CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION
Modern integrated power systems today are incredibly complex in nature. The reliability and
security of the electrical power system is one of the most critical specifications in this regard.
It's a cumbersome job to preserve the reliability of such a multi-area interconnected power
grid. The Versatile AC Transmission System (FACTS) devices were proposed as a
countermeasure of these problems. The STATCOM/FACTS device is currently used to boost
its performance. The literature provides for the simultaneous control of actual and reactive
power transmission systems, power electronics dependent controls called Information.
FACTS devices are currently a viable alternative, since they allow the voltages and current of
an acceptable magnitude to be controlled by the electrical power system at an increasingly
lower cost. This work therefore suggests a technique for regulating the power flow, which
uses energy storage FACTS controls. The FACTS controllers based on the switching power
converter will do this. The different FACTS models with Power Oscillation Damping
Controllers are mentioned in the literature, including: Static Var Compensators (SVC)[5],
STATCOM [6, 7], Thyristor Operated Series Compensators [9] and Convertible STC [7].

The inverter controls for smart PV were proposed [17], including the Constant (OF) Power
Factor, Var, Volt/Watt, Frequency Watt, Low/High Voltage Ride Through, Low and High
Frequence Ride Through, etc.. In order to boost the connectivity of wind farms during the
night [19], and to increase the transmission potential by damping power oscillations during
both night and day [20], a new regulation of PV solar farm as STATCOM was proposed [22].
This control technique used the whole capacity of the inverter at night and the capacity of the
inverter remaining for power damping after real power generation during the day. In [21] an
eighth order POD controller was proposed for large PV solar farms, while in [22] a POD
control energy-based design was implemented. The architecture of both controls is relatively
complex.

In the abovementioned papers[19] all POD controls are focused on the continued inverter
power throughout the day. Therefore, the planned solar farm POD capacity is reduced during
the day and actually null during full sun hours. A novel PV-STATCOM control device for

1
POD based on a patent-based technology[23] is proposed in this paper. With this proposed
check the PV Solar Farm autonomously deactivates its true electric power generation feature
over short time (usually less than one minute), and allows its whole capacity for operation as
STATCOM to damp energy switchings available through reactive power modulation when
any disruption occurs in the power system causes undesirable power oscillations.

This paper proposes a whole different regulation of the new PV-STATCOM smart inverter
control, which enables power oscillation to be damped as follows: I with maximum capacity
inverters, and (ii) 24/7 both night and day.

The majority of FACTS controllers are PI controller-based[5,6]. Although the PI controllers

are quick and simple to design, the output of them deteriorates dramatically as the device
operational conditions differ and major disruptions arise. In comparison to PI controllers,
FLCs are able to withstand in greater degree ambiguity and imprecision[7,8]. They are
producing good results under changing operating conditions and system parameter
uncertainties [9]. This paper introduces a new method for FACTS system implementation,
based on a basic fugging proportional logic plus a traditional integral controller in a power
plant. The controller suggested uses an FLC-PI controller combination. The proposed fuzzy
controller incorporates the benefit of an FLC with a traditional PI controller in contrast to the
current fuzzy controllers. This controller is correctly treated in the application of this
controller on FACTS devices to damp local modes and interface oscillation modes in a
multimachine power system. In damping multimodal oscillations, the effects of auxiliary
signals have also been demonstrated. Lastly, the effect of the proposed FACTS controller in a
multi-machine power system is demonstrated by several fault and load disruption simulation
results.

2
 CHAPTER-2

LITERATURE SURVEY
[1] P. Kundur, N. J. Balu, and M. G. Lauby, Power system stability and control vol. 7:
McGraw-hill New York, 1994

A power system operating condition should be stable, meeting various operational criteria,
and it should also be secure in the event of any credible contingency. Present day power
systems are being operated closer to their stability limits due to economic and environmental
constraints. Maintaining a stable and secure operation of a power system is therefore a very
important and challenging issue. Voltage instability has been given much attention by power
system researchers and planners in recent years, and is being regarded as one of the major
sources of power system insecurity. Voltage instability phenomena are the ones in which the
receiving end voltage decreases well below its normal value and does not come back even
after setting restoring mechanisms such as VAR compensators, or continues to oscillate for
lack of damping against the disturbances. Voltage collapse is the process by which the
voltage falls to a low, unacceptable value as a result of an avalanche of events accompanying
voltage instability. Once associated with weak systems and long lines, voltage problems are
now also a source of concern in highly developed networks as a result of heavier loading. The
main factors causing voltage instability in a power system are now well explored and
understood. A brief introduction to the basic concepts of voltage stability and some of the
conventional methods of voltage stability analysis are presented in this chapter. Simulation
results on test power systems are presented to illustrate the problem of voltage stability and
the conventional methods to analyze the problem. Limitations of conventional methods of
voltage stability analysis are pointed out and the scope of the use of Artificial Neural
Networks as a better alternative is discussed.

[2] N. G. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS: concepts and technology of

flexible AC transmission systems: Wiley-IEEE press, 2000.

FACTS indicate versatile AC transmission and this innovation release new doors for
observance the facility and up the consumption limit of recent additionally as new and
upgraded lines. These opportunities arise because of the provision of FACTS Controllers that
controls the reticulated parameters like shunt-series ohmic resistance, current, voltage, and
different parameters. 15 A difficulty emerging from the pressure of expanding power

3
transmission and distribution limit could be effectively settled by growing the system and
introducing more transmission lines. In any case, natural and monetary factor contradict the
utilization of this goals. These elements have built the forward research on planning power
systems to give greatest transmission limit at least expense. The consequence of the constant
analysis led to the use of flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) that is completely
supported power hardware, to expand transmission limit, improve irresponsibleness and
dynamic conduct of the framework and guarantee higher power quality. This paper can refer
basically the importance of FACTS in our systems, its segments, the earliest innovation used
- Static volt-ampere Compensator (SVC), and also the latest innovation used - Unified Power
Flow Controller (UPFC).

[3] Y. Xiao, Y. Song, C.-C. Liu, and Y. Sun, "Available transfer capability enhancement using
FACTS devices," IEEE Trans. Power systems, vol. 18, pp. 305-312, 2003.

From the viewpoint of operational planning, this paper focuses on the evaluation of the
impact of FACTS control on available transfer capability (ATC) enhancement. Technical
merits of FACTS technology on ATC boosting are analyzed. An optimal power-flow-based
ATC enhancement model is formulated to achieve the maximum power transfer of the
specified interface with FACTS control. For better studying the capability of FACTS control,
a power injection model of FACTS devices, which enables simulating the control of any
FACTS devices, is employed.

[4] X. Y. Bian, Y. Geng, K. L. Lo, Y. Fu, and Q. B. Zhou, "Coordination of PSSs and SVC
Damping Controller to Improve Probabilistic Small-Signal Stability of Power System With
Wind Farm Integration," IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol. 31, pp. 2371-2382, 2016.

A modified fruit fly optimization algorithm (MFOA) combined with a probabilistic approach
are proposed in this paper to coordinate and optimize the parameters of power system
stabilizers (PSSs) and static VAR compensator (SVC) damping controller for improving the
probabilistic small-signal stability of power systems with large-scale wind generation, taking
into consideration the stochastic uncertainty of system operating conditions. It is generally
accepted that there is a threat to the stability of power system with penetration of wind farm.
In addition, the stochastic fluctuations of wind generation make PSSs tuning more difficult.
In this paper, PSSs and SVC damping controller are employed for suppressing local and
inter-2area low frequency oscillation. 16 In order to eliminate the adverse effect between
PSSs and SVC damping controller, the MFOA based on the probabilistic eigenvalue is

4
applied to coordinate and optimize their parameters. The effectiveness of the proposed
approach is verified on two test systems.

[5] N. Mithulananthan, C. A. Canizares, J. Reeve, and G. J. Rogers, "Comparison of PSS,

SVC, and STATCOM controllers for damping power system oscillations," IEEE Trans. Power
Systems, pp. 786-792, 2003.

This paper discusses and compares different control techniques for damping undesirable
interarea oscillation in power systems by means of power system stabilizers (PSS), static VAr
compensators (SVCs), and shunt static synchronous compensators (STATCOMs). The
oscillation problem is analyzed from the point of view of Hopf bifurcations, an "extended"
eigen analysis to study different controllers, their locations, and the use of various control
signals for the effective damping of these oscillations

[6] A. M. Simões, D. C. Savelli, P. C. Pellanda, N. Martins, and P. Apkarian, "Robust design

of a TCSC oscillation damping controller in a weak 500- kV interconnection considering
multiple power flow scenarios and external disturbances," IEEE Trans. power systems, vol.
24, pp. 226-236, 2009

The power oscillation damping (POD) controllers implemented in the two thyristor controlled
series compensators of the Brazilian North-South (NS) interconnection, in the year 1999,
were solely intended to damp the low-frequency NS oscillation mode. These controllers are
still under operation and are derived from the modulus of the active power flow in the NS
line that is phase-lagged at the frequency of the NS mode and may experience relatively large
excursions generated by exogenous disturbances. This paper utilizes the same 1999 data to
compare the performance of a proposed robust POD controller design with those of two
conventional designs. A recent robust control synthesis algorithm used in this work is based
on a nonsmooth optimization technique and has the capability to handle various controller
structures, including reduced-order, and to deal with time-domain constraints on both
controlled and measured outputs. Moreover, the nonsmooth design technique encompasses
multiple operating conditions subject to various test signals, hence building a truly time-
domain multi-scenarios approach. According to the results discussed hereafter, this is a key
advantage in the industrial context of increasing demand for performance and robustness. The
described results relate to a large-scale system model used in the feasibility studies for that
interconnection.

5
[7] S. Arabi, H. Hamadanizadeh, and B. B. Fardanesh, "Convertible static compensator
performance studies on the NY state transmission system," IEEE Trans. Power Systems, vol.
17, pp. 701-706, 2002.

New York Power Authority is installing a new flexible AC transmission system (FACTS)
controller, known as the convertible static compensator (CSC), at Marcy 345 kV substation.
Two 100 MVA converters are installed. Through one 200 MVA shunt and two 100 MVA
series transformers, the converters may be connected to each other and to the system in 11
different configurations. This arrangement of the converters allows STATCOM, SSSC,
UPFC, or IPFC deployment at the bus and two of the lines exiting the substation, namely,
Marcy-Coopers Corners and Marcy-New Scotland 345 kV lines. Voltage, small signal, and
transient stability simulations are conducted using the developed models of these
configurations within the user-defined capability of the EPRI's power system analysis
package. The focus of the studies is on finding out which configuration of the CSC provides
the highest performance improvement from all stability points of view. Modulation controls
are designed to improve inter-area oscillation damping. In general, all CSC configurations
improve voltage, small signal, and transient stability margins of the system. The performance
of the individual devices resulting from CSC configurations and their capabilities in the
studied cases is presented. It is shown that the CSC in conjunction with three fixed capacitor
banks at three other substations can increase the system power transfer limit by up to 310
MW.

[8] R. Shah, N. Mithulananthan, R. Bansal, and V. Ramachandaramurthy, "A review of key

power system stability challenges for large-scale PV integration," Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, vol. 41, pp. 1423-1436, 2015

Global warming is the main driving force behind worldwide interest for the generation of
bulk electrical energy from renewable sources. As a consequence of advancements in solar
cell fabrication and converter technology, solar PV has emerged as one of the most promising
renewable sources for bulk power generation. If the current commissioning rate continues,
PV power would lead to the modification of several aspects of power system and could
influence the stability of the system. This paper extensively reviews the technical challenges,
on particular, the stability issues associated with the integration of large-scale PV into the
power system. In addition, the paper also reviews the dynamic model of large-scale PV for
stability studies as well as the grid codes for large-scale PV integration into the system.

6
Finally, this paper summarizes the research findings about the technical solutions to
overcome the power system stability challenges regarding the large-scale PV integration into
the transmission and sub-transmission or medium voltage distribution system.

7
 CHAPTER-3
POWER QUALITY
3.1Power Quality Problems
This IEEE defined power quality disturbances shown in this paper have been organized
into seven categories based on wave shape:

1. Transients.
2. Interruptions.
3. Sag / under voltage.
4. Swell / Overvoltage.
5. Waveform distortion.
6. Voltage fluctuations.
7. Frequency variations.

3.1.1 Transients:
Potentially the most damaging type of power disturbance, transients fall into two
subcategories:
1. Impulsive
2. Oscillatory

 Impulsive:
Impulsive transients are sudden high peak events that raise the voltage and/or current
levels in either a positive or a negative direction. These types of events can be categorized
further by the speed at which they occur (fast, medium and slow). Impulsive transients can
be very fast events (5 nanoseconds [ns] rise time from steady state to the peak of the impulse)
of short-term duration (less than 50 ns).
Note: [1000 ns = 1 µs] [1000 µs = 1 ms] [1000 ms = 1 second]
One example of a positive impulsive transient caused by electrostatic discharge (ESD)
event is illustrated in Figure 3.1(a)

8
 Figure 3.1(a): Positive Impulsive Transient

Causes of impulsive transients include lightning, poor grounding, the switching of

inductive loads, utility fault clearing and ESD (Electrostatic Discharge). The results can range
from the loss (or corruption) of data to physical damage of equipment. Of these causes,
lightning is probably the most damaging.

 Oscillatory:
An oscillatory transient is a sudden change in the steady-state condition of a signal's
voltage, current or both at the positive and negative signal limits oscillating at the natural
system frequency. In simple terms the transient causes the power signal to alternately swell
and then shrink very rapidly. Oscillatory transients usually decay to zero within a cycle (a
decaying oscillation).
These transients occur when you turn off an inductive or capacitive load such as a
motor or capacitor bank. An oscillatory transient results because the load resists the change.
This is similar to what happens when you suddenly turn off a rapidly flowing faucet and
hear a hammering noise in the pipes. The flowing water resists the change and the fluid
equivalent of an oscillatory transient occurs.
For example upon turning off a spinning motor it acts briefly as a generator as it
powers down, thereby producing electricity and sending it through the electrical distribution.
A long electrical distribution system can act like an oscillator when power is switched on or
off, because all circuits have some inherent inductance and distributed capacitance that
briefly energizes in a decaying form.

9
 Figure 3.1(b): Oscillatory Transient

When oscillatory transients appear on an energized circuit, usually because of utility

switching operations (especially when capacitor banks are automatically switched into the
system), they can be quite disruptive to electronic equipment. Figure 3.1(b) shows a typical
low frequency Oscillatory Transient attributable to capacitor banks being energized.

3.1.2. Interruptions:
An interruption is defined as the complete loss of supply voltage or load current.
Depending on its duration, an interruption is categorized as instantaneous, momentary,
temporary, or sustained.
Types
a) Instantaneous 0.5 to 30 cycles.
b) Momentary 30 cycles to 2 seconds.
c) Temporary 2 seconds to 2 minutes.
d) Sustained greater than 2 minutes.
Solutions to help against interruptions vary, both in effectiveness and cost. The first effort
should go into eliminating or reducing the likelihood of potential problems. Good design and
maintenance of utility systems are, of course, essential. This also applies to the industrial
customer's system design, which is often as extensive and vulnerable as the utility system.

3.1.3. Sag / under voltage:

Sag is a reduction of AC voltage at a given frequency for the duration of 0.5 cycles to
1 minute’s time. Sags are usually caused by system faults, and are also often the result of
switching on loads with heavy start-up currents. Some of the same techniques that were used
to address interruptions can be utilized to address voltage sags: UPS equipment, motor

10
generators, and system design techniques. However, sometimes the damage being caused by
sags is not apparent until the results are seen over time.

Figure 3.1.3: Voltage Sag

Under voltages are the results of long-term problems that create sags. The term
“brownout” has been commonly used to describe this problem, and has been super ceded by
the term under voltage. Under-voltages can create overheating in motors, and can lead to the
failure of nonlinear loads such as computer power supplies. The solution for sags also applies
to under-voltages. More importantly, if an under voltage remains constant, it may be a sign of
a serious equipment fault, configuration problem, or that the utility supply needs to be
addressed.

3.1.4. Swell / Overvoltage:

A swell is the reverse form of sag, having an increase in AC voltage for duration of
0.5 cycles to 1 minute’s time. For swells, high-impedance neutral connections, sudden
(especially large) load reductions, and a single-phase fault on a three-phase system are
common sources. The result can be data errors, flickering of lights, degradation of electrical
contacts, semiconductor damage in electronics, and insulation degradation. Power line
conditioners, UPS systems, and Ferro resonant "control" transformers are common solutions.

Figure 3.1.4: Voltage Swell

11
3.1.5. Waveform Distortion:

There are five primary types of waveform distortion:

a).DC offset

b).Harmonics

c).Inter-harmonics

d).Notching

e).Noise

a. DC offset:
Direct current (dc) can be induced into an AC distribution system, often due to failure
of rectifiers within the many ac to dc conversion technologies that have proliferated modern
equipment. DC can traverse the ac power system and add unwanted current to devices
already operating at their rated level. When a transformer saturates, it not only gets hot, but
also is unable to deliver full power to the load, and the subsequent waveform distortion can
create further instability.

b. Harmonics:
Harmonic distortion is the corruption of the fundamental sine wave at frequencies that
are multiples of the fundamental. Symptoms of harmonic problems include overheated
transformers, neutral conductors, and other electrical distribution equipment, as well as the
tripping of circuit breakers and loss of synchronization on timing circuits that are dependent
upon a clean sine wave trigger at the zero crossover point.

Harmonic distortion has been a significant problem with IT equipment in the past, due
to the nature of switch-mode power supplies (SMPS). These non-linear loads, and many other
capacitive designs, instead of drawing current over each full half cycle, “sip” power at each
positive and negative peak of the voltage wave. The return current, because it is only short-
term, (approximately 1/3 of a cycle) combines on the neutral with all other returns from
SMPS using each of the three phases in the typical distribution system. Instead of subtracting,
the pulsed neutral currents add together, creating very high neutral currents, at a theoretical
maximum of 1.73 times the maximum phase current. An overloaded neutral can lead to
extremely high voltages on the legs of the distribution power, leading to heavy damage to
attached equipment. At the same time, the load for these multiple SMPS is drawn at the very

12
peaks of each voltage half-cycle, which has often led to transformer saturation and
consequent overheating. Other loads contributing to this problem are variable speed motor
drives, lighting ballasts and large legacy UPS systems. Methods used to mitigate this problem
have included over-sizing the neutral conductors, installing K-rated transformers, and
harmonic filters.

Spurred on by the remarkable expansion of the IT industry over the last decade,
power supply design for IT equipment has been upgraded via international standards. One
major change compensates for electrical infrastructure stresses caused, in the recent past, by
large clusters of IT equipment power supplies contributing to excessive harmonic currents
within a facility. Many new IT equipment power supplies have been designed with power-
factor corrected power supplies operating as linear, non-harmonic loads. These power
supplies do not produce the waste current of harmonics.

3.1.6. Voltage Fluctuations:

Since voltage fluctuations are fundamentally different from the rest of the waveform
anomalies, they are placed in their own category. A Voltage fluctuation is a systematic
variation of the voltage waveform or a series of random voltage changes, of small
dimensions, namely 95 to 105% of nominal at a low frequency, generally below 25 Hz.

Figure 3.1.6: Voltage Fluctuations

Any load exhibiting significant current variations can cause voltage fluctuations. Arc
furnaces are the most common cause of voltage fluctuation on the transmission and
distribution system. One symptom of this problem is flickering of incandescent lamps.
Removing the offending load, relocating the sensitive equipment, or installing power line
conditioning or UPS devices, are methods to resolve this problem.

13
3.1.7. Frequency Variations:
Frequency variation (Figure 3.1.7) is extremely rare in stable utility power systems,
especially systems interconnected via a power grid. Where sites have dedicated standby
generators or poor power infrastructure, frequency variation is more common especially if
the generator is heavily loaded. IT equipment is frequency tolerant, and generally not
affected by minor shifts in local generator frequency. What would be affected would be any
motor device or sensitive device that relies on steady regular cycling of power over time.
Frequency variations may cause a motor to run faster or slower to match the frequency of the
input power. This would cause the motor to run inefficiently and/or lead to added heat and
degradation of the motor through increased motor speed and/or additional current draw.

Figure 3.1.7: Frequency Variations

To correct this problem, all generated power sources and other power sources causing
the frequency variation should be assessed, then repaired, corrected, or replaced.

3.2Solutions to Power Quality Problems:

There are two approaches to the mitigation of power quality problems. The solution to
the power quality can be done from customer side or from utility side. First approach is called
load conditioning, which ensures that the equipment is less sensitive to power disturbances,
allowing the operation even under significant voltage distortion. The other solution is to
install line conditioning systems that suppress or counteracts the power system disturbances.
A flexible and versatile solution to voltage quality problems is offered by active power filters.
Currently they are based on PWM converters and connect to low and medium voltage
distribution system in shunt or in series. Series active power filters must operate in
conjunction with shunt passive filters in order to compensate load current harmonics. Shunt
active power filters operate as a controllable current source and series active power filters
operates as a controllable voltage source. Both schemes are implemented preferable with
voltage source PWM inverters, with a dc bus having a reactive element such as a capacitor.

14
Active power filters can perform one or more of the functions required to compensate power
systems and improving power quality. Their performance also depends on the power rating
and the speed of response.

Solutions will play a major role in improving the inherent supply quality; some of the
effective and economic measures can be identified as following:

A. Lightening and Surge Arresters:

Arresters are designed for lightening protection of transformers, but are not
sufficiently voltage limiting for protecting sensitive electronic con trol circuits from voltage
surges.

B. Thyristor Based Static Switches:

The static switch is a versatile device for switching a new element into the circuit
when the voltage support is needed. It has a dynamic response time of about one cycle. To
correct quickly for voltage spikes, sags or interruptions, the static switch can used to switch
one or more of devices such as capacitor, filter, alternate power line, energy storage systems
etc. The static switch can be used in the alternate power line applications. This scheme
requires two independent power lines from the utility or could be from utility and localized
power generation like those in case of distributed generating systems [4]. Such a scheme can
protect up to about 85 % of interruptions and voltage sags.

C. Energy Storage Systems:

Storage systems can be used to protect sensitive production equipment from
shutdowns caused by voltage sags or momentary interruptions. These are usually DC storage
systems such as UPS, batteries, superconducting magnet energy storage (SMES), storage
capacitors or even fly wheels driving DC generators [6]. The output of these devices can be
supplied to the system through an inverter on a momentary basis by a fast acting electronic
switch. Enough energy is fed to the system to compensate for the energy that would be lost
by the voltage sag or interruption. In case of utility supply backed by a localized generation
this can be even better accomplished.

C. Electronic tap changing transformer:

A voltage-regulating transformer with an electronic load tap changer can be used with
a single line from the utility. It can regulate the voltage drops up to 50% and requires a stiff

15
system (short circuit power to load ratio of 10:1 or better). It can have the provision of coarse
or smooth steps intended for occasional voltage variations.

D. Harmonic Filters:
Filters are used in some instances to effectively reduce or eliminate certain harmonics.
If possible, it is always preferable to use a 12-pluse or higher transformer connection, rather
than a filter. Tuned harmonic filters should be used with caution and avoided when possible.
Usually, multiple filters are needed, each tuned to a separate harmonic. Each filter causes a
parallel resonance as well as a series resonance, and each filter slightly changes the
resonances of other filters.

E. Constant-Voltage Transformers:
For many power quality studies, it is possible to greatly improve the sag and
momentary interruption tolerance of a facility by protecting control circuits. Constant voltage
transformer (CVTs) can be used on control circuits to provide constant voltage with three
cycle ride through, or relays and ac contactors can be provided with electronic coil hold-in
devices to prevent mis-operation from either low or interrupted voltage.

F. Digital-Electronic and Intelligent Controllers for Load-Frequency

Control:
Frequency of the supply power is one of the major determinants of power quality,
which affects the equipment performance very drastically. Even the major system
components such as Turbine life and interconnected-grid control are directly affected by
power frequency. Load frequency controller used specifically for governing power frequency
under varying loads must be fast enough to make adjustments against any deviation. In
countries like India and other countries of developing world, still use the controllers which
are based either or mechanical or electrical devices with inherent dead time and delays and at
times also suffer from ageing and associated effects. In future perspective, such controllers
can be replaced by their Digital -electronic counterparts.

16
 CHAPTER-4
FACTS CONTROLLERS

4.1 Introduction

Flexible AC Transmission Systems, called FACTS, got in the recent years a well
known term for higher controllability in power systems by means of power electronic
devices. Several FACTS-devices have been introduced for various applications worldwide. A
number of new types of devices are in the stage of being introduced in practice.

In most of the applications the controllability is used to avoid cost intensive or

landscape requiring extensions of power systems, for instance like upgrades or additions of
substations and power lines. FACTS-devices provide a better adaptation to varying
operational conditions and improve the usage of existing installations. The basic applications
of FACTS-devices are:

• Power flow control,

• Increase of transmission capability,

• Voltage control,

• Reactive power compensation,

• Stability improvement,

• Power quality improvement,

• Power conditioning,

• Flicker mitigation,

• Interconnection of renewable and distributed generation and storages.

Figure 4.1 shows the basic idea of FACTS for transmission systems. The usage of
lines for active power transmission should be ideally up to the thermal limits. Voltage and
stability limits shall be shifted with the means of the several different FACTS devices. It can
be seen that with growing line length, the opportunity for FACTS devices gets more and
more important.

17
 The influence of FACTS-devices is achieved through switched or controlled shunt
compensation, series compensation or phase shift control. The devices work electrically as
fast current, voltage or impedance controllers. The power electronic allows very short
reaction times down to far below one second.

Figure 4.1 Operational limits of transmission lines for different voltage levels

The development of FACTS-devices has started with the growing capabilities of

power electronic components. Devices for high power levels have been made available in
converters for high and even highest voltage levels. The overall starting points are network
elements influencing the reactive power or the impedance of a part of the power system.
Figure 1.2 shows a number of basic devices separated into the conventional ones and the
FACTS-devices.

For the FACTS side the taxonomy in terms of 'dynamic' and 'static' needs some
explanation. The term 'dynamic' is used to express the fast controllability of FACTS-devices
provided by the power electronics. This is one of the main differentiation factors from the
conventional devices. The term 'static' means that the devices have no moving parts like
mechanical switches to perform the dynamic controllability. Therefore most of the FACTS-
devices can equally be static and dynamic.

18
 Figure 4.2 Overview of major FACTS-Devices

The left column in Figure 4.2 contains the conventional devices build out of fixed or
mechanically switch able components like resistance, inductance or capacitance together with
transformers. The FACTS-devices contain these elements as well but use additional power
electronic valves or converters to switch the elements in smaller steps or with switching
patterns within a cycle of the alternating current. The left column of FACTS-devices uses
Thyristor valves or converters. These valves or converters are well known since several
years. They have low losses because of their low switching frequency of once a cycle in the
converters or the usage of the Thyristors to simply bridge impedances in the valves.

The right column of FACTS-devices contains more advanced technology of voltage

source converters based today mainly on Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) or
Insulated Gate Commutated Thyristors (IGCT). Voltage Source Converters provide a free
controllable voltage in magnitude and phase due to a pulse width modulation of the IGBTs or
IGCTs. High modulation frequencies allow to get low harmonics in the output signal and
even to compensate disturbances coming from the network. The disadvantage is that with an
increasing switching frequency, the losses are increasing as well. Therefore special designs of
the converters are required to compensate this.

19
4.2 Configurations of FACTS-Devices

4.2.1Shunt Devices

The most used FACTS-device is the SVC or the version with Voltage Source
Converter called STATCOM. These shunt devices are operating as reactive power
compensators. The main applications in transmission, distribution and industrial networks
are:

• Reduction of unwanted reactive power flows and therefore reduced network losses.

• Keeping of contractual power exchanges with balanced reactive power.

• Compensation of consumers and improvement of power quality especially with huge

demand fluctuations like industrial machines, metal melting plants, railway or underground
train systems.

• Compensation of Thyristor converters e.g. in conventional HVDC lines.

• Improvement of static or transient stability.

Almost half of the SVC and more than half of the STATCOMs are used for industrial
applications. Industry as well as commercial and domestic groups of users require power
quality. Flickering lamps are no longer accepted, nor are interruptions of industrial processes
due to insufficient power quality. Railway or underground systems with huge load variations
require SVCs or STATCOMs.

4.2.2SVC

Electrical loads both generate and absorb reactive power. Since the transmitted load
varies considerably from one hour to another, the reactive power balance in a grid varies as
well. The result can be unacceptable voltage amplitude variations or even a voltage
depression, at the extreme a voltage collapse.

A rapidly operating Static Var Compensator (SVC) can continuously provide the
reactive power required to control dynamic voltage oscillations under various system
conditions and thereby improve the power system transmission and distribution stability.

20
4.2.3 Applications of the SVC systems in transmission systems

a. To increase active power transfer capacity and transient stability margin

b. To damp power oscillations

c. To achieve effective voltage control

In addition, SVCs are also used

1. in transmission systems

a. To reduce temporary over voltages

b. To damp sub synchronous resonances

c. To damp power oscillations in interconnected power systems

2. in traction systems

a. To balance loads

b. To improve power factor

c. To improve voltage regulation

3. In HVDC systems

a. To provide reactive power to ac–dc converters

4. In arc furnaces

a. To reduce voltage variations and associated light flicker

Installing an SVC at one or more suitable points in the network can increase transfer
capability and reduce losses while maintaining a smooth voltage profile under different
network conditions. In addition an SVC can mitigate active power oscillations through
voltage amplitude modulation.

SVC installations consist of a number of building blocks. The most important is the
Thyristor valve, i.e. stack assemblies of series connected anti-parallel Thyristors to provide
controllability. Air core reactors and high voltage AC capacitors are the reactive power
elements used together with the Thyristor valves. The step up connection of this equipment to
the transmission voltage is achieved through a power transformer.

21
 Figure 4.3 SVC building blocks and voltage / current characteristics

In principle the SVC consists of Thyristor Switched Capacitors (TSC) and Thyristor
Switched or Controlled Reactors (TSR / TCR). The coordinated control of a combination of
these branches varies the reactive power as shown in Figure. The first commercial SVC was
installed in 1972 for an electric arc furnace. On transmission level the first SVC was used in
1979. Since then it is widely used and the most accepted FACTS-device.

Figure 4.4 SVC using in transmission system

22
4.2.4 SVC using a TCR and an FC

In this arrangement, two or more FC (fixed capacitor) banks are connected to a TCR
(thyristor controlled reactor) through a step-down transformer. The rating of the reactor is
chosen larger than the rating of the capacitor by an amount to provide the maximum lagging
vars that have to be absorbed from the system. By changing the firing angle of the thyristor
controlling the reactor from 90° to 180°, the reactive power can be varied over the entire
range from maximum lagging vars to leading vars that can be absorbed from the system by
this compensator,

Figure 4.5 SVCusing a TCR AND an FC

4.2.5SVC of the FC/TCR type

The main disadvantage of this configuration is the significant harmonics that will be
generated because of the partial conduction of the large reactor under normal sinusoidal
steady-state operating condition when the SVC is absorbing zero MVAR. These harmonics
are filtered in the following manner. Triplex harmonics are canceled by arranging the TCR
and the secondary windings of the step-down transformer in delta connection. The capacitor
banks with the help of series reactors are tuned to filter fifth, seventh, and other higher-order
harmonics as a high-pass filter. Further losses are high due to the circulating current between
the reactor and capacitor banks.

23
 Figure 4.6 Comparison of the loss characteristics of TSC–TCR, TCR–FC compensators and
synchronous condenser

These SVCs do not have a short-time overload capability because the reactors are
usually of the air-core type. In applications requiring overload capability, TCR must be
designed for short-time overloading, or separate thyristor-switched overload reactors must be
employed.

4.2.6SVC using a TCR and TSC

This compensator overcomes two major shortcomings of the earlier compensators by

reducing losses under operating conditions and better performance under large system
disturbances. In view of the smaller rating of each capacitor bank, the rating of the reactor
bank will be 1/n times the maximum output of the SVC, thus reducing the harmonics
generated by the reactor. In those situations where harmonics have to be reduced further, a
small amount of FCs tuned as filters may be connected in parallel with the TCR.

4.3 STATCOM

In 1999 the first SVC with Voltage Source Converter called STATCOM
(STATicCOMpensator) went into operation. The STATCOM has a characteristic similar to
the synchronous condenser, but as an electronic device it has no inertia and is superior to the
synchronous condenser in several ways, such as better dynamics, a lower investment cost and
lower operating and maintenance costs. A STATCOM is build with Thyristors with turn-off
capability like GTO or today IGCT or with more and more IGBTs. The static line between
the current limitations has a certain steepness determining the control characteristic for the
voltage.

24
 The advantage of a STATCOM is that the reactive power provision is independent
from the actual voltage on the connection point. This can be seen in the diagram for the
maximum currents being independent of the voltage in comparison to the SVC. This means,
that even during most severe contingencies, the STATCOM keeps its full capability.

In the distributed energy sector the usage of Voltage Source Converters for grid
interconnection is common practice today. The next step in STATCOM development is the
combination with energy storages on the DC-side. The performance for power quality and
balanced network operation can be improved much more with the combination of active and
reactive power.

Figure 4.7 STATCOM structure and voltage / current characteristics

STATCOMs are based on Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC) topology and utilize
either Gate-Turn-off Thyristors (GTO) or Isolated Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBT) devices.
The STATCOM is a very fast acting, electronic equivalent of a synchronous condenser. If the
STATCOM voltage, Vs, (which is proportional to the dc bus voltage Vc) is larger than bus
voltage, Es, then leading or capacitive VARS are produced. If Vs is smaller then Es then
lagging or inductive VARS are produced.

25
 Figure 4.8 six pulses STATCOM

4.3.1. 6 Pulses STATCOM

The three phases STATCOM makes use of the fact that on a three phase, fundamental
frequency, steady state basis, and the instantaneous power entering a purely reactive device
must be zero. The reactive power in each phase is supplied by circulating the instantaneous
real power between the phases. This is achieved by firing the GTO/diode switches in a
manner that maintains the phase difference between the ac bus voltage ES and the
STATCOM generated voltage VS. Ideally it is possible to construct a device based on
circulating instantaneous power which has no energy storage device (ie no dc capacitor).

A practical STATCOM requires some amount of energy storage to accommodate

harmonic power and ac system unbalances, when the instantaneous real power is non-zero.
The maximum energy storage required for the STATCOM is much less than for a TCR/TSC
type of SVC compensator of comparable rating.

Figure 4.8 STATCOM Equivalent Circuit

Several different control techniques can be used for the firing control of the
STATCOM. Fundamental switching of the GTO/diode once per cycle can be used. This
approach will minimize switching losses, but will generally utilize more complex transformer
topologies. As an alternative, Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) techniques, which turn on and

26
off the GTO or IGBT switch more than once per cycle, can be used. This approach allows for
simpler transformer topologies at the expense of higher switching losses.

The 6 Pulse STATCOM using fundamental switching will of course produce the 6
N 1 harmonics. There are a variety of methods to decrease the harmonics. These methods
include the basic 12 pulse configuration with parallel star / delta transformer connections, a
complete elimination of 5th and 7th harmonic current using series connection of star/star and
star/delta transformers and a quasi 12 pulse method with a single star-star transformer, and
two secondary windings, using control of firing angle to produce a 30 degrees phase shift
between the two 6 pulse bridges. This method can be extended to produce a 24 pulse and a 48
pulse STATCOM, thus eliminating harmonics even further. Another possible approach for
harmonic cancellation is a multi-level configuration which allows for more than one
switching element per level and therefore more than one switching in each bridge arm. The ac
voltage derived has a staircase effect, dependent on the number of levels. This staircase
voltage can be controlled to eliminate harmonics

4.4 Series Devices

Series devices have been further developed from fixed or mechanically switched
compensations to the Thyristor Controlled Series Compensation (TCSC) or even Voltage Source
Converter based devices.

The main applications are:

• Reduction of series voltage decline in magnitude and angle over a power line,

• Reduction of voltage fluctuations within defined limits during changing power

transmissions,

• Improvement of system damping resp. damping of oscillations,

• Limitation of short circuit currents in networks or substations,

• Avoidance of loop flows resp. power flow adjustments.

4.4.1 TCSC

Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitors (TCSC) address specific dynamical problems

in transmission systems. Firstly it increases damping when large electrical systems are

27
interconnected. Secondly it can overcome the problem of Sub Synchronous Resonance
(SSR), a phenomenon that involves an interaction between large thermal generating units and
series compensated transmission systems.

The TCSC's high speed switching capability provides a mechanism for controlling
line power flow, which permits increased loading of existing transmission lines, and allows
for rapid readjustment of line power flow in response to various contingencies. The TCSC
also can regulate steady-state power flow within its rating limits.

From a principal technology point of view, the TCSC resembles the conventional
series capacitor. All the power equipment is located on an isolated steel platform, including
the Thyristor valve that is used to control the behavior of the main capacitor bank. Likewise
the control and protection is located on ground potential together with other auxiliary
systems. Figure shows the principle setup of a TCSC and its operational diagram. The firing
angle and the thermal limits of the Thyristors determine the boundaries of the operational
diagram.

Advantages

 Continuous control of desired compensation level

 Direct smooth control of power flow within the network

 Improved capacitor bank protection

 Local mitigation of sub synchronous resonance (SSR). This permits higher levels of
compensation in networks where interactions with turbine-generator torsional
vibrations or with other control or measuring systems are of concern.

 Damping of electromechanical (0.5-2 Hz) power oscillations which often arise

between areas in a large interconnected power network. These oscillations are due to
the dynamics of inter area power transfer and often exhibit poor damping when the
aggregate power tranfer over a corridor is high relative to the transmission strength.

28
4.5 Shunt And Series Devices

4.5.1 Dynamic Power Flow Controller

A new device in the area of power flow control is the Dynamic Power Flow Controller
(DFC). The DFC is a hybrid device between a Phase Shifting Transformer (PST) and
switched series compensation.

A functional single line diagram of the Dynamic Flow Controller is shown in Figure 1.19.
The Dynamic Flow Controller consists of the following components:

• a standard phase shifting transformer with tap-changer (PST)

• series-connected Thyristor Switched Capacitors and Reactors (TSC / TSR)

• A mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC). (This is optional depending on the system
reactive power requirements

Figure 4.9 Principle configuration of DFC

Based on the system requirements, a DFC might consist of a number of series TSC or
TSR. The mechanically switched shunt capacitor (MSC) will provide voltage support in case
of overload and other conditions. Normally the reactance of reactors and the capacitors are
selected based on a binary basis to result in a desired stepped reactance variation. If a higher
power flow resolution is needed, a reactance equivalent to the half of the smallest one can be
added.

The switching of series reactors occurs at zero current to avoid any harmonics.
However, in general, the principle of phase-angle control used in TCSC can be applied for a
continuous control as well. The operation of a DFC is based on the following rules:

• TSC / TSR are switched when a fast response is required.

29
• The relieve of overload and work in stressed situations is handled by the TSC / TSR.

• The switching of the PST tap-changer should be minimized particularly for the currents
higher than normal loading.

• The total reactive power consumption of the device can be optimized by the operation of the
MSC, tap changer and the switched capacities and reactors.

In order to visualize the steady state operating range of the DFC, we assume an
inductance in parallel representing parallel transmission paths. The overall control objective
in steady state would be to control the distribution of power flow between the branch with the
DFC and the parallel path. This control is accomplished by control of the injected series
voltage.

The PST (assuming a quadrature booster) will inject a voltage in quadrature with the
node voltage. The controllable reactance will inject a voltage in quadrature with the
throughput current. Assuming that the power flow has a load factor close to one, the two parts
of the series voltage will be close to collinear. However, in terms of speed of control,
influence on reactive power balance and effectiveness at high/low loading the two parts of the
series voltage has quite different characteristics. The steady state control range for loadings
up to rated current is illustrated in Figure 4.10, where the x-axis corresponds to the
throughput current and the y-axis corresponds to the injected series voltage.

Fig4.10. Operational diagram of a DFC

Operation in the first and third quadrants corresponds to reduction of power through
the DFC, whereas operation in the second and fourth quadrants corresponds to increasing the

30
power flow through the DFC. The slope of the line passing through the origin (at which the
tap is at zero and TSC / TSR are bypassed) depends on the short circuit reactance of the PST.

Starting at rated current (2 kA) the short circuit reactance by itself provides an
injected voltage (approximately 20 kV in this case). If more inductance is switched in and/or
the tap is increased, the series voltage increases and the current through the DFC decreases
(and the flow on parallel branches increases). The operating point moves along lines parallel
to the arrows in the figure. The slope of these arrows depends on the size of the parallel
reactance. The maximum series voltage in the first quadrant is obtained when all inductive
steps are switched in and the tap is at its maximum.

Now, assuming maximum tap and inductance, if the throughput current decreases
(due e.g. to changing loading of the system) the series voltage will decrease. At zero current,
it will not matter whether the TSC / TSR steps are in or out, they will not contribute to the
series voltage. Consequently, the series voltage at zero current corresponds to rated PST
series voltage. Next, moving into the second quadrant, the operating range will be limited by
the line corresponding to maximum tap and the capacitive step being switched in (and the
inductive steps by-passed). In this case, the capacitive step is approximately as large as the
short circuit reactance of the PST, giving an almost constant maximum voltage in the second
quadrant.

4.5.2 Unified Power Flow Controller

The UPFC is a combination of a static compensator and static series compensation. It acts as a
shunt compensating and a phase shifting device simultaneously.

Fig4.11. Principle configuration of an UPFC

The UPFC consists of a shunt and a series transformer, which are connected via two
voltage source converters with a common DC-capacitor. The DC-circuit allows the active
power exchange between shunt and series transformer to control the phase shift of the series
voltage. This setup, as shown in Figure 4.11, provides the full controllability for voltage and

31
power flow. The series converter needs to be protected with a Thyristor bridge. Due to the
high efforts for the Voltage Source Converters and the protection, an UPFC is getting quite
expensive, which limits the practical applications where the voltage and power flow control is
required simultaneously.

Operating principle of UPFC

The basic components of the UPFC are two voltage source inverters (VSIs) sharing a
common dc storage capacitor, and connected to the power system through coupling
transformers. One VSI is connected to in shunt to the transmission system via a shunt
transformer, while the other one is connected in series through a series transformer.

Figure 4.12 A basic UPFC functional scheme

The series inverter is controlled to inject a symmetrical three phase voltage system
(Vse), of controllable magnitude and phase angle in series with the line to control active and
reactive power flows on the transmission line. So, this inverter will exchange active and
reactive power with the line. The reactive power is electronically provided by the series
inverter, and the active power is transmitted to the dc terminals. The shunt inverter is
operated in such a way as to demand this dc terminal power (positive or negative) from the
line keeping the voltage across the storage capacitor Vdc constant. So, the net real power
absorbed from the line by the UPFC is equal only to the losses of the inverters and their
transformers. The remaining capacity of the shunt inverter can be used to exchange reactive
power with the line so to provide a voltage regulation at the connection point.

32
 The two VSI’s can work independently of each other by separating the dc side. So in
that case, the shunt inverter is operating as a STATCOM that generates or absorbs reactive
power to regulate the voltage magnitude at the connection point. Instead, the series inverter is
operating as SSSC that generates or absorbs reactive power to regulate the current flow, and
hence the power low on the transmission line.

The UPFC has many possible operating modes. In particular, the shunt inverter is operating
in such a way to inject a controllable current, ish into the transmission line. The shunt inverter
can be controlled in two different modes:

VAR Control Mode: The reference input is an inductive or capacitive VAR request. The
shunt inverter control translates the var reference into a corresponding shunt current request
and adjusts gating of the inverter to establish the desired current. For this mode of control a
feedback signal representing the dc bus voltage, Vdc, is also required.

Automatic Voltage Control Mode: The shunt inverter reactive current is automatically
regulated to maintain the transmission line voltage at the point of connection to a reference
value. For this mode of control, voltage feedback signals are obtained from the sending end
bus feeding the shunt coupling transformer.

The series inverter controls the magnitude and angle of the voltage injected in series with the
line to influence the power flow on the line. The actual value of the injected voltage can be
obtained in several ways.

Direct Voltage Injection Mode: The reference inputs are directly the magnitude and phase
angle of the series voltage.

Phase Angle Shifter Emulation mode: The reference input is phase displacement between the
sending end voltage and the receiving end voltage. Line Impedance Emulation mode: The
reference input is an impedance value to insert in series with the line impedance

Automatic Power Flow Control Mode: The reference inputs are values of P and Q to maintain
on the transmission line despite system changes.

4.5.3Unified power quality conditioner

The provision of both DSTATCOM and DVR can control the power quality of the
source current and the load bus voltage. In addition, if the DVR and STATCOM are
connected on the DC side, the DC bus voltage can be regulated by the shunt connected

33
DSTATCOM while the DVR supplies the required energy to the load in case of the transient
disturbances in source voltage. The configuration of such a device (termed as Unified Power
Quality Conditioner (UPQC)) is shown in Fig4.13. This is a versatile device similar to a
UPFC. However, the control objectives of a UPQC are quite different from that of a UPFC.

Figure 4.13 A basic UPQC functional scheme

Control objectives of UPQC

The shunt connected converter has the following control objectives

1. To balance the source currents by injecting negative and zero sequence components
required by the load

2. The compensate for the harmonics in the load current by injecting the required harmonic
currents

3. To control the power factor by injecting the required reactive current (at fundamental
frequency)

4. To regulate the DC bus voltage.

The series connected converter has the following control objectives

1. To balance the voltages at the load bus by injecting negative and zero sequence voltages to
compensate for those present in the source.

2. To isolate the load bus from harmonics present in the source voltages, by injecting the
harmonic voltages

34
3. To regulate the magnitude of the load bus voltage by injecting the required active and
reactive components (at fundamental frequency) depending on the power factor on the source
side

4. To control the power factor at the input port of the UPQC (where the source is connected.
Note that the power factor at the output port of the UPQC (connected to the load) is
controlled by the shunt converter.

Operation of UPQC

Figure 4.14 equivalent circuit of UPQC

The operation of a UPQC can be explained from the analysis of the idealized equivalent
circuit shown in Fig. 4.14. Here, the series converter is represented by a voltage source VC
and the shunt converter is represented by a current source IC. Note that all the currents and
voltages are 3 dimensional vectors with phase coordinates. Unlike in the case of a UPFC
(discussed in chapter 8), the voltages and currents may contain negative and zero sequence
components in addition to harmonics. Neglecting losses in the converters, we get the relation

…………………….4.1

where X,Ydenote the inner product of two vectors, defined by

Let the load current IL and the source voltage VS be decomposed into two
Components given by

35
 … ..……………………….4.2

Where I1pLcontains only positive sequence, fundamental frequency components. Similar

comments apply to V 1ps .IrL and V rS contain rest of the load current and the source voltage
including harmonics. I1pL is not unique and depends on the power factor at the load bus.
However, the following relation applies for I1p L .

…………………………..4.3

This implies that IrL ;VLi = 0. Thus, the fundamental frequency, positive sequence
component in IrL does not contribute to the active power in the load. To meet the control
objectives, the desired load voltages and source currents must contain only positive sequence,
fundamental frequency components and

……………………..4.4

where V * L and I*S are the reference quantities for the load bus voltage and the source
current respectively. Ál is the power factor angle at the load bus while Ás is the power factor
angle at the source bus (input port of UPQC). Note that V * L(t) and I*S (t) are sinusoidal
and balanced. If the reference current (I*C ) of the shunt converter and the reference voltage
(V *C) of the series converter are chosen as

……………………………4.5

with the constraint

………………………………..4.6

we have,

………………………………..4.7

Note that the constraint implies that V 1p C is the reactive voltage in quadrature with the

desired source current, I*S . It is easy to derive that .The above

equation shows that for the operating conditions assumed, a UPQC can be viewed as

36
ainaction of a DVR and a STATCOM with no active power °ow through the DC link.
However, if the magnitude of V * L is to be controlled, it may not be feasible to achieve this
by injecting only reactive voltage. The situation gets complicated if V 1p S is not constant,
but changes due to
system disturbances or fault. To ensure the regulation of the load bus voltage it may be
necessary to inject variable active voltage (in phase with the source current). If we express

……………………………..4.8

………………………..4.9

…………………………………..4.10

In deriving the above, we assume that

…………………………………….4.11

This implies that both ¢VC and ¢IC are perturbations involving positive sequence,
fundamental frequency quantities (say, resulting from symmetric voltage sags). the power
balance on the DC side of the shunt and series converter. The perturbation in VC is initiated
to ensure that

…………………………….4.12

Thus, the objective of the voltage regulation at the load bus may require exchange of power
between the shunt and series converters.

37
 CHAPTER-5
MODELLING OF CASE STUDY

5.1 PV STATCOM CONFIGURATION

PV STATCOM is a new design for voltage control with the use of existing PV inverter
device at the PCC and for reactive power compensation. Photovoltaics solar power is
produced by solar radiation through panels during the day. During the night, however,
because of lack of solar radiation they become inactive. For reactive power compensation
such as STATCOM, the entire capacity of PV inverter can be used during the night by
installing a new supplementary controller, which is shown in Fig.1 with the current solar
converter control system.

Fig1. PV system with STATCOM

The current inverter device of PV shown in Fig 2 is connected to a new PV STATCOM

controller. There are two existing control loops in a traditional PV controller. Present control
loops for the D-axis and Q-axis. d axis loop consists of two DC (PI-1, PI-2) controllers which
control DC connection voltage over the DC-Link condenser and which regulate the active
power generation on the input side of the inverter over the day and PI-3 controllers which
regulate reactive power output around zero as a point of reference for the operational unitary
power factor. D axis loops The Q axis loop controlling the response power between the grid

38
and the PCC is linked by comparing the PCC voltage with the voltage reference and
controlling the voltage variance, especially during back power flow, to the PI-4. For
operating PV inverters, the STATCOM for the grid voltage control is connected. Any
inverterbases renewable energy system such as solar, wind, fuel cell etc., can be used as a
STATCOM via this additional control system.

Fig. 2. PV-STATCOM controller POD with fuzzy controller

PV Panels and Inverter:A panel equivalent is described in the aggregated PV panels which
produces PV dc current based on the V-I properties of PV panels. A three-step six-pulse
configuration with an IC-conductor [33] is known to be the aggregated solar farm inverter. A
LCL filter based on links the PV inverter to the grid. The symbols Vpv, Qpv, Ppv, Ipv are the
voltage, reactive reverse power, real power inverter and PCC inverter current.

DC Voltage Controller
Two components are used in the DC link controller; i) the MPPT (Maximum Power Power
Point Tracking) and ii.) the DC link voltage controller. The MPPT block, which uses Vdc and
the Idc for generating Vdc-ref reference voltage, produces IDref to the internal loop
controller during traditional PV operating mode on the basis of the VI characteristic of the
Photovoltaic panels. S1 is changed to the position2 in the STATCOM control mode and
Vdc's DC voltage to the open circuit voltage PV panel is modified to disable the actual power
injection from PV solar panels.

39
5.2 DESIGN OF FUZZY CONTROLLER

The fuzzy method consists of three key phases

(1) Level of input,

(2) Stage and processing

(3) Stage of Output.

The error signal is provided as a feedback to the input process of the Fuzzy controller. The
processing step consists of the membership and the values of truth to minimize the signal of
error. The output stage here defuzzifiers the output volume into the regulated defined output
value.

The configuration of the fuzzy-based logic controller, divided into four:

1) Running.

2) Basis of the law

3) Method of inference

4) Defuzzification.

Currently, due to its basic structure, easy to design and low costs, the PI controller is the most
used for industrial applications. Despite these benefits, if the object is extremely non linear
and unpredictable, the PI controller fails. Thus, when developing a fuzzy logic controller it is
much easier to preserve the advantages of the PI style control system. In this case, the control
output is

Kp∆uf + ki ʃ e dt (5.1)

where kp and ki are the same as the traditional PI controller, and are the FLC output.

40
Fuzzification

Input variables are matched to fuzzy variables in fluzzification. A certain membership

function exists for every fuszified variable. Three sets of fluids are used to float inputs and
output: P (positive), Z (zero) and N (negative), as shown at Fig. 3. Error and derivative error
are the inputs of the fuse controller.

Fig. 4. Membership functions for fuzzy controller.

The positive set's membership feature

0 𝑥𝑖 < 0
xi
μp(xi) = { L 0 ≤ xi ≤ L
1 𝑥𝑖 > 𝐿

Where xi marks the controller fuzzy inputs. The adverse member feature is similarly

1 𝑥𝑖 < −𝐿
−xi
μN(xi) = { − L ≤ xi ≤ 0 (5.2)
L
0 𝑥𝑖 > 0

And the membership feature is zero set:

0 𝑥𝑖 < −𝐿
xi+L
μZ(xi) = { − L ≤ xi ≤ 0 (5.3)
L
−𝑥𝑖+𝐿
0 < 𝑥𝑖 ≤ 𝐿
𝐿

0 xi> L

Inference

41
The control decisions are taken on the basis of the fluctuated variables. Details provide
guidelines to determine production decisions. Table 1 displays the controller's rule base. The
min–max inference is applied to evaluate the level of membership for output variables. The
photo. 2. Fuzzy controller suggested. Proposed.

Fuzzy controller table 1 Rule Base

Defuzzification

In numerical output, the output variables for the fuzzy inference method should be
transformed. Use Zadeh operating rules and general defuzzifier for fuzzy controller output:

∑9𝑖=1 𝜇𝑐(𝜇𝑓)𝜇𝑓
∆uf(k) = ∑9𝑖=1 𝜇𝑐 (𝜇𝑓)
(5.4)

42
 CHAPTER-6
FUZZY LOGIC CONTROLLER

6.1 FUZZY RULE

In recent years, the number and variety of applications of fuzzy logic have increased
significantly. The applications range from consumer products such as cameras, camcorders,
washing machines, and microwave ovens to industrial process control, medical
instrumentation, decision-support systems, and portfolio selection.

To understand why use of fuzzy logic has grown, you must first understand what is
meant by fuzzy logic.

Fuzzy logic has two different meanings. In a narrow sense, fuzzy logic is a logical
system, which is an extension of multivalve logic. However, in a wider sense fuzzy logic
(FL) is almost synonymous with the theory of fuzzy sets, a theory which relates to classes of
objects with unsharp boundaries in which membership is a matter of degree. In this
perspective, fuzzy logic in its narrow sense is a branch of fl. Even in its more narrow
definition, fuzzy logic differs both in concept and substance from traditional multivalve
logical systems.

In fuzzy Logic Toolbox software, fuzzy logic should be interpreted as FL, that is,
fuzzy logic in its wide sense. The basic ideas underlying FL are explained very clearly and
insightfully in Foundations of Fuzzy Logic. What might be added is that the basic concept
underlying FL is that of a linguistic variable, that is, a variable whose values are words rather
than numbers. In effect, much of FL may be viewed as a methodology for computing with
words rather than numbers. Although words are inherently less precise than numbers, their
use is closer to human intuition. Furthermore, computing with words exploits the tolerance
for imprecision and thereby lowers the cost of solution.

Another basic concept in FL, which plays a central role in most of its applications, is
that of a fuzzy if-then rule or, simply, fuzzy rule. Although rule-based systems have a long
history of use in Artificial Intelligence (AI), what is missing in such systems is a mechanism
for dealing with fuzzy consequents and fuzzy antecedents. In fuzzy logic, this mechanism is
provided by the calculus of fuzzy rules. The calculus of fuzzy rules serves as a basis for what
might be called the Fuzzy Dependency and Command Language (FDCL).

43
 Although FDCL is not used explicitly in the toolbox, it is effectively one of its
principal constituents. In most of the applications of fuzzy logic, a fuzzy logic solution is, in
reality, a translation of a human solution into FDCL.

A trend that is growing in visibility relates to the use of fuzzy logic in combination
with neuro computing and genetic algorithms. More generally, fuzzy logic, neuro computing,
and genetic algorithms may be viewed as the principal constituents of what might be called
soft computing. Unlike the traditional, hard computing, soft computing accommodates the
imprecision of the real world.

The guiding principle of soft computing is: Exploit the tolerance for imprecision,
uncertainty, and partial truth to achieve tractability, robustness, and low solution cost. In the
future, soft computing could play an increasingly important role in the conception and design
of systems whose MIQ (Machine IQ) is much higher than that of systems designed by
conventional methods.

Among various combinations of methodologies in soft computing, the one that has
highest visibility at this juncture is that of fuzzy logic and neuro computing, leading to neuro-
fuzzy systems. Within fuzzy logic, such systems play a particularly important role in the
induction of rules from observations. An effective method developed by Dr. Roger Jang for
this purpose is called ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System). This method is an
important component of the toolbox.

The fuzzy logic toolbox is highly impressive in all respects. It makes fuzzy logic an
effective tool for the conception and design of intelligent systems. The fuzzy logic toolbox is
easy to master and convenient to use. And last, but not least important, it provides a reader
friendly and up-to-date introduction to methodology of fuzzy logic and its wide ranging
applications.

6.2 WHAT IS FUZZY LOGIC?

Fuzzy logic is all about the relative importance of precision: How important is it to be
exactly right when a rough answer will do?

You can use Fuzzy Logic Toolbox software with MATLAB technical computing
software as a tool for solving problems with fuzzy logic.

44
 Fuzzy logic is a fascinating area of research because it does a good job of trading off
between significance and precision—something that humans have been managing for a very
long time.

In this sense, fuzzy logic is both old and new because, although the modern and
methodical science of fuzzy logic is still young, the concept of fuzzy logic relies on age-old
skills of human reasoning.

Fig 6.1 fuzzy description

6.2 WHY USE FUZZY LOGIC?

Fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an input space to an output space. Mapping
input to output is the starting point for everything. Consider the following examples:

 With information about how good your service was at a restaurant, a fuzzy logic

system can tell you what the tip should be.

 With your specification of how hot you want the water, a fuzzy logic system can

adjust the faucet valve to the right setting.

45
  With information about how far away the subject of your photograph is, a fuzzy logic

system can focus the lens for you.

 With information about how fast the car is going and how hard the motor is working,

a fuzzy logic system can shift gears for you.

To determine the appropriate amount of tip requires mapping inputs to the

appropriate outputs. Between the input and the output, the preceding figure shows a black
box that can contain any number of things: fuzzy systems, linear systems, expert systems,
neural networks, differential equations, interpolated multidimensional lookup tables, or even
a spiritual advisor, just to name a few of the possible options. Clearly the list could go on and
on.

Of the dozens of ways to make the black box work, it turns out that fuzzy is often the
very best way. Why should that be? As Lotfi Zadeh, who is considered to be the father of
fuzzy logic, once remarked: "In almost every case you can build the same product without
fuzzy logic, but fuzzy is faster and cheaper.".

6.3 WHEN NOT TO USE FUZZY LOGIC?

Fuzzy logic is not a cure-all. When should you not use fuzzy logic? The safest
statement is the first one made in this introduction: fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an
input space to an output space. If you find it's not convenient, try something else. If a simpler
solution already exists, use it. Fuzzy logic is the codification of common sense use common
sense when you implement it and you will probably make the right decision. Many
controllers, for example, do a fine job without using fuzzy logic. However, if you take the
time to become familiar with fuzzy logic, you'll see it can be a very powerful tool for dealing
quickly and efficiently with imprecision and nonlinearity.

46
6.4 WHAT CAN FUZZY LOGIC TOOLBOX SOFTWARE DO?

You can create and edit fuzzy inference systems with Fuzzy Logic Toolbox software.
You can create these systems using graphical tools or command-line functions, or you can
generate them automatically using either clustering or adaptive neuro-fuzzy techniques.

If you have access to Simulink software, you can easily test your fuzzy system in a
block diagram simulation environment.

The toolbox also lets you run your own stand-alone C programs directly. This is made
possible by a stand-alone Fuzzy Inference Engine that reads the fuzzy systems saved from a
matlab session. You can customize the stand-alone engine to build fuzzy inference into your
own code. All provided code is ansi compliant.

Because of the integrated nature of the matlab environment, you can create your own tools to
customize the toolbox or harness it with another toolbox, such as the Control System
Toolbox, Neural Network Toolbox, or Optimization Toolbox software.

6.5 FUZZY LOGIC TOOL BOX:

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox extends the MATLAB technical computing environment
with tools for designing systems based on fuzzy logic. Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) guide
you through the steps of fuzzy inference system design. Functions are provided for many
common fuzzy logic methods, including fuzzy clustering and adaptive neuro fuzzy learning.

The toolbox lets you model complex system behaviors using simple logic rules and
then implements these rules in a fuzzy inference system. You can use the toolbox as a
standalone fuzzy inference engine. Alternatively, you can use fuzzy inference blocks in
simulink and simulate the fuzzy systems within a comprehensive model of the entire dynamic
system

6.6 WORKING WITH THE FUZZY LOGIC TOOLBOX:

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox provides GUIs to let you perform classical fuzzy system
development and pattern recognition. Using the toolbox, you can develop and analyze fuzzy
inference systems, develop adaptive neuro fuzzy inference systems, and perform fuzzy
clustering.

47
 In addition, the toolbox provides a fuzzy controller block that you can use in Simulink
to model and simulate a fuzzy logic control system. From Simulink, you can generate C code
for use in embedded applications that include fuzzy logic.

6.7 BUILDING A FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM:

Fuzzy inference is a method that interprets the values in the input vector and, based on
user defined rules, assigns values to the output vector. Using the GUI editors and viewers in
the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, you can build the rules set, define the membership functions, and
analyze the behavior of a fuzzy inference system (FIS). The following editors and viewers are
provided.

fig 6.2 fuzzy interference system

KEY FEATURES:

■ Specialized GUIs for building fuzzy inference systems and viewing and analyzing results

■ Membership functions for creating fuzzy inference systems

■ Support for AND, OR, and NOT logic in user-defined rules

■ Standard Mamdani and Sugeno-type fuzzy inference systems

■ Automated membership function shaping through neuro adaptive and fuzzy clustering
learning techniques
48
■ Ability to embed a fuzzy inference system in a Simulink model

■Ability to generate embeddable C code or stand-alone executable fuzzy inference engines.

In this section we'll be building a simple tipping example using the graphical user
interface (GUI) tools provided by the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. Although it's possible to use the
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox by working strictly from the command line, in general it's much easier
to build a system graphically. There are five primary GUI tools for building, editing, and
observing fuzzy inference systems in the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. The Fuzzy Inference System
or FIS Editor, the Membership Function Editor, the Rule Editor, the Rule Viewer, and the
Surface Viewer. These GUIs are dynamically linked, in that changes you make to the FIS
using one of them, can affect what you see on any of the other open GUIs. You can have any
or all of them open for any given system. These are shown in Fig.

Fig 6.3 The Primary GUI Tools of the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox

The FIS Editor handles the high level issues for the system: How many input and
output variables? What are their names? The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox doesn't limit the number
of inputs. However, the number of inputs may be limited by the available memory of your
machine. If the number of inputs is too large, or the number of membership functions is too
big, then it may also be difficult to analyze the FIS using the other GUI tools.

49
 The Membership Function Editor is used to define the shapes of all the membership
functions associated with each variable. The Rule Editor is for editing the list of rules that
defines the behavior of the system.

The Rule Viewer and the Surface Viewer are used for looking at, as opposed to
editing, the FIS. They are strictly read-only tools. The Rule Viewer is a matlab-based display
of the fuzzy inference diagram shown at the end of the last section. Used as a diagnostic, it
can show (for example) which rules are active, or how individual membership function
shapes are influencing the results. The Surface Viewer is used to display the dependency of
one of the outputs on any one or two of the inputs that is, it generates and plots an output
surface map for the system.

The five primary GUIs can all interact and exchange information. Any one of them
can read and write both to the workspace and to the disk (the read-only viewers can still
exchange plots with the workspace and/or the disk). For any fuzzy inference system, any or
all of these five GUIs may be open. If more than one of these editors is open for a single
system, the various GUI windows are aware of the existence of the others, and will, if
necessary, update related windows. Thus if the names of the membership functions are
changed using the Membership Function Editor, those changes are reflected in the rules
shown in the Rule Editor. The editors for any number of different FIS systems may be open
simultaneously. The FIS Editor, the Membership Function Editor, and the Rule Editor can all
read and modify the FIS data, but the Rule Viewer and the Surface Viewer do not modify the
FIS data in any way.

We'll start with a basic description of a two-input, one-output tipping problem. The
Basic Tipping Problem. Given a number between 0 and 10 that represents the quality of
service at a restaurant (where 10 is excellent), and another number between 0 and 10 that
represents the quality of the food at that restaurant (again, 10 is excellent), what should the tip
be?

The starting point is to write down the three golden rules of tipping, based on years of
personal experience in restaurants.

50
 1. If the service is poor or the food is rancid, then tip is cheap.

2. If the service is good, then tip is average.

3. If the service is excellent or the food is delicious, then tip is generous.

We'll assume that an average tip is 15%, a generous tip is 25%, and a cheap tip is 5%.
It's also useful to have a vague idea of what the tipping function should look like. A simple
tipping function is shown as in Fig.2. Obviously the numbers and the shape of the curve are
subject to local traditions, cultural bias, and so on, but the three rules are pretty universal.
Now we know the rules, and we have an idea of what the output should look like. Let's begin
working with the GUI tools to construct a fuzzy inference system for this decision process.

fig 6.4The Tipping Function

6.8 THE FIS EDITOR:

The following discussion walks you through building a new fuzzy inference system
from scratch. If you want to save time and follow along quickly, you can load the already
built system by typing fuzzy tipper This will load the FIS associated with the file tipper.fis
(the .fis is implied) and launch the FIS Editor. However, if you load the pre-built system, you
will not be building rules and constructing membership functions.

The FIS Editor displays general information about a fuzzy inference system. There's a
simple diagram as shown in Fig.3 that shows the names of each input variable on the left, and
those of each output variable on the right. The sample membership functions shown in the
boxes are just icons and do not depict the actual shapes of the membership functions.

51
 Below the diagram is the name of the system and the type of inference used. The
default, Madman-type inference, is what we'll continue to use for this example. Another
slightly different type of inference, called Surgeon-type inference, is also available.

Below the name of the fuzzy inference system, on the left side of the figure, are the
pop-up menus that allow you to modify the various pieces of the inference process. On the
right side at the bottom of the figure is the area that displays the name of an input or output
variable, its associated membership function type, and its range. The latter two fields are
specified only after the membership functions have been. Below that region are the Help and
Close buttons that call up online help and close the window, respectively. At the bottom is a
status line that relays information about the system.

To start this system from scratch, type fuzzy at the mat lab prompt. The generic
untitled FIS Editor opens, with one input, labeled input1, and one output, labeled output1. For
this example, we will construct a two-input, one output system, so go to the Edit menu and
select Add input. A second yellow box labeled input2 will appear. The two inputs we will
have in our example are service and food. Our one output is tip.

Fig 6.5 The FIS Editor

52
We'd like to change the variable names to reflect that, though:

 Click once on the left-hand (yellow) box marked input1 (the box will be highlighted
in red).
 In the white edit field on the right, change input1 to service and press Return.
 Click once on the left-hand (yellow) box marked input2 (the box will be highlighted
in red).
 In the white edit field on the right, change input2 to food and press Return.
 Click once on the right-hand (blue) box marked output1.
 In the white edit field on the right, change output1 to tip.
 From the File menu select Save to workspace as..and a window appears as shown in
fig.4.
 Enter the variable name tipper and click on ok.

You will see the diagram updated to reflect the new names of the input and output
variables. There is now a new variable in the workspace called tipper that contains all the
information about this system.

Fig6.6‘Save to workspace as...’ Window

By saving to the workspace with a new name, you also rename the entire system.
Your window will look like as shown in Fig.

53
 Fig 6.7 The updated FIS Editor

Leave the inference options in the lower left in their default positions for now. You've
entered all the information you need for this particular GUI. Next define the membership
functions associated with each of the variables. To do this, open the Membership Function
Editor. You can open the Membership Function Editor in one of three ways:

 Pull down the View menu item and select Edit Membership Functions....
 Double-click on the icon for the output variable, tip.
 Type mfedit at the command line.

6.9 THE MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION EDITOR:

The Membership Function Editor shares some features with the FIS Editor. In fact,
all of the five basic GUI tools have similar menu options, status lines, and Help and Close
buttons. The Membership Function Editor is the tool that lets you display and edit all of the
membership functions associated with all of the input and output variables for the entire
fuzzy inference system. Fig. shows the Membership Function Editor.

When you open the Membership Function Editor to work on a fuzzy inference system
that does not already exist in the workspace, there is not yet any membership functions
associated with the variables that you have just defined with the FIS Edito

54
 Fig 6.8 The Membership Function Editor

On the upper left side of the graph area in the Membership Function Editor is a
"Variable Palette" that lets you set the membership functions for a given variable. To set up
your membership functions associated with an input or an output variable for the FIS, select
an FIS variable in this region by clicking on it.

Next select the Edit pull-down menu, and choose Add MFs.... A new window will
appear, which allows you to select both the membership function type and the number of
membership functions associated with the selected variable. In the lower right corner of the
window are the controls that let you change the name, type, and parameters (shape), of the
membership function, once it has been selected.

The membership functions from the current variable are displayed in the main graph.
These membership functions can be manipulated in two ways. You can first use the mouse to

55
select a particular membership function associated with a given variable quality, (such as
poor, for the variable, service), and then drag the membership function from side to side. This
will affect the mathematical description of the quality associated with that membership
function for a given variable. The selected membership function can also be tagged for
dilation or contraction by clicking on the small square drag points on the membership
function, and then dragging the function with the mouse toward the outside, for dilation, or
toward the inside, for contraction. This will change the parameters associated with that
membership function.

Below the Variable Palette is some information about the type and name of the
current variable. There is a text field in this region that lets you change the limits of the
current variable's range (universe of discourse) and another that lets you set the limits of the
current plot (which has no real effect on the system).

The process of specifying the input membership functions for this two input tipper problem is
as follows:

 Select the input variable, service, by double-clicking on it. Set both the Range and
the Display Range to the vector [0 10].
 Select Add MFs... from the Edit menu. A window pops open as shown in Fig.7.

Fig 6.9 Add MFs… Window

 Use the pull-down tab to choose gaussmf for MF Type and 3 for Number of MFs.
This adds three Gaussian curves to the input variable service.
 Click once on the curve with the leftmost hump. Change the name of the curve to
poor. To adjust the shape of the membership function, either use the mouse, as

56
 described above, or type in a desired parameter change, and then click on the
membership function. The default parameter listing for this curve is [1.5 0].
 Name the curve with the middle hump, good, and the curve with the rightmost
hump, excellent. Reset the associated parameters if desired.
 Select the input variable, food, by clicking on it. Set both the Range and the Display
Range to the vector [0 10].
 Select Add MFs... from the Edit menu and add two trapmf curves to the input
variable food.
 Click once directly on the curve with the leftmost trapezoid. Change the name of the
curve to rancid. To adjust the shape of the membership function, either use the
mouse, as described above, or type in a desired parameter change, and then click on
the membership function. The default parameter listing for this curve is [0 0 1 3].
 Name the curve with the rightmost trapezoid, delicious, and reset the associated
parameters if desired.

Next you need to create the membership functions for the output variable, tip. To
create the output variable membership functions, use the Variable Palette on the left,
selecting the output variable, tip. The inputs ranged from 0 to 10, but the output scale is going
to be a tip between 5 and 25 percent.

Use triangular membership function types for the output. First, set the Range (and the
Display Range) to [0 30], to cover the output range. Initially, the cheap membership function
will have the parameters [0 5 10], the average membership function will be [10 15 20],and
the generous membership function will be [20 25 30].Your system should look something
like shown in Fig.

57
 Fig 6.10 The updated Membership Function Editor

Now that the variables have been named, and the membership functions have
appropriate shapes and names, you're ready to write down the rules. To call up the Rule
Editor, go to the View menu and select Edit rules..., or type ruleedit at the command line. The
Rule Editor window pops open as shown in Fig

6.10 THE RULE EDITOR:

Constructing rules using the graphical Rule Editor interface is fairly self-evident.
Based on the descriptions of the input and output variables defined with the FIS Editor, the
Rule Editor allows you to construct the rule statements automatically, by clicking on and
selecting one item in each input variable box, one item in each output box, and one
connection item. Choosing none as one of the variable qualities will exclude that variable
from a given rule.

Choosing not under any variable name will negate the associated quality. Rules may
be changed, deleted, or added, by clicking on the appropriate button.
58
 The Rule Editor also has some familiar landmarks, similar to those in the FIS Editor
and the Membership Function Editor, including the menu bar and the status line. The Format
pop-up menu is available from the Options pull-down menu from the top menu bar -- this is
used to set the format for the display. Similarly, Language can be set from under Options as
well. The Help button will bring up a MATLAB Help window.

Fig 6.11 The Rule Editor

To insert the first rule in the Rule Editor, select the following:

Poor under the variable service

 Rancid under the variable food
 The radio button, or, in the Connection block
 Cheap, under the output variable, tip.

The resulting rule is

1. If (service is poor) or (food is rancid) then (tip is cheap) (1)

The numbers in the parentheses represent weights that can be applied to each rule if
desired. You can specify the weights by typing in a desired number between zero and one
under the Weight setting. If you do not specify them, the weights are assumed to be unity (1).

Follow a similar procedure to insert the second and third rules in the Rule Editor to get

1. If (service is poor) or (food is rancid) then (tip is cheap) (1)

59
2. If (service is good) then (tip is average) (1)

3. If (service is excellent) or (food is delicious) then (tip is generous) (1)

To change a rule, first click on the rule to be changed. Next make the desired changes
to that rule, and then click on Change rule. For example, to change the first rule to

1. If (service not poor) or (food not rancid) then (tip is not cheap) (1)

click not under each variable, and then click Change rule.

The Format pop-up menu from the Options menu indicates that you're looking at the
verbose form of the rules. Try changing it to symbolic. You will see

1. (service==poor) => (tip=cheap) (1)

2. (service==good) => (tip=average) (1)

3. (service==excellent) => (tip=generous) (1)

There is not much difference in the display really, but it's slightly more language
neutral, since it doesn't depend on terms like "if" and "then." If you change the format to
indexed, you'll see an extremely compressed version of the rules that has squeezed all the
language out.

1, 1 (1) : 1

2, 2 (1) : 1

3, 3 (1) : 1

This is the version that the machine deals with. The first column in this structure
corresponds to the input variable, the second column corresponds to the output variable, the
third column displays the weight applied to each rule, and the fourth column is shorthand that
indicates whether this is an OR (2) rule or an AND (1) rule. The numbers in the first two
columns refer to the index number of the membership function. A literal interpretation of rule
1 is: "if input 1 is MF1 (the first membership function associated with input 1) then output 1
should be MF1 (the first membership function associated with output 1) with the weight 1."
Since there is only one input for this system, the AND connective implied by the 1 in the last
column is of no consequence.

60
 The symbolic format doesn't bother with the terms, if, then, and so on. The indexed
format doesn't even bother with the names of your variables. Obviously the functionality of
your system doesn't depend on how well you have named your variables and membership
functions. The whole point of naming variables descriptively is, as always, making the
system easier for you to interpret. Thus, unless you have some special purpose in mind, it will
probably be easier for you to stick with the verbose format.

At this point, the fuzzy inference system has been completely defined, in that the
variables, membership functions, and the rules necessary to calculate tips are in place. It
would be nice, at this point, to look at a fuzzy inference diagram like the one presented at the
end of the previous section and verify that everything is behaving the way we think it should.
This is exactly the purpose of the Rule Viewer, the next of the GUI tools we'll look at. From
the View menu, select View rules..

THE RULE VIEWER:

Fig 6.12 The Rule Viewer

The Rule Viewer displays a roadmap of the whole fuzzy inference process. It's based
on the fuzzy inference diagram described in the previous section.

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 CHAPTER-7
SIMULATION RESULTS
The Fig 7.1 shows the MATLAB/SIMULINK circuit diagram of proposed system which
includes the Solar PV, STATCOM and grid. fig 7.2 shows the control system with fuzzy
controller

Fig.7.1 MATLAB/SIMULINK circuit diagram of proposed system

Fig. 7.2 PV-STATCOM for POD by usingFUZZY controller

62
 Fig.11 PV-STATCOM real power and reactive power

Fig.11 shows PV-STATCOM real power and reactive power and fig.12 shows three phase
voltage of inverter and the Fig.13 shows THD% of voltage.

63
Fig. 12 3-phase Voltage output

Fig.13 THD% of voltage

64
 CONCLUSION
PV-STATCOM for POD is built in this paper through the use of fuzzy controller. The PV-S
TACOM can, since it uses an existing infrastructure of a solar photovoltaic plant to transform
it into a full-scale STATCOM of similar sizes, cost around 50-100 times lower than an
equivalent STACOM. The alternative FACTS system PV-STATCOM is anticipated to
produce substantial savings in the power transfer capacities of utilities. It also provides new
revenue to solar farms with linked transmission, which will deliver a dramatically lower cost
of STATCOM functionality 24/7. Of course, this technology must be introduced in
compliance with acceptable agreements between utilities, device authorities, solar farms
developers and inverter manufacturers. The goal of this article is to propose a new monitor
for power oscillation by using a fluidized control system during the day and at night of a
single PV solar farm as the PV-STATCOM. When the PV-STATCOM control on a variety of
electrical proximity PV solar farms, PV-STATCOM controls shall require coordination
similar to that of multiple FACTS equipment and HVDC and FACTS equipment.The
synchronization of controls between many PV-STATCOMs will ensure that all participating
PV-STATCOMs deliver power oscillation damping at the same time as the swing is damped.
The proposed system THD% of voltage is less than the existing PI controller . This control
synchronization involves comprehensive control designs and system studies beyond the reach
of this paper.
.

65
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