sun. However, there is a slight shift in the - Interference
perihelion and the aphelion because of the influence of other planets. - Diffraction
4. The Fate of Pluto 11. Atmospheric optics
The International Astronomical Union (IAU) is the internationally recognized authority that 12. Electrical Charges
classifies celestial bodies by using a criteria. According to IAU, a planet must: - The nature of Charges
a. be in orbit around the sun; - Coulomb’s Law
b. have sufficient mass to attain a nearly spherical shape; and - Electric Field
c. be the dominant body in its orbit - Electric Current
13. Magnetism
Answer Me! -The Law of Magnetic poles
- Magnetic Field
19. On which criteria, do you think Pluto failed to comply which leads to its down - Magnetic Flux
gradation from its classification as a planet to a dwarf planet in 2006? Why? 13. Electromagnetism
20. Defend why black holes are considered as a consequence of general relativity. 14. Special Relativity
15. General Relativity