LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO LIFE SCIENCE  Ecology- Study about relationship of organism to the environment.

 Microbiology- study about microorganism.

EVIDENCE OF LIFE  Parasitology- Study about parasite.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT ON THE CONCEPT OF LIFE  Zoology- Study about animals.
Life on earth began more than 3 billion years ago, evolving from the most basic
The gradual process of
of microbes into a dazzling array of complexity over time.
how life begins on Earth.
It has been hypothesized
LUCA - LAST UNIVERSAL COMMON ANCESTOR
that the primitive earth
Common ancestral cell where cells believed to have been decended.
contains gases that later
The atmosphere during the first 3 billion years was rich in nitrogen and carbon-
dioxide. It was ANOXIC (deficient in oxygen) with limited gases present. combined to form atoms.
These atoms later
Only microorganisms that were capable of surviving in the absence of oxygen developed into molecule.
(ANAEROBIC) survived, including methanogens (methane-producing The molecule soon
organisms). Organisms that were light-dependent survived as they get energy evolves into cell which it
from sunlight (PHOTOTROPIC ORGANISMS). has been said that life
The first groups of phototrops such as PURPLE BACTERIA were simple, while comes from a single-cell.
others are ANOXYGENIC (nonoxygen-evolving phototrops). Oxygenic and How did life on earth begin?
oxygen-evolving phototrops like CYANOBACTERIA evolved from anoxygenic SPECIAL CREATION THEORY
phototrops which slowly oxygenated the atmosphere. - A theory which believes that everything in this world was created by a
The production of sufficient oxygen in the atmosphere as time progressed Supreme Being.
allowed multicellular life-forms to develop and evolve in increasing complexities SPONTANEOUS GENERATION THEORY
into the plants and animals we know today. - Life forms can be generated from inanimate objects.
- A hypothetical process by which living organisms develop from non-
LIFE SCIENCE OR BIOLOGY living matter; also the archaic theory that utilized this process to
➢ Are branches of science that study living things. explain the origin of life.
➢ Study of life and how living things survive and change. -
Branches of Biology Experiments made to disprove the spontaneous generation theory
 Anatomy- Study about the structure of organisms.
 Anthropology- Study about human and society. 1. FRANCESCO REDI
 Astrobiology- Study of life outside the earth. - He was able to disprove the spontaneous generation theory.
 Biochemistry- Study about compounds in an organism. - Performed experiment by placing meat in all jars, but covered four of the jars
 Biogeography- distribution of plants and animals on earth. with muslin.
 Biotechnology- the use of organisms to make products. - Maggots developed in the open jars but did not developed in the muslin-
 Cytology- Study about cells. covered jar.

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2. LAZARO SPALLAZANI STANLEY I. MILLER
- He also disproved the spontaneous generation theory. - An American scientist who performed an experiment using a mixture of the
- Performed experiment with broth. gases suggested by Oparin. He introduced electrical sparks into the mixture.
- He put broth into two flask (glass containers) and sterilized them both by - After a few days, molecules similar to amino acids that are found in all living
boiling the broth. things were formed.
- One of the flask was left open to the air. The other flask was sealed up to keep - His experiment proved that the first organic molecules could have been formed
out any organisms that might be floating in the air. Microorganisms developed from the primitive earth.
only in the uncovered flask. - Living cells may have arisen on early earth through a series of chemical
combinations of these organic compounds.
Conclusion:
1. The microorganisms did not come from the broth but were in the air that EXERCISE 1: FIND ALL THE BRANCHES OF BIOLOGY.
entered the flask. A N A T O M Y P R I E L B A Y M
2. Therefore, not even microorganisms came from nonliving things. N Z O O L O G Y S H I N I G E I
T L B I O T E C H N O L O G Y C
3. LOUIS PASTEUR (1860) H L O E G T I Y M B A L C D P R
- devised a culture flask which admitted through a curved tube any bacteria R R T I N Z S T H A O U H N G O
contained in the air and settled on their own weight in the curve of the tube. No O T A I M B A O D C M A E S H B
life appeared on the flask. P E N E N A G L E E R A M R D I
BIOGENETIC THEORY O I Y M D I V O E I R T I Z W O
L N T B P T A G N A E A S Y K L
- A belief that life produced life; that each animal and plant produced
O O I A R Z L Y C T S N T X E O
its own kind. When the egg cell and sperm cell unite, they form a
G G O L O I B O R T S A R V W G
zygote.
Y B I O G E O G R A P H Y I C Y
ABIOGENETIC SYNRHESIS THEORY
- Believe that life began in the primordial seas. Presented by Unifying themes in the study of life
Alexander Oparin, a Russian biochemist. 1. BIOLOGICAL SYSTEMS
“THE WHOLE IS GREATER THAN THE SUM OF ITS PARTS”
ALEXANDER OPARIN - It captures the importance of how a combination of parts can form a
- A Russian scientist (1953) who hypothesized that the atmosphere of primitive more complex organization called a system.
earth contained gases like ammonia, carbon dioxide, methane, hydrogen and - A system has properties that are based on the arrangement and
water vapor. interaction of its parts.
- He explained that energy of lightning and ultraviolet rays from the sun caused 2. THE CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
these gases to combine and form chemical compounds. • All organisms are made up of cells.
- As they mixed with rain and hot seas, they formed complex organic molecules • Most multicellular organisms have cells that are specialized for different
which was similar to what living things are made of. functions.

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 Example: Muscle cell – which contract and enable you to move; Nerve cells – - Moving, growing, reproducing, and other activities of life require organisms to
transmit impulses that control your muscles. perform work. Work depends on a source of energy.
• In most multicellular organisms, cells are organized into higher levels of - Energy is obtained in chemical form in sugars, fats, and other “fuel-like”
organization. molecules in your food.
• Beginning with the cellular level, the next is TISSUE, which is a group of - You can trace energy through an ecosystem. Energy flows into an ecosystem as
similar cells that together perform a specific function. sunlight and exits in the form of heat.
Example: Nerve tissue consists of many nerve cells organized into a complex 7. REGULATION
network. - The ability of organisms to regulate their internal conditions is an example of
• Several types of tissue together may make up a structure called ORGAN. homeostasis, or Steady-state.
Example: The brain is an organ that consists of nerve tissue and other types of - A mechanism that makes organisms regulates their internal condition, despite
tissues. changes in their external environment.
• Several organs together carry out a major body function make up an 8. ADAPTATION
organ system. - Is an inherited trait that helps the organism’s ability to survive and reproduce in
In this example, the brain, spinal cord, and nerves make up the organ system its particular environment.
called the NERVOUS SYSTEM. - It is a change in the species over generations in order to better survive in the
3. FORM AND FUNCTION environment.
- The form-fit-function theme also extends down to the cellular level. 9. EVOLUTION
Example: NATURAL SELECTION is the mechanism by which evolution occurs.
The aerodynamic shape of a bird’s wing is a living example of the form-fits- - The term EVOLUTION means A PROCESS OF CHANGE.
function theme. The structure of the bird’s bones contributes to the bird’s ability - A generation-to-generation change in the proportion of different inherited
to fly. Inside the bones, an open honeycomb-like structure provides great genes in a population.
strength with little weight. Birds has long extensions of nerve cells that control 10. BIOLOGY AND SOCIETY
their flight muscles. These fibers make it possible for bird’s brain to coordinate Modern biology is changing humans’ everyday lives.
flying movements. - The study of evolution is helping health professionals understand how
4. REPRODUCTION AND INHERITANCE disease-causing bacteria become resistant to antibiotic drugs.
“LIKE BEGETS LIKE” - Environmental issues such as water and air pollution are changing how
- an ability of organisms to reproduce their own kind. people think about their relationship to the biosphere.
DNA – information-rich molecules
5. INTERACTION WITH THE ENVIRONMENT LESSON 2: BIOENERGETICS: THE COMPLEXITY OF CELLS
No organism is completely isolated from its surroundings.
A plant obtains water and nutrients from the soil, carbon dioxide gas from the CELL – is the smallest unit of life that can replicate independently and cells are
air, and energy from sunlight. The plant uses these three inputs from its often called the building blocks of life.
environment for photosynthesis-the process by which plant make food.
6. ENERGY AND LIFE

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 ROBERT HOOKE - Using a single powerful lens, he crafted instruments that could produce
magnified images of very small objects.
- His simple microscope enabled him to see things no one had ever seen
before.
- In 1674, he was the first person to see tiny living organisms in a drop of
water.
- In 1683, he discovered the bacteria.

CELLS
Cell is the basic structural unit of each living thing on earth. Although it
has a simple structure, it can perform many complex roles to maintain
life.
A cell is made up of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acid, salts and
In 1665, Robert hooked first viewed the cells of the cork plant using the microscope he
water. These materials are essential to the different biochemical
built. Hooke observed that, when seen under the microscope,the thin slice from the cork
plant had tiny and empty compartments similar to those of a honeycomb. pathways that form the molecular structures of the cell.
Cells can exchange materials and energy with their environment.
-He identified the empty compartments as the dead cells of the plant. He named Although cells can get energy and exchange materials in many ways, they
them CELLULAE, which meant “small rooms” but later used the shorter word have to convert materials to form a product, and to use or convert the
CELL. energy.
MATTHIAS JACOB SCHEIDEN -Matthias Scleiden was a German botanist and Cells store energy in the form of ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE.
professor of botany, the branch of biology that deals with the study of plants. In
1838, his studies on the structure of plants led him to conclude that different HOW CELLS CARRY OUT FUNCTIONS REQUIRED FOR LIFE
Specialized cells are used for one particular function in multicellular organisms. These cells work
plants are made up of cells and that cells are the basic unit of organisms.
together to form tissue, such as muscle. Specialized cells such as red blood cells also perform
- Schleiden was the first scientist to develop the first statement in what specialized functions such as carrying hemoglobin (protein in red blood cells where oxygen binds
would later be known as THE CELL THEORY, an informal belief in to) and oxygen to the cells. Sperm cells are also specialized cells, which function to fertized egg
biology made up of the ff. statements: cells.
1. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
2. A cell is the basic unit of an organism. TIMELINE ON THE HISTORY OF THE CELL
3. A cell arises from preexisting cells.
THEODORE SCHWANN - Expanded the cell theory as he showed how animal 1665 Robert Hooke described cells in his book Micrographia.
tissues are also made up of individual cells. 1674 Leeuwenhoek discovered protozoa. He saw bacteria some 9
years later.
RUDOLF VIRCHOW - A German doctor and one of the prominent physicians of
1833 Brown described the cell nucleus in cells of the orchid.
the 19th century, stated that a new cell forms from previously existing cell.
1838 Scellula e cellula, Shleiden and Schwann proposed cell theory.
ANTON VAN LEEWENHOEK- First to observe live cells by taking blood
scrapings from his own teeth.

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1840 Albrecht von Roelliker realized that sperm cells and egg cells
are also cells. CELLS
1856 N. Pringsheim observed how a sperm cell penetrated an egg • Determine the form and functions of the human body
cell. • Basic living unit of all organisms
1857 Kolliker described mitochondria.
• Are complex living structures
1858 Rudolf Virchow (physician, pathologist and anthropologist)
expounded on his famous conclusion: omniscellula e cellula, • Are specialized to perform specific functions
that is cells develop only from existing cells [cells come from
pre-existing cells] TWO TYPES OF CELL
1879 Flemming described chromosome behaviour during mitosis. 1. PROKARYOTIC CELLS
1883 Germ cells are haploid, chromosome theory of heredity. These are small cells from the bacteria and Archaea domains. They do not
1898 Golgi described the Golgi Apparatus. contain a membrane-bound nucleus or other membrane-bound organelles. Their
1926 Svedberg developed the first analytical ultracentrifuge. activities related to life functions are accomplished in the cytoplasm.
1938 Behrens used differential centrifugation to separate nuclei
• They are the simplest form of life
from cytoplasm.
1939 Siemens produced the first commercial transmission electron • No nucleus
microscope. • Do not have structures surrounded by membranes (organelles)
1941 Coons used fluorescent labelled antibodies to detect cellular • Few internal structures
antibodies to detect cellular antigens. • They are unicellular (one-celled organism)
1952 Gey and co-workers established a continuous human cell line. Example: Bacteria
1953 Crick, Wilkins and Watson proposed structure of DNA double-
helix.
2. EUKARYOTIC CELLS
1955 Eagle systematically define the nutritional needs of animal
These are complex cells in which a membrane-bound nucleus and membrane-
cells in culture.
1957 Meselson, Stahl and Vinograd developed density gradient bound organelles are present. Examples of these cells are Protista (amoeba, and
centrifugation in cesium chloride solutions for separating paramecium), Plantae ( gymnosperm pines, angiosperm flowering plants,
nucleic acids. mosses, and ferns), Animalia (humans) and Fungi (yeast).
1965 Ham introduced a defined serum-free medium. Campbridge • Are the most complex form of life
instruments produced the first commercial scanning electron • They have nucleus
microscope. • Contain organelles surrounded by membranes
1976 Sato and colleagues published papers showing that different
• They are multicellular organism (many cells)
cell lines require different mixtures of hormones and growth
factors in serum-free media. • Most living organisms
1981 Trnsgenic mice and fruit flies are produced. Mouse embryonic • Example: animals and plants
stem cell line established.
1987 Creation of first knockout mouse which contains an artificially
introduced mutation in their cells.
1998 Mice are cloned from somatic cells.
2000 Human genome DNA sequence draft.

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Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic DIFFERENT PARTS OF CELL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

Functions of Cells
 RESPIRATION – set of metabolic reactions and processes which take
place in the cells.
 REGULATION – control and coordination of body activities through the
nervous system.
 REPRODUCTION – production of new organisms through sexual
reproduction in multicellular organisms and asexual reproduction in other
organisms.
 EXCRETION – removal of wastes produced by cellular activities
 GROWTH – increase in size of organisms as a result of increase in
number and size of cells.
 NUTRITION – process by which organisms take in food from their
environment BASIC CELL PARTS:
 TRANSPORT – process by which materials needed by the cell or an 1. Cell membrane- selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules
organism are taken by the organisms through absorption and circulation and controls the movement of substances in and out of cells.
 SYNTHESIS – process by which cells combine chemically simpler and 2. Nucleus – contains genetic material of cell (DNA) and nucleoli; site of
smaller substances to form various complex substances RNA synthesis and ribosomal subunit assembly.
 3. Cytoplasm – the living material surrounding the nucleus

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 ISOTONIC – the concentrations of various solutes and water are the same on
CELL PARTS AND FUNCTIONS both sides of the cell membrane.
◼ The cell will neither shrink nor swell.
1. NUCLEUS HYPERTONIC - a solution has a higher concentration of solutes and a lower
• The “control center” of the cell. concentration of water.
• It contains coded instructions for all of the cell’s activities. ◼ Resulting in cell shrinkage or CRENATION.
• These coded instructions are stored on special structures called the
chromosomes. MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE
VESICLES – membrane bound saca
2. CELL MEMBRANE ✓ ENDOCYTOSIS – uptake of material through the cell membrane by the
• Also called Plasma Membrane formation of vesicles
• It acts as the boundary between the cell and its external environment. ✓ RECEPTOR-MEDIATED ENDOCYTOSIS – when specific substance binds to
• Controls the movement of materials in and out of the cell. the receptor molecule and the substance is transported in the cell.
• Made up of phospholipids and proteins ✓ PHAGOCYTOSIS - a part of the cell membrane that extends around a
Extracellular substances – substances outside the cell particle and fuses it into the cell membrane.
Intracellular substances – substances inside the cell ✓ PINOCYTOSIS – forms smaller vesicles and contain liquid rather than
particles.
MOVEMENT THROUGH THE CELL MEMBRANE ✓ SECRETORY VESICLES – accumulate materials for release from the cell.
a. Diffusion – movement of ions or molecules from higher concentration to ✓ EXOCYTOSIS – allows the release of materials from the cells.
lower concentration of that same solute in solution. 3. CYTOPLASM
Concentration Gradient – difference in the concentration of a solute in a solvent • Surrounds the nucleus.
between two points divided by the distance between the two points. • It is where most life processes occur.
b. Osmosis – is the diffusion of water across selectively permeable membrane. • It is made of fluid like substance where organelles are located.
Occurs when the cell membrane is less permeable, selectively permeable or not 4. ORGANELLES
permeable to solutes and a concentration gradient for water exists across the cell • Specialized structures within the cell that performs specific function
membrane. It also occurs from higher water concentration to one of lower CYTOPLASMIC ORGANELLE
concentration. • Mitochondria
OSMOTIC PRESSURE – is the force required to prevent the movement of • Endoplasmic reticulum
water across a selectively permeable membrane. • Ribosome
HYPOTONIC – solution usually has a lower concentration of solutes and higher • Golgi Apparatus
concentration of water. • Lysosome
◼ Solution has less tone or osmotic pressure than cell. • Vacuoles/Vesicles
◼ The cell will swell. • Plastids
◼ The cell can rupture a process called LYSIS. • Microtubules
5. MITOCHONDRIA

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 • They are commonly called the “power houses” of the cell. • Is a specialized zone of cytoplasm close to the nucleus which microtubule
• They trap the energy that results when food is broken down. formation occurs.
• They provide energy for the cell. • It contains two centrioles which are normally oriented perpendicular to
6. ENDOPLASMIC RETCULUM each other.
• Folded membranes that form network of canals that extend from the 11. CENTRIOLE
nucleus to the cell membrane. • Is a small, cylindrical organelle composed of nine triplets; each triplet
• It moves material from one place to another place inside the cell. consists of three parallel microtubules joined together.
SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM 12. VACUOLES
• ER without ribosomes • Vacuoles are storage areas in cells. They may store water, food, or waste
• Site for lipid synthesis and participates in detoxification of chemicals products. In plant cells, vacuoles are big.
ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM • In animal cells, vacuoles are small. They are called vesicles.
• ER with ribosomes 13. PLASTIDS
• Large amount of rough ER indicates that it is synthesizing large amounts • They are energy converters. They harvest solar energy and produce food
of protein for export. in the process called photosynthesis.
7. RIBOSOME 14. CYTOSKELETON
• The tiny dots on the edges of some of the endoplasmic reticulum. • Consists of proteins that support the cell, hold organelles in place and
• Involved in the production of proteins, a process called protein synthesis. enable the cell to change shape.
8. GOLGI APPARATUS These protein structures are:
• Packaging and releasing structures of the cell. a. Microtubules – support and movements; formed from protein subunits
• Looks like a stack of pancakes. Its job is to package and move proteins FUNCTIONS:
before they are released from the cell. 1. Helps to support the cytoplasm of cells.
9. LYSOSOME 2. Assisting in cell division.
• Contain chemicals (ENZYMES) that digest wastes and worn-out or 3. Forming essential components of certain organelles such as cilia and
damaged cell parts. flagella.
• When a cell dies, chemicals in the lysosomes act to quickly break down b. Microfilaments- are small fibrils from protein subunits that structurally
the cell. support the cytoplasm.
• Are membrane bound vesicles formed from the Golgi apparatus that FUNCTION:
contains variety of enzymes that function as intracellular digestive 1. Some microfilaments are involved with cell movement.
system. c. Intermediate Filaments- are fibrils formed from protein subunits that
PEROXISOMES – are small membrane bound vesicles containing enzymes that are smaller in diameter than microtubules but larger in diameter than
break down fatty acids, amino acids and hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). microfilaments.
Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of fatty acid and amino acid breakdown can FUNCTION:
be a toxic to a cell. 1. Provide mechanical support to the cell.
10. CENTROSOME Both prokaryotes and eukaryotes have structures that help them move. These
structures are called cilia and flagella.

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CILIA – are short, numerous hairs on the surface of the cell that allow it to • NUCLEOTIDES function as chemical LETTERS that form chemical WORDS.
move and/or obtain food. GENE – is a sequence of nucleotides that provides a chemical set of instructions
FLAGELLA – are long, whip-like structures that help a cell move or obtain food. for making a specific protein.
(sperm cell)
Two steps of gene expression:
PLANT CELL STRUCTURES AND FUNCTION
1. CELL WALL 1. TRANSCRIPTION – the cell makes a copy of the gene necessary to make
• Surrounds the cell surface membrane protein
• Is made up of cellulose
• Protects the cell from injury 2. TRANSLATION – converting the copied information into a protein
• Gives the plant cell a fixed shape
• Is fully permeable
2. CHLOROPLAST
• Found only in plant cell
• Contain green pigment called chlorophyll which is essential for
photosynthesis ( process by which plants make food)
3. VACUOLES (Plant Cells)
• Plant cells usually have a large central vacuole which contains a liquid
called cell sap.
• Cell sap contains dissolved substances such as sugars, mineral salts and
amino acids
GENERAL FUNCTION OF CELL
1. Cell metabolism and energy use.
Formation of mRNA by transcription of DNA Translation of mRNA to produce protein
2. Synthesis of molecules.
3. Communication.
4. Reproduction and inheritance. CELL LIFE CYCLE

CELL ACTIVITY 1. INTERPHASE (non-dividing phase)

-the DNA is replicated; two strands of DNA separate from each other and each
GENE EXPRESSION other serves as template for the production of the new strand of DNA.
• DNA contains the information that directs protein synthesis - At the end of interphase, a cell has two complete sets of genetic material.
• DNA also influences the structural and functional characteristics of the
entire organism
• DNA molecule is consists of nucleotides joined together to form two
nucleotide strands

9
 Energy is contained in all matter. It can be transferred from one thing to another
or changed into different forms, but it cannot be created nor destroyed. Here are
some of the different forms that energy can take:
1. Nuclear Energy – The nucleus of every atom is composed of neutrons and
protons which are held together by strong energy bonds. When atoms are split
(fission) or when they collide and stick together (fusion), incredible amounts of
energy can be released, largely as light and heat- this is what happens on stars
like our Sun!
2. Light Energy – Light or radiant energy is the energy held in light waves,
allowing them to travel across space. Light is one of the forms of energy that we
as human can sense.
3. Electric Energy- If you’ve charge a cell phone or seen lightning, you’ve
witnessed electrical energy. This is energy held in the electrons of atoms that
2. CELL DIVISION allows them to move and thus create an electric field.
• Is the formation of daughter cells from a single parent cell. 4. Magnetic Energy – Related to electric energy, magnetic energy is also a
• Growth and tissue repair are formed are formed through mitosis. product of them movement of electrons and their ability to produce a field. A
• Sex cells undergo meiosis necessary for production. magnetic field can either attract the electrons of other objects or repel another
• Body cells contain 46 chromosomes. magnetic field.
5. Chemical Energy – Chemical energy is the energy held in the bonds
• Sex cells have half number of chromosomes.
between atoms in molecules. When different molecules react or are heated, for
example, energy can be released. The most familiar example of this is the
DIPLOID – pertains to 46 chromosomes chemical energy held in the food that we use for energy or in the gasoline we
HAPLOID – pertains to 23 chromosomes burn to power our cars.
6. Thermal Energy – thermal energy is heat, and this is another from the
LESSON 3: BIOENERGETICS: PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND ENERGY FLOW energy that we can sense. Heat is really energy that is stored in electrons and
which makes the move around. Adding more heat energy to a substance like ice,
for example, can make its electrons move more and spread out to become liquid
water.
7. Kinetic Energy – kinetic energy is the energy stored in something that is
moving. For example, you can also feel kinetic energy when a running friends
easily, as in when your friend knocks you down (moves you)
8. Potential Energy – this is the energy that is stored in objects within force
fields. Fields of force can include gravity or elastic force. So when an apple is
hanging high in a tree,, it holds potential energy- as soon as the stem breaks, its
potential energy will change to kinetic energy and it will fall to the ground.

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Laws of Thermodynamics Chemical Nature of Enzymes
The laws of thermodynamics define fundamental physical quantities All known enzymes are proteins. They are high molecular weigh t compounds
(temperature, energy, and entropy) that characterize thermodynamic systems. made up principally of chains of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

Enzymes can be denatured and precipitated with salts, solvents and other
reagents. They have molecular weights ranging from 10,000 to 2,000,000.
Many enzymes require the presence of other compounds – cofactors – before
their catalytic activity can be exerted. This entire active complex is reffered to as
the holoenzyme; i.e., apoenzyme (protein portion) plus the cofactor (coenzyme,
prosthetic group or metal-on-activator) is called the holoenzyme.

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 Apoenzyme + Cofactor = Holoenzyme
According to Holum, the cofactor may be: PHOTOSYNTHESIS
1. A coenzyme – a non-protein organic substance which is dialyzable, PHOTOSYNTHESIS – chloroplasts convert the sun’s light energy into sugars.
thermostable and loosely attached to the protein part.
2. A prosthetic group – an organic substance which is dialyzable and
thermostable which is firmly attached to the protein or apoenzyme portion.
3. A metal-ion-activator – these include K+, Fe++, Fe+++, Cu++, Co++, Zn++, Mn++,
Mg++, Ca++ and Mo++.

Photosynthesis as a re-dox process

The reduction and oxidation reactions are shortly known as redox reactions.
These reaction are marked by the transfer of electrons. During oxidation a
substance tends to loose its electrons whereas during reduction a substance The chloroplasts within plant cells contain stacks of dislike thylakoid. Each set of
tends to gain electrons. thylakoid is called GRANUM (plural: Grana). The green pigment CHLOROPHYLL,
is inside the thylakoid. Chlorophyll absorbs the sun’s light energy.
Photosynthesis is a process in which plants containing chlorophyll convert the Chemical reactions that synthesize carbohydrates take place in the stroma. The
carbon dioxide into sugars in the presence of sunlight by a set of redox reactions. stroma is the fluid that surrounds the thylakoids and fills the interior of the
Calvin cycle represents a set of reactions which are then used to turn carbon chloroplast.
dioxide into organic compounds.
When the light energy of the sun strikes chloroplasts and chlorophyll molecules,
Location of the Redox Reactions in the Plants light energy is converted into chemical energy found in ATP and in nicotinamide
In plants the redox reactions take place within the thylakoid membranes of the adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH).
chloroplasts. They utilize the light energy to synthesize ATP and NADPH. A set of ATP(adenosine triphosphate) – is a high energy molecule within the cells that
redox reactions take place in mitochondria of animals. ATP is generated by the stores and transports the chemical energy an organism needs for metabolism.
process of oxidative phosphorylation in animals. CHLOROPLAST
 Is derived from the Greek word “chloros” meaning green and plastes
meaning the one who forms.
 Are small organelles located inside the plant cells.
 The process of photosynthesis in plants and algae occurs in chloroplasts.
 It contains chlorophyll.
CHLOROPHYLL- is the green substance in plants that makes it possible for them
to make food with the help of carbon dioxide and water.
- It is also responsible for the green color of plants.
- Plants capture sunlight by using chlorophyll to absorb the visible light.

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 - Chlorophyll is green because it is efficient in absorbing blue light and red • dark reactions (Calvin cycle) - light independent reactions; use energy
light, but not very efficient in absorbing green light. produced & stored during light reactions (ATP & NADPH) & incorporates CO2
INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF A CHLOROPLAST from air into organic molecules (PGAL), which are converted to sugar (glucose)
 OUTER MEMBRANE – it is a semiporous membrane and is permeable to
small molecules and ions, which diffuses easily. The outer membrane is
not permeable to larger proteins. Photosynthesis takes place in
 INTERMEMBRANE SPACE – It is usually a thin intermembrane space chloroplast organelle.
about 10 to 20 nanometers and it is present between the outer and the • contains photosynthetic
membranes that contain chlorophyll
inner membrane of the chloroplast.
• light reactions take place in
 INNER MEMBRANE – The inner membrane of the chloroplast forms a photosynthetic membranes
border to the stroma. It regulates passage of materials in and out of the (thylakoids)
chloroplast. • dark reactions take place outside
 STROMA – it is an alkaline, aqueous fluid which is protein-rich and is photosynthetic membranes
present within the inner membrane of the chloroplast. This is the space (stroma)
outside the thylakoid space.
 THYLAKOID SYSTEM – It is suspended in the stroma. It is a collection of
membranous sacks called thylakoids. The chlorophyll is found in the
thylakoids.
TWO TYPES OF THYLAKOIDS
 Granal Thylakoids – are arranged in the grana. They are pancake shaped
circular discs, which are about 300-600 nanometers in diameter.
 Stromal Thylakoids – are in contact with the stroma. They are in the form
of helecoids sheets.

In thylakoids, light-dependent reactions occur where the sun’s light LIGHT REACTION
energy is absorbed by chlorophyll. Light energy is converted into - can be divided into 4 basic processes:
stored chemical energy in the form of NADPH and ATP. The ATP • light absorption
provides the energy, and the NADPH supplies the electrons for the • electron transport
light-independent reactions, which convert CO2 to sugar. • oxygen production
• ATP formation
• Use H2O, ADP, & NADP+ to produce O2, ATP, & NADPH
Photosynthesis is actually 2 processes:
• light reactions - convert solar energy (sunlight) to chemical energy (ATP & This reaction can take place only in the presence of light (solar energy) light-
NADPH)
dependent reactions are also known as energy-capturing reactions, they capture

13
solar energy and store it in molecules that will supply the energy necessary for the
next reaction to occur.

Steps in Light-Dependent Reactions

 Conversion of light energy to electron energy. When light strikes ➢ ELECTRON-TRANSPORT
chlorophyll an electron gets extra energy and is said to be excited, thus the • upon release from reaction center, high-energy electrons transferred
conversion has taken place. along series of electron carriers (electron transport chain) in
 Splitting of water. The excited electron causes the splitting of water photosynthetic membrane
• move electrons to NADP+ to form NADPH
molecules into hydrogen ions and oxygen gas. This process is known as
PHOTOLYSIS.
 Conversion of electron energy into chemical energy in ATP. The
energy from the excited electrons causes adenosine diphosphate (ADP) to
combine with a phosphate group forming ATP.

➢ OXYGEN PRODUCTION
• so chlorophyll doesn’t run out of electrons when forming NADPH,
thylakoid has a system that takes electrons from H2O.
• bi-product of reaction is oxygen molecules (O2) which eventually get
released into the air
LIGHT REACTION
➢ ATP FORMATION
➢ LIGHT ABSORPTION • uses energy generated by hydrogen ion (H+) gradient to produce ATP
• hydrogen ions (H+)
Thylakoid contains photosystems (clusters of pigment molecules) that are able to • H+ left behind when H2O are released inside thykaloid
capture sunlight energy. • in addition, as electrons are passed from chlorophyll to NADP+, more H+
• 2 photosystems in green plants: photosystem I (PSI) & photosystem II (PSII) are pumped across membrane
• contain chlorophyll molecules + other pigments • membrane fills up with H+ ions, making outside of photosynthetic
• absorbs light energy & passes it from 1 pigment molecule to another membrane - charge & inside + charge source of energy
until it reaches special pair of chlorophyll molecules in reaction center • enzyme in thylakoid makes use of this energy. Attaches phosphate
• here high energy electrons are released & passed to 1st of many molecule to ADP ATP
electron carriers

14
 • Light Energy
Energy Products:
• ATP
• NADPH

DARK REACTIONS (CALVIN CYCLE)

• ATP & NADPH can only store the chemical energy for a few minutes
• The Calvin cycle uses the energy from ATP &
NADPH to make high-energy compounds that can store the energy longer (sugars)
• Light independent reaction = does NOT require light
LIGHT-INDEPENDENT REACTION
Calvin cycle – name given to the cycle of dark reactions in photosynthesis
Inorganic molecule CO2 is used to make a complex organic molecules
(i.e. glucose).
• enzyme (rubisco) speeds up this reaction.
• this complex organic molecule can be considered a building block that can
be used to make other biologically important molecules, including glucose
• Use ATP & NADPH
• produced in light reaction
LIGHT-DEPENDENT REACTION • main purpose of dark reactions (Calvin cycle) is to produce chemical “building
block” PGAL Glucose
(phosphoglyceraldehyde)
• makes other compounds too like amino acids, lipids, other carbs etc.
Light-independent reactions or the Calvin Cycle, which occur in the stroma, do
not need light to function. The products of light-dependent reactions are used for
this stage to function. The chemical energy that was produced during the light-
dependent reactions drives the production of sugar molecules from CO 2 .

They do not require light inorder to take place. These reactions convert short
term energy storage (ATP) to long-term energy storage (sugar).

Steps in Light-Independent Reaction

 Carbon-dioxide Fixation
LIGHT REACTION SUMMARY  Carbon-dioxide Reduction
Reactants:  Glucose Formation
• H2O

15
  Sunlight and water are used to produce ATP, NADPH and O 2 in the light-
dependent reactions.
 ATP, NADPH and CO2 are used to produced sugar.

PHOTOSYSTEMS

Photosystems are light-

harvesting structures in
photosynthetic organisms
which serve as a reaction

• ATP & NADPH from light reactions used as energy

• Atmospheric CO2 is used to make sugars like glucose and fructose
• Six-carbon Sugars made during the Calvin Cycle
• Occurs in the stroma

LESSON 4: BIOENERGETICS UTILIZATION OF ENERGY

CELLS MAKE ATP: CELLULAR RESPIRATION

Cellular respiration is the process by which glucose (C6H12O6) is broken down to
Summary of Two Photosynthetic Process release energy for making ATP, another form of chemical energy.

16
 1. Glucose, a six carbon-sugar, is split into two three-carbon sugars.
Why ATP? 2. These smaller sugars are oxidized and rearranged to form two molecules of
 Glucose in our food is a great source of energy! pyruvate.
• Each of the ten steps in glycolysis is catalyzed by a specific enzyme.
 However, individual cell processes may only require a small amount of
• These steps can be divided into two phases: an energy investment phase and
energy an energy payoff phase.
 ATP (adenosine triphosphate) is this important cellular “currency” for • In the energy investment phase, ATP provides activation energy by
life. phosphorylating glucose.
 ATP releases more appropriate amounts of energy for the individual • This requires 2 ATP per glucose.
cellular processes that require energy. • In the energy payoff phase, ATP is produced by substrate-level
Photosynthesis: Phosphorylation and NAD+ is reduced to NADH.
• 4 ATP (net) and
6 H2O + 6 CO2 + energy (sun) → C6H12O6 + 6 O2
2 NADH are produced per glucose.

The Process of Cellular Respiration

Two Types of Cellular Respiration
 Aerobic Cellular Respiration
 Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

AEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION-Releases energy SLOWLY, using oxygen

to convert ONE molecule of glucose to 36 ATP!

Aerobic Respiration – Equation

C6H12O6 + 6 O2 6 H2O + 6 CO2 + 36 ATP

oxygen water carbon

food dioxide
(glucose, a carbohydrate)

Stages of Aerobic CR
 Glycolysis-The first stage of aerobic pathway. It is a series of enzyme-
controlled reactions that occur inside the cytoplasm. This does not require
oxygen.
Glucose + 2 ATP + 2 NAD+ 4 ATP + 2NADH + 2 pyruvate
4 ATP- 2 ATP= 2 ATP
Steps in Glycolysis:

17
 • The Krebs cycle is named after Hans Krebs who was largely responsible for
elucidating its pathways in the 1930s.
4. Acetyl CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate.
• The net yield from glycolysis is 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose. • Ultimately, the oxaloacetate is recycled and the acetate is broken down to CO2.
• No CO2 is produced during glycolysis. • Each cycle produces 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1 FADH by substrate-level
• Glycolysis occurs whether O2 is present or not. phosphorylation, per acetyl CoA.
• If O2 is present, pyruvate moves to the Krebs cycle and the energy stored in • The Krebs cycle consists of eight steps.
NADH can be converted to ATP by the electron transport system and oxidative
phosphorylation.

 Krebs Cycle - It starts with the end product of glycolysis, pyruvate and
involves a series of enzyme- controlled processes that occur inside the
mitochondrial matrix. The Krebs cycle must be performed twice to
complete the oxidation.
• More than three quarters of the original energy in glucose is still present in two
molecules of pyruvate.
• If oxygen is present, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion where enzymes of
the Krebs cycle complete the oxidation of the organic fuel to carbon dioxide.
Pyruvate + ADP + 4 NAD+ + FAD 3 CO2 + 4 NADH + FADH2 + ATP
2 ATP
1. As pyruvate enters the mitochondrion, a multienzyme complex modifies
pyruvate to acetyl CoA which enters the Krebs cycle in the matrix.
2. A carboxyl group is removed as CO2.
3. A pair of electrons is transferred from the remaining two-carbon fragment to • The conversion of pyruvate
NAD+ to form NADH. and the Krebs cycle produces
large quantities of electron
carriers.

18
  Electron Transport Chain - Also involves a series of enzyme- controlled • Its function is to break the large free energy drop from food to oxygen into a
reactions that convert the kinetic energy present in hydrogen electrons to series of smaller steps that release energy in manageable amounts.
ATP. Occurs in the mitochondria. • The movement of electrons along the electron transport chain does contribute
to chemiosmosis and ATP synthesis.
6 O2 + 8NADH + 2 FADH2 + 32 ADP 8NAD+ + 2 FAD + 32 ATP + 6 H 2O
32ATP
• Only 4 of 38 ATP ultimately produced by respiration of glucose are derived • A protein complex, ATP
from substrate-level phosphorylation. synthase, in the
• The vast majority of the ATP comes from the energy in the electrons carried by cristae actually makes
NADH (and FADH2). ATP from ADP and Pi.
• The energy in these electrons is used in the electron transport system to power • ATP uses the energy of
ATP synthesis. an existing proton
• Thousands of copies of the electron transport chain are found in the extensive gradient to power ATP
surface of the cristae, the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. synthesis.
• Most components of the chain are proteins that are bound with prosthetic • This proton gradient
groups that can alternate between reduced and oxidized states as they accept develops between the
and donate electrons. intermembrane space
• Electrons drop in free energy as they pass down the electron transport chain. and the matrix.

• The proton gradient is produced by the movement of electrons along the

electron transport chain.
STEPS: • Several chain molecules can use the exergonic flow of electrons to pump H+
1. Electrons carried by from the matrix to the intermembrane space.
NADH are transferred to • This concentration of H+ is the proton-motive force.
the first molecule in the
electron transport chain,
flavoprotein.
2. The electrons continue
along the chain that
includes several
cytochrome proteins
and one lipid carrier.
3. The electrons carried by
FADH2 have lower free
energy and are added to a
later point in the chain.

• Electrons from NADH or FADH2 ultimately pass to oxygen.

• The electron transport chain generates no ATP directly.

19
 Two Types of Anaerobic CR
• The ATP synthase molecules are the only place that will allow H+ to diffuse 1. Alcohol Fermentation - Anaerobic way of converting energy for yeast and
back to the matrix. other microorganisms
• This exergonic flow of H+ is used by the enzyme to generate ATP. --Glucose broken down to produce alcohol, CO2 and energy
• This coupling of the redox reactions of the electron transport chain to ATP
(ATP)
synthesis is called chemiosmosis.
Chemiosmosis is an energy-coupling mechanism that uses energy stored in the --C6H12O6 → ethanol + CO2 + 2 ATP
form of an H+ gradient across a membrane to drive cellular work. EX: baking bread with yeast, fermenting wine & beer
• In the mitochondrion, chemiosmosis generates ATP. 2. Lactic Acid Fermentation - Anaerobic way of converting energy in animal
• Chemiosmosis in chloroplasts also generates ATP, but light drives the electron cells and some microorganisms
flow down an electron transport chain and H+ gradient formation. --Glucose broken down to produce lactic acid, CO2 and energy
• Prokaryotes generate H+ gradients across their plasma membrane. (ATP)
• They can use this proton-motive force not only to generate ATP but also to
--C6H12O6 → lactic acid + CO2 + 2 ATP
pump nutrients and waste products across the membrane and to rotate their
flagella. EX: muscle cells during strenuous exercise, fermenting cheese,
NET ENERGY PRODUCTION yogurt, sour cream
 Glycolysis : 2 ATP
 Krebs Cycle : 2 ATP
 ETC : 32 ATP
Total : 36 ATP

THE RESPIRATION CHEMICAL EQUATION

Reactants Products
C6H12O6 C6H12O6 + energy
ANAEROBIC CELLULAR RESPIRATION Sugar + Oxygen carbon dioxide + water + energy
Anaerobic respiration is also called fermentation, or the process by which
energy is released from glucose when oxygen is NOT available.
However, this process only releases 2 ATP per molecule of glucose. This
production is FASTER!

20
LESSON 5: THE PERPETUATION OF LIFE

REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Reproduction - is the process by which an organism produces its own kind to
ensure that its species lives on.
- Is a process by which all living organisms produce one of
their kinds to ensure the survival of the fittest. Sexual reproduction in
TWO MAIN WAYS THAT PLANTS REPRODUCE plants takes place when the
✓ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION gametes, or the male and
✓ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION female sex cells of a plant,
unite to form a single cell
called ZYGOTE.
❖ Sexual Reproduction: ANGIOSPERM, or plants
❑ Pollination that bear flowers, reproduce
sexually. Their flowers
❑ Fertilization
have male parts, female
parts, or both that serve as
❖ Asexual Reproduction/Vegetative Propagation the main reproductive
❑ Natural organs of the plants; these
parts produce the gametes
❑ Artificial that are needed for sexual
reproduction.

21
 pollen is produced. The pollen are tiny grains containing the sperm that is
necessary for sexual reproduction.
THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE PART OF THE FLOWER
The female reproductive part is the carpel or pistil, which is made up of
stigma, style and ovary. The stigma is the sticky part that catches the pollen
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION grains coming from the stamen. The style is the long tubelike part that connects
the stigma to the ovary, which contains the ovule or unfertilized egg. When the
ovule is fertilized, it can develop into a fruit.
POLLINATION-is the transfer of the pollen from the anther to the
stigma of the same plant.(self-pollination)
-Is the transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the
stigma of a flower.
-If the transfer involves the same flower, it is termed self-
pollination.
-If the transfer is from one flower of a one plant to another
plant, it is called cross- pollination.
-Agents of pollination are insects, wind, water, birds and
human.
FERTILIZATION - It is the process by which the sperm and egg cells unite, takes
place after pollination.
-It begins when a pollen grain has attached to the stigma and
Flowers also have parts that are referred to as STERILE because they do not germinates.
directly take part in the reproduction but greatly aid the reproduction process. -The pollen grain that lands on the stigma develops a pollen tube that
These parts include the petals, receptacle, and sepals. grows down through the style and into the ovary where the ovule is located.
PETALS are the flower’s brightly colored parts that play an important role in ANSWER ME!
1. What are the two main ways by which plants reproduce? Describe.
helping the plant to reproduce. They attract bees, birds, butterflies and other
2. What is pollination?
animals to the flower; the pollen grains that attach to these pollinators are 3. How does fertilization take place?
transported to different places as they move.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
The RECEPTACLE is the part of the plant to which the flower is attached, and
the SEPALS are the leaf-like parts that enclose and protect the flower before it
blooms.

 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE PART OF THE FLOWER

The male reproductive part of the flower is the stamen, which is made up of the
anther and filament. The filament is the stalk that supports the anther where

22
VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION – a new plant can grow from a part taken from
the parent plant. When the plant grows, it will bear the parent plant’s Stolons or runners are horizontal
characteristics. stems that grow above the ground,
for example, strawberries.
-Part of plant gives rise to a new plant.
Tiny plantlets form along the
-Uses stems, leaves, or roots stolon, and roots form where they
-Can occur naturally or artificially touch the ground.
When the connection with the
NATURAL VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION parent plant breaks, the new plant
 Bulb becomes independent.
 Rhizomes
 Stolons or Runners TUBERS
 Tubers
Tubers are swollen portions of an
BULB underground stem that store food so
Have very short stems with leaves. a plant can lie dormant, for
Unlike most stems though, they have a example, potatoes.
round shape and grow under the ground. Axillary buds, commonly known as
At the center of each bulb is a plant ‘eyes’, form over the surface of the
structure called APICAL BUD. tuber and produce shoots that grow
Surrounding this are parts called into a new plant the following year.
LATERAL BUDS.
RHIZOMES
EXAMPLES ARE ONIONS AND
GARLIC.
◼ REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
RHIZOME Animals and other organisms reproduce through sexual reproduction
or asexual reproduction.
A rhizome is a stem that grows
horizontally under the ground. As it In sexual reproduction, the
grows, it develops new stems that male and female gametes (each
grow in a vertical direction and gamete contains its own unique
produce new plants. genetic material) fuse during
EXAMPLES: fertilization. The offspring that
Ginger and Grasses will develop from the fused
genes carries a unique set of
genetic material that was
formed from the combination
of the genes of both parents.
STOLONS OR RUNNERS

23
Male and female have different reproductive parts. Sexual reproduction occurs  The male gonads are the TESTES and the female gonads are the
when a sperm cell unites with an egg cell to form a zygote. OVARIES.
TYPES OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION  The sperm is motile and is formed in the testes. The ovum is spherical
 SYNGAMY and nonmotile and is formed in the ovary.
 CONJUGATION  Organisms such as flatworms and earthworms that have both male and
female systems are called MONOECIOUS or HERMAPHRODITES.
SYNGAMY or fertilization is the sexual  Some organisms exhibit separate sexes (either male or female), they are
reproduction by the union of gametes –
known as DIOECIOUS.
sperm and ovum (egg).

CONJUGATION involves two organisms ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

of the same species with similar  In asexual reproduction, only one parent is needed. The single parent
appearance but have different produces offspring that is genetically identical to it.
biochemical compositions.  Although asexual reproduction usually occurs in plants, it also occurs in
Organisms that reproduce through
aquatic sessile (steady/not moving) organisms like CNIDARIANS,
conjugation include bacteria and
protozoans (animal-like protists).
SPONGES and TUNICATES.
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION CAN HAPPEN THROUGH:
 BINARY FISSION
This is the simplest process of asexual reproduction wherein the body of
organism divides into new bodies. The organism duplicates its DNA and then
undergoes binary fission, wherein both new bodies receive a copy of the DNA of
the original organism.
 BUDDING
In budding, outgrowths or buds develop on the parent organism. The buds may
ORGANISMS
break off and develop into a new organism or remain attached to the parent
THAT
PARAMECIA REPRODUCE
organism. This type of reproduction happens in animals without reproductive
THROUGH organs or those with both male and female reproductive organs such as
CONJUGATION flatworms, hydras, yeast, sponges, jellyfish, sea anemones and corals.

 FRAGMENTATION
An organism’s body is divided into 2 or more parts, wherein each fragment
develops into an organism like its parent. Fragmentation happens in sea stars,
DIDINA annelids and fungi.
 Multicellular animals have a primary sex organ called GONAD.  REGENERATION

24
This is specialized form of asexual reproduction wherein detached parts of some BENEFITS OF GENETIC ENGINEERING
organisms can grow back such as sea stars and salamanders. What are the benefits of genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering of animals offers solutions for improving public health and
GENETIC ENGINEERING enhancing quality of life. The benefits include advancing human health,
Genetic engineering refers to the direct manipulation of DNA to alter an enhancing food production, reducing environmental impact, optimizing animal
organism’s characteristics (phenotype) in a particular way. health and welfare and production of cutting edge industrial applications.
What is DNA?
DNA is the recipe for life. DNA is a molecule found in the nucleus of every cell How does genetic engineering affect animal welfare?
and is made up of 4 subunits represented by the letters A, T, G, and C. The order Genetic engineering has the potential to greatly improve the health and welfare
of these subunits in the DNA strand holds a code of information for the cell. Just of agricultural animals. GE animals may be disease resistant, parasite resistant,
like the English alphabet makes up words using 26 letters, the genetic language and withstand stress. The beneficial trait can likely improve their well being
uses 4 letters to spell out the instructions for how to make the proteins an because they will be more productive. Such animals may need fewer veterinary
organism will need to grow and live. interventions, use of special feed supplements, or other growth stimulants.
How is genetic engineering done?
Genetic engineering, also called transformation, works by physically removing a How many GE animals or their products are approved?
gene from one organism and inserting it into another, giving it the ability to There is only one approved product in the world from a GE animal. That product
express the trait encoded by that gene. It is like taking a single recipe out of a is called ATryn®, a human pharmaceutical developed to prevent blood
cookbook and placing it into another cookbook. clots. This drug is produced in the milk of GE goats. It was first approved by the
Genetic engineering in animals European Medicines Evaluation Agency (EMEA) of the European Commission in
What animals are being genetically engineered? August 2006. It was also approved in the United States by the FDA in February
In research studies, animals that have been safely genetically engineered (GE) 2009. In addition, as noted above, a type of aquarium fish that expresses
include cattle, pigs, chickens, goats, sheep, dogs, cats, fish, rats, and mice. fluorescence is marketed under regulatory discretion.
Why are animals being genetically engineered?
As scientists have sequenced the genomes of domestic animals, more is known METABOLISM AND SURVIVAL IN ANIMALS
about genes and the traits that they control. By finding genes that control
beneficial traits, we are able to precisely introduce those genes into another METABOLISM – the set of life-sustaining chemical changes that occur within
animal’s genome, so the GE animal will possess that trait. the cells of all organisms. It enables organisms to grow, reproduce, maintain
structures and respond to their environment.
Is a GE animal an animal clone?
No. A GE animal has a deliberate modification made to its genome. In genetic 2 CATEGORIES OF METABOLISM
engineering, scientists can precisely transfer a beneficial gene (for disease • Catabolism
resistance, for example) from one animal species to another. • Anabolism
Cloning technology is a type of breeding technology to produce an exact genetic
copy of an animal – usually a high quality animal with desirable breeding traits. CATABOLISM - breaks down large molecules into smaller ones and
releases energy in the process.

25
 ANABOLISM – uses energy to build up the chemical components of the cell. 10. SKELETAL SYSTEM – protects and supports the body parts,
determination of body shape, blood cell production sites, calcium s and
Organ systems of animals phosphorus storage sites. Bones and joints are involved.
1. NUTRITION 11. IMMUNE SYSTEM – defends the body against pathogens and diseases.
Animals feed on solid or liquid food obtained from plants or other White blood cells, lymph nodes and skin are involved.
animals. The process that converts food substances into living matter is 12. INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM OR BODY COVERING – protects the skin
known as nutrition. It involves the following: from external environment, protection from loss of internal fluids, body
• Feeding – the intake of food temperature regulation, elimination of some wastes, and reception of
• Digestion – large food molecules are broken down into soluble external stimuli. Skin, nails and hair are the organs involved.
molecules
2. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM – involves physical digestion, the breakdown of
food into smaller particles which occurs in the mouth and stomach.
Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large molecules such as protein
starch and fats.
3. CIRCULATORY SYSTEM – transport blood from the heart to the lungs,
to oxygenate the blood. Systemic circulation carries oxygen-rich blood
from the heart to organs and tissues.
4. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM – supplies body cells with oxygen; water and
carbon dioxide as waste products. The organs involves heart, blood
vessels, blood, lymph nodes.
5. EXCRETORY SYSTEM – remove waste from the bosy. The organs
functioning are kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters and urethra.
6. NERVOUS SYSTEM – regulates behaviour, maintains homeostasis, and
controls sensory and motor functions. Organs are sense organs, spinal
cord and brain.
7. REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM – involves the production of new individuals.
The organs needed are the testes and penis in males and ovaries and
uterus in females. HOW PLANTS SURVIVE
8. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM – regulates body temperature, metabolism,
development; maintains homeostasis; regulates other organ systems. Plant organs are classified into the following: vegetative organs which function
9. MUSCULUTARY SYSTEM – moves limbs and trunk, moves substances for growth and development and reproductive organs.
through the body, provides structure and support. Organs involved are the 1. The vegetative organs are:
skeletal system, smooth and cardiac muscles. • Leaves
• Stems
• Roots

26
 ❖ LEAVES The zygote undergoes a series of division producing the embryo. After
It is generally an expanded and flattened lateral outgrowth of the stem, elevated fertilization the ovary develops into a fruit. The ovule becomes a seed.
to an aerial position to receive light energy. The blade is the expanded portion d. Seed Germination
of the leaf and is usually colored green. The petiole extends from the blank. As the seed germinates the hypocotyls of the embryo grows into the primary
Veins support the tissues and serve as conducting channels through which root. The epicotyl develops into the shoot and leaves.
water, minerals and food are transported. Xylem vessels carry water; phlegm
vessels carry the food substances. EVOLUTION
Transpiration – is a function of leaves to release water through vapour.
❖ STEMS Evolution is the gradual change in species over many generations resulting from
Stems are between roots and leaves and provided with nodes. Stem functions for their genetic adaptation to the environment.
support of branches, leaves, flowers and fruits. Another important function is
conduction of substances. Stem is for the conduction of food as well and holds
up the leaves and exposes them to sunlight.
❖ ROOTS
The first root that grows out the embryo plant is called the primary root. It
produces lateral secondary roots. The growth of root hairs increases the
absorbing ability of plants.
The two important functions are for anchorage firmly to the ground and for
absorption of water and minerals from the soil. Some info about the scientist:
2. The Reproductive Organs 1. Carolous Linnaeus
a. Father of taxonomy (differentiate classical taxonomy and modern taxonomy)
Flowering plants have organs that are essential for sexual reproduction,
b. Started the binomial system of nomenclature
a. STAMEN - represents the male sexual reproductive organ. It is made
up of anther which contains the pollen grains and filament.
2. Thomas Malthus
b. PISTIL – represents the female sexual reproductive organ, consists of
a. Believed that populations grow geometrically while resources slowly increase
the ovary and the ovule which bears the egg cells. or not at all, leading to competition
c. STIGMA – is the uppermost part of the pistil.
3. Jean Baptiste de Lamarck
STEPS: a. First to propose about the theory of evolution: Theory of inheritance of
a. Pollination acquired traits and
The pollen grains drop on the stigma of the pistil through the wind, insects and Theory of use and disuse
b. Physiological needs drive Lamarckian evolution
water,
c. Defined evolution as process of increasing complexity
b. Pollen Germination d. No extinction of species. Species disappeared because they just evolved into
Carrying the sperm cells in a long cylindrical extension called a pollen tube which different species.
enters the micropyle of the ovule. e. Organisms adapt to evolve
c. Fertilization

27
4. Georges Cuvier 11. Carl Correns
a. Established extinction through fossils a. Rediscovered Mendel’s work
b. Believed that the earth was immensely old b. Worked on the Behavior of the Progeny of Racial Hybrids
c. Catastrophes caused that each one wiped out a number of species
d. Didn’t believe organic evolution because of the mummified cats and ibises 12. Erich Von Tschermak
a. Rediscovered Mendel’s work
5. James Hutton b. Applied mendial laws to artificial selection to improve crop yield
a. Proposed theory of gradualism (Slow subtle processes could cause substantial
change over time) 13. Rosalind Franklin
b. Great age of the earth a. One of the few women during their time to be recognized for her contribution
in the scientific community.
6. Charles Lyell b. Worked on the x-ray diffraction image of the DNA. X-ray crystallography
a. Proposed the theory of uniformitarianism (natural agents now at work on and picture of the DNA that time were not pictures of molecules. The spots were
within the Earth produced by diffracted x-rays from the
have operated with general uniformity through immensely long periods of time) fibers of a purified DNA.
c. She also concluded that the sugar-phosphate backbones were outside the DNA
7. Gregor Mendel molecule (contrary to Crick and Watson’s claim)
a. Studied garden peas d. Died at the age of 38 (1958) so she was ineligible for the Nobel Prize.
b. Responsible for the: Law of segregation (two alleles for each gene separate
during gamete formation) and Law of Independent Assortment (alleles of genes 14. James Watson and Francis Crick
on nonhomologous chromosomes assort independently during gamete formation) a. Discovered that the DNA is a double stranded helix, from Rosalind Franklin’s
works
8. Charles Darwin
a. Explained evolution through: Natural Selection, Idea of Common Descent, Idea
of Gradualism,
Idea of Multiplication of species
b. Organisms evolve to dapat

9. Alfred Russel Wallace

a. Had a correspondence with Darwin regarding the theory of evolution by mean
of Natural selection
b. Realized that species evolved because fittest individuals survived and
reproduced passing their advantageous characters.

10. Hugo de Vries

a. Rediscovered Mendel’s work
b. Thought of theory of mutation but his idea of mutation before has nothing to
do with the real mutations

28
 4. Match between organisms and their environment (from descent with
modification by natural selection)
5. Darwin didn’t use the word evolution in his book (though the final word
in the book is EVOLVED), but instead he used the term “descent with
modification”
6. Viewed life history as a tree as compared to Lamarck’s ladder view on
species
Artificial Selection vs. Natural Selection
1. Artificial selection- process of selecting and breeding of animals and
plants over many generations to achieve the modifications desired by human
beings..
2. Caused the production of individuals used for crops, livestock, pets that
resemble wild ancestors
3. Instead of nature serving as the selecting factor, its humans that select
which organisms will be used for breeding depending on to the traits they want
to improve.
4. Can take effect faster than natural selection, though follows the same
principle as natural selection where favorable traits will be more frequent in a
Darwin’s focus on Adaptation
population while less favorable traits will diminish.
1. Adaptation- inherited characteristics of organisms that enhance their
Natural Selection
survival and reproduction in specific environments. Observed in the Galapagos
1. Differential in rates of survival is dependent on individual’s heritable
finches.
traits suited in the environment
2. The difference in beak types and behaviors are adapted to the specific
2. An organism compatibility with its surrounding is increased by natural
food in home islands
selection over time.
3. Natural selection caused these adaptations to arise. Natural selection
3. A change in environment (or movement of individuals to new
explains the difference in survival of individual since some individuals of the same
environment) may cause a species to give rise to a new species depending on
species have inherited traits (adaptations) that allow the organism to survive and
the traits that will be favored by the new environment.
reproduce in a particular environment.
4. Nature selects organisms with high fitness
PERFORMANCE TASK: Research about the misconception/s on the
5. Darwin thought of the idea of descent with modification, which was
theory of evolution and be able to write an article/essay about the said
caused by natural selection. Though at that time he was not quite confident of
misconception.
his idea, until Alfred Wallace sent him his manuscript (worked in the Malayan
Archipelago) that contains Wallace’s hypothesis of natural selection identical to
INTERACTION AND INTERDEPENDENCE
Darwin’s. And asked Darwin if he can ask Lyell if it has merit for publication.
6. Lyell presented Wallace’s paper with Darwin’s unpublished essay to the
Ecology: study of the interaction between biotic and abiotic factors of the
Linnaean Society of London. The following year Darwin published his book: On
environment.
the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection
ECOSYSTEMS
The Origin of Species
1. The ecosystem is the structural and functional unit that is studied in ecology
1. Darwin’s observation on nature
2. They involve important interactions between biotic and abiotic factors
2. The unity of life (descent of all organisms from ancestors)
3. Diversity of life (caused by descent with modification)

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3. An ecosystem can support itself and is stable (not much change) when three
conditions are met:
a. There must be a constant supply of energy (the sun is this source for
all life on earth) NUTRITIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
b. There must be living organisms that can convert the energy into
organic compounds (plants--autotrophs--photosynthesis) AUTOTROPHS or PRODUCERS – are organisms that can synthesize organic
c. There must be a recycling of materials between organisms and the molecules from inorganicmolecules; also called producers; can be either
environment. photosynthetic or chemosynthetic

Levels of Organization HETEROTROPHS – are organisms that cannot manufacture organic molecules.
1. Population - includes all the members of a species in a given area. Example: They are the “consumers”; there are 5 types of heterotrophs:
All toads (including tadpoles) in a pond is a population. 1. Herbivores – Organisms that eat only producers (plants); also called a
2. Community - All populations in a given area. Example: Toads, tilapia, guppies primary or first-level consumer; Examples are the ruminants – cows, goats,
(fish), water lilies, Hydrilla, and other populations in the pond. carabaws.
3. Ecosystem – composed of the living (biotic) community and the nonliving 2. Carnivores – Organisms that eat only other animals; can be a
(abiotic) physical environment functioning together is an ecosystem secondary/tertiary/quarternary consumer; Examples are members of Order
4. Biosphere - is the portion of the earth in which LIFE exists and is is made up Carnivora – Dogs, cats, bears, wolves.
of many complex ecosystems. All ecosystems together make up the biosphere. 3. Omnivores –Organisms that eat both plant and animal material; Example –
Humans
With a few exceptions, all ecosystems depend on solar energy as a primary 4. Scavengers– Organisms that eat only other animals after they are already
energy source. killed; Example - vultures, hyenas
This energy (called Primary Productivity) is the result of energy captured by
producers. Some of this energy is lost when producers, such as plants, use DECOMPOSERS – They 'recycle' dead organisms and waste (feces) into non-
energy for respiration. Only a portion of the energy captured by producers is living elements by reducing these feces into chemicals such as nitrogen and
passed on to consumers. Consumers also lose energy due to respiration. carbon. Those chemicals become part of the soil and those nutrients can then be
used by living plants and the animals that consume them.
Note that the energy flow through an ecosystem is one way; it is not 1. Saprophytes - The main groups of decomposer organisms are bacteria and
recycled. All the energy taken in by producers is ultimately lost as heat fungi that cause decay at a microscopic level. Saprophytes cause decay by
through respiration. Autotrophs must continue to capture the sun’s releasing enzymes onto the dead animal or plant, breaking down complex
energy for ecosystems to persist. compounds into simple soluble ones that can be absorbed by decomposers.
2. Detritivores - Other larger organisms, called detritivores, help speed up
Most energy is lost as heat because of the LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS decay by feeding on detritus. Detritus is dead and decaying material and
detrriivores break it down into smaller pieces, so increasing the surface area for
a. 1st Law of Thermodynamics – Law of Conservation of Energy; “Energy cannot the bacteria and fungi. Detritivores include earthworms that help break down
be created or destroyed, they are transformed from one form to another” dead leaves, maggots that feed on animal tissue, woodlice that break down
b. 2nd Law of Thermodynamics – Law of Entropy; the entropy of the world only wood
increases and never decreases – so during transformations, energy in form of
heat is lost.

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SPECIAL NUTRITIONAL RELATIONSHIPS - SYMBIOSIS and population is more crowded? How might crowding affect the health of a
PARASITISM population?

SYMBIOSIS - an interaction among different species in an ecosystem that Population density is not static. It is influenced by death, birth, and movement
where they live in a close association with each other where at least one member (immigration and emigration) among populations.
of the association benefits (gains) by the association POPULATION GROWTH is due to a higher birth rate than death rate. New
1. Mutualism - a symbiotic relationship in which BOTH organisms benefit from individuals are recruited into the population through growth and immigration.
the association. The maturation of newborn into the adult breeding population, is considered a
Example: Termites and its intestinal parasite; giant clams and its symbiotic algae; more important basis of the potential population growth.
nitrogen fixing bacteria that live in nodes on the roots of legumes; shrimp and
goby (fish). FACTORS AFFECTING POPULATION DENSITY
2. Commensalism –a symbiotic relationship where one organism benefits (+) 1. Number of Reproductive Events: Semelparity vs. Iteroparity
and the other organism is not harmed (0). Example, a remora attaches itself to A. Semelparity – (“Semel” - Latin “once”): Organisms can produce all their
the underside of a shark – The remora gets a free ride and free food (from offspring in one reproductive event. Common in insects and some invertebrates,
eating shark’s food scraps) while the shark does not get any benefits and salmon, bamboo grasses and agave plants. They reproduce only once and die.
harmed. Agaves live to several years before reproducing; some are annual plants that
PARASITISM – One organism, the parasite, benefits (+), while the host is develop from seed, flower and drop their own seed within a year.
harmed (-). Example: tapeworm in the intestine of pigs; ticks on dogs and others B. Iteroparity – (“itero” L = to repeat); Pattern of repeated reproduction at
intervals; common in most vertebrates and perennial plants such as trees;
BIOACCUMULATION / BIOMAGNIFICATION number of reproductive events and number of offspring per event vary among
species.
BIOACCUMULATION - Bioaccumulation is the gradual build up over time of a i. Seasonal Iteroparity – Have distinct breeding seasons such as
chemical in a living organism. This occurs either because the chemical is taken temperate animals and forest trees.
up faster than it can be used, or because the chemical cannot be broken down ii. Continuous Iteroparity – individuals reproduce repeatedly and at
for use by the organism (that is, the chemical cannot be metabolized). any time of the year; found in tropical species, parasites and many mammals.
While the amount of pollutant might have been small enough not to cause any
damage in the lowest levels of the food web, the amount might cause serious Number of Offsprings per Reproductive Event
damage to organisms higher in the food web. This phenomenon is known as Organisms that live in stable environments tend to make few, "expensive"
biomagnification. offspring. Organisms that live in unstable environments tend to make many,
"cheap" offspring.
POPULATION SIZE and DENSITY
Population size is the number of individuals in a population. For AQUATIC BIOMES
example, a population of insects might consist of 100 individual insects, or many 1. Ecologists distinguish between freshwater biomes and marine biomes on the
more. Population size influences the chances of a species surviving or going basis of physical and chemical differences.
extinct. Generally, very small populations are at greatest risk of extinction. 2. Since oceans comprise about 75% of the Earth’s surface, oceans have an
Population density is the average number of individuals in a population per unit enormous impact on the biosphere.
of area or volume. For example, a population of 100 insects that live in an area 3. Aquatic Biomes:
of 100 square meters has a density of 1 insect per square meter. If the same a. The evaporation of seawater provides most of the Earth’s rainfall;
population lives in an area of only 1 square meter, what is its density? Which b. Ocean temperatures have a major effect on world climate and wind patterns;

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c. Marine plants and algae, and photosynthetic bacteria supply a significant RIVERS AND STREAMS
portion of the world’s oxygen and consume large amounts of carbon dioxide; and 1. These are bodies of flowing water moving in one direction.
d. Freshwater biomes are closely linked to the soils and biotic components of 2. They get their starts at headwaters, which may be springs, snowmelt or even
terrestrial biomes. lakes, and then travel all the way to their mouths, usually another water channel
4. Characteristics of aquatic biomes is based on the Vertical stratification of or the ocean.
physical and chemical variables: 3. The characteristics of a river or stream change during the journey from the
source to the mouth.
a. Photic vs Aphotic zone a. Source: Water is clearer with high oxygen levels and its temperature is
i. Photic zone – Sufficient sunlight is available for photosynthesis and is cooler
the basis of the food chain; b. Towards the middle part, the width increases, as does species diversity
ii. Aphotic zone – Sunlight cannot penetrate and food chain is based on — numerous aquatic green plants and algae can be found.
non-photosynthetic activities. c. Toward the mouth, the water becomes murky from all the sediments
b. Temperature that it has picked up upstream, decreasing the amount of light that can
i. Surface waters are usually distinctly warmer than deeper waters. penetrate through the water. Since there is less light, there is less diversity of
Between these layers, is a layer wherein water temperature rapidly changes flora, and oxygen levels are lower.
(called THERMOCLINE). WETLANDS
5. At the bottom of all aquatic biomes is the BENTHIC ZONE that can be made 1. Defined – an area with water that supports aquatic plants; range from
up of the sediment that can be composed of sand/silt/clay and organic/inorganic periodically flooded regions to soil that is permanently saturated during the
materials. Animals living in the benthic zone are called BENTHOS. growing season.
2. Wetlands range from marshes to swamps to bog that develop in:
FRESHWATER BIOMES a. Basin wetlands – develop in shallow basins, ranging from upland depressions
1. Particular characteristics of a freshwater biomes are influenced by the patterns to filled-in lakes and ponds;
and speed of water floor, and the climate to which the biome is exposed. There b. Riverine wetlands – develop along shallow and periodically flooded banks of
are three general categories: rivers and streams;
a. Standing bodies of water (Example: lakes and ponds) c. Fringe wetlands - occur along coasts of large lakes and seas, where water
b. Moving bodies of water (Example: rivers and streams) flows back and forth because of rising lake levels or tidal action
c. Wetlands
LAKES MARINE BIOMES
1. Zonation Marine regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth’s surface and include deep
a. Littoral zone – Shallow, well-lit waters close to the shore sea/oceanic communities, nearshore communities (coral reefs, seagrass beds,
b. Limnetic zone – Well-lit, open surface waters farther from the shore algal [kelp/Sargassum] beds, mangrove forests) and estuaries. Produces in
c. Profundal zone – Aphotic region of the water column. marine biomes contribute to the supply of the world’s oxygen supply and like
2. Classification according to production of organic matter terrestrial vegetation, take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide. As a
a. Eutrophic - Having waters rich in phosphates, nitrates, and organic huge water reservoir, evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
nutrients that promote a proliferation of plant life, especially algae. Some lakes terrestrial biomes.
and bodies of water can become eutrophic through high nutrient input from
domestic and agricultural sources.
b. Oligotrophic - has low nutrient concentrations and low plant growth.
Prepared by:
JULLIENNE GRACE S. ANDRINO

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