PHYSICAL WORLD

Chapter-1, PHYSICAL WORLD

Science: Science is an organised, systematic and formulated knowledge obtained through

observations, experiments and verifications.

Note: The word Science originates from the Latin verb “SCIENTIA”, which means “to know”.

Scientific method: Procedure followed in acquiring knowledge in science is called scientific

method.
It involves the major steps, which are,
(i) Systematic observation.
(ii) Logical reasoning.
(iii) Model making.
(iv) Theoretical prediction.
(v) Verification OR Rejection of theory.

Law: Law is a statement given based on the observation, experimentation and analysis.
Ex: Newton’s laws of motion.

Theory: The behaviour of the physical system is explained in terms of a set of minimum number of
laws is called Theory.
Ex: Ptolemy’s geocentric theory.

Branches of Science: There are two main branches in science, 1) Physical science
2) Biological science
The main branches of Physical science are, 1) Physics
2) Chemistry

Physics: The term Physics is derived from Greek word called “FUSIS”, which means “Nature”.
Physics is a branch of science which deals with the study of Nature and Natural phenomenon.
Two principal thrusts is physics are (i) Unification and (ii) Reduction

Unification: It is an effort to see a physical world as manifestation of some universal law in

different domains and conditions.
Ex: (a) Isaac Newton unified celestial and terrestrial mechanics and showed that same laws of
motion and law of gravitation apply to both the domains.
(b) Hans Christian Oersted and Michel Faraday showed that electric and magnetic phenomena are
inseparable aspects of a unified domain.
(c) James Clerk Maxwell unified electricity, magnetism and optics, showed that light is an
electromagnetic wave.

Reductionism: Explaining the properties of complex system using the properties and interactions
of its constituent simpler parts is called reductionism.
Ex: Initially thermodynamics was dealing with bulk system in terms of temperature, internal
energy etc. Now the kinetic theory and statistical mechanics interpreted these quantities in terms
of properties of molecular constituents of the bulk system.

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Scope of physics: The scope of physics is very broad and covers a wide range of many branches. It
is studied under the following headings.
(i) Classical mechanics: The branch concerned with the motion of objects moving at speeds very
small compared to the speed of light.
(ii) Thermodynamics: The branch dealing with heat, temperature and work.
(iii) Electrodynamics: It deals with the electricity, magnetism and electromagnetic fields.
(iv) Quantum mechanics: The study of motion in micro world of atoms is known as quantum
mechanics.
(v) Optics: It is the branch of physics which deals with the nature of light and different properties
and phenomena exhibited by light.
(vi) Relativity: It describes the motion of the objects moving at any speed, even at speeds
approaching the speed of light in vacuum.
Totally physics deals with the macroscopic world like galaxies and universe as well as
microscopic world like nucleus of an atom and fundamental particles like electrons, protons,
neutrons etc.

Excitement of physics: The study of physics is quite interesting and exciting. In physics, we come
across wide range of mass, length and time. But in spite of these wide ranges of the order of these
physical quantities, it is possible to understand them quite easily. This is the reason for the
excitement in physics.

Physics, technology and society

Technology: Application of scientific knowledge for practical purpose is called Technology.
Technologists use the information or knowledge of physics for designing the various applications
and other instruments which help to make our material way of life comfortable.

Following are a few advancements in technology based on physics.

Technology Scientific principle(s)
Steam engine Laws of thermodynamics
Nuclear reactor Controlled nuclear fission
Radio and Television Generation, propagation and detection of
electromagnetic waves
Lasers Light amplification by stimulated emission of
radiation
Production of ultra- high magnetic Superconductivity
fields
Rocket propulsion Newton’s laws of motion
Electric generator Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction
Hydroelectric power Conversion of gravitational potential energy into
electrical energy
Aeroplane Bernoulli’s principle in fluid dynamics
Particle accelerators Motion of charged particles in electromagnetic fields
Sonar Reflection of ultrasonic waves
Optical fibres Total internal reflection of light
Non-reflecting coatings Thin film optical interference
Electron microscope Wave nature of electron

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 PHYSICAL WORLD
Technology Scientific principle(s)
Photocell Photoelectric effect
Fusion test reactor (Tokamak) Magnetic confinement of plasma
Giant Metre wave Radio Telescope Detection of cosmic radio waves
(GMRT)
Trapping and cooling of atoms by laser beams and
Bose-Einstein condensate
magnetic fields.

Physics has a great impact on the society. In fact discoveries and developments in physics
have changed the face of society. Our life has become more comfortable and luxuries than that of
our ancestors.

Some physicists from different countries of the world and their contributions.

Country
Name Major contributions/Discoveries
of origin
Principle of buoyancy
Archimedes Greece
Principle of lever
Galileo Galilei Law of inertia Italy
Christiaan Huygens Wave theory of light Holland
Universal law of Gravitation
Isaac Newton Laws of motion UK
Reflecting Telescope
Michel Faraday Laws of Electromagnetic induction UK
Electromagnetic theory
James Clerk Maxwell UK
Light – an electromagnetic wave
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz Generation of electromagnetic waves Germany
J C Bose Ultra short radio waves India
W K Roentgen X-Rays Germany
J J Thomson Electron UK
Discovery of radium and polonium; Studies on
Marie Sklodowska Curie Poland
natural radioactivity
Explanation of photoelectric effect;
Albert Einstein Germany
Theory of relativity
Victor Francis Hess Cosmic radiation Austria
R.A. Millikan Measurement of electronic charge USA
Ernest Rutherford Nuclear model of atom New Zealand
Niels Bohr Quantum model of hydrogen atom Denmark
C.V. Raman Inelastic scattering of hydrogen atom India
Louis Victor de Borglie Wave nature of matter France
M.N. Saha Thermal Ionisation India
S.N. Bose Quantum statistics India
Wolfgang Pauli Exclusion principle Austria
Enrico Fermi Controlled nuclear fission Italy
Werner Heisenberg Quantum Mechanics, Uncertainty principle Germany
Relativistic theory of electron
Paul Dirac UK
Quantum statistics
Edwin Hubble Expanding Universe USA
Ernest Orlando Lawrence Cyclotron USA
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 PHYSICAL WORLD
Country
Name Major contributions/Discoveries
of origin
James Chadwick Neutron UK
Hideki Yukawa Theory of nuclear forces Japan
Homi Jehangir Bhabha Cascade process of cosmic radiation India
Theory of condensed matter
Lev Davidovich Landau Russia
Liquid helium
Chandrasekhar limit
S. Chandrasekhar India
Structure and evolution of stars
Transistors
John Bardeen USA
Theory of superconductivity
C.H. Townes Maser, Laser USA
Unification of weak and electromagnetic
Abdus Salam Pakistan
interactions

Fundamental forces in nature: There are four basic forces in nature. These are
(i) Gravitational force
(ii) Electromagnetic force
(iii) Strong nuclear force
(iv) Weak nuclear force

(i) Gravitational force

* It is the force of attraction between the two bodies due to their masses.
* It is always attractive.
* It weakest force in nature.
* It is a long range force
* This force is governed by Newton’s law of gravitation.”
* It is also known as “action-at-a-distance” force.

(ii) Electromagnetic force

* It is the force of attraction or repulsion between two electric charges.
* It is both attractive as well as repulsive.
* It is charge dependent.
* It is long range force.
* It is 1037 times stronger than the Gravitational force.
* When the charges are at rest the force between them is called electrostatic force.

(iii) Strong nuclear force

* Forces operating inside the nuclei are called strong nuclear force.
* It is short range force (range is ~ 10-15m)
* It is charge independent.
* It is an attractive force.
* It is the strongest force in nature. It is 100 times stronger than electromagnetic force and 1039
times stronger than gravitational force.
* It does not obey inverse square law.

(iv) Weak nuclear force

* It is the force existing between the elementary particles emitted during radio-active decay.
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 PHYSICAL WORLD
* It appears only in certain nuclear processes such as beta decay.
* It is not as weak as gravitational force but much weaker than strong nuclear and
Electromagnetic force.
* It’s range is 10-16m.

Relative
Name Range Operates among
strength
Gravitational force 1 Infinite All objects in the universe
Very short Some elementary particles.
26
Weak nuclear force 10 sub-nuclear size, Particularly electron and
10−16 𝑚 neutrino
Electromagnetic
1037 Infinite Charged particles
force
Short Nucleons, heavier
Strong nuclear force 1039
Nuclear size, 10−15 𝑚 elementary particles

Nature of physical law: The various phenomena occurring in nature are explained on the basis of
certain laws. These laws are expressed in terms of some physical quantities. Several physical
quantities may change with time but some physical quantities remain constant in time. The
quantities like charge, mass, energy, liner momentum angular momentum etc. of a system are
conserved, if no external force acts on the system.

Conserved quantities: The physical quantities remain constant during a process are called
conserved quantities.

Conservation Laws: A law which states the constancy of physical quantity over time within an
isolated system is called a conservation law.

Ex: Law of conservation of mass.

Law of conservation of energy.
Law of conservation of charge.
Law of conservation of momentum.

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Suggested Questions.
One mark.
1) What is physics?
2) Name the weakest fundamental force in nature.
3) Who introduced the nuclear model of an atom?
4) Who discovered neutron?
5) Who own the Nobel Prize in the field of scattering of light by molecules?
6) Who discovered the law of Inertia?
7) Who proposed the electromagnetic wave theory?
8) What is the nature of physical laws?
9) Name the scientist who gave the heliocentric theory?
10) Name the scientist who gave the laws of electromagnetic induction?
11) Who discovered radioactivity?

Two marks.
1) Mention the steps involved in scientific method.
2) What is reductionism? Give an example.
3) What is unification? Give one example.
4) Mention two physicists who achieved the unification of electricity and magnetism.
5) Name the scientist who achieved the unification of electromagnetism and optics.
6) Mention any two fundamental forces in nature.
7) Name the strongest and weakest fundamental forces in nature.
8) Name the two physicists who discovered an electron and electromagnetic wave.
9) Name two Indian scientists who have been awarded Nobel Prize.

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
CHAPTER-2 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Physical quantity: A measurable quantity is called a physical quantity.

Ex: Length, mass, time, area, volume etc.

Fundamental quantities: The physical quantities which are independent of each other are called
fundamental quantities.
There are SEVEN fundamental quantities. They are, Length, Mass, Time, Electric current,
Thermodynamic temperature, Amount of substance and Luminous Intensity

Derived quantities: The physical quantities which can be expressed in the form of a product or
quotient of the fundamental quantities are called derived units.
Ex: Area, Volume, Force, momentum, speed etc.

Unit: The basic, arbitrary chosen, internationally accepted standard of reference which is used to
express a physical quantity is called a unit.

S I System: The system of units which is at present internationally accepted for measurement is
the system of International (S I) and it was developed by General conference on weights and
measures in 1971. The earlier systems of units are FPS, CGS and MKS system.

Fundamental units: The units used to express fundamental quantities are called Fundamental
units. The table gives the list of fundamental quantities and their units in SI.
Base SI Units
quantity Name Symbol Definition
The metre is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum
Length metre m
during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second. (1983)
The kilogram is equal to the mass of the international prototype
of the kilogram (a platinum-iridium alloy cylinder) kept at
Mass kilogram kg
international Bureau of Weights and Measures, at Sevres, near
Paris. France. (1889)
The second is the duration of the 9,192,631,770 periods of the
radiation corresponding to the transition between the two
Time second s
hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133
atom.(1967)
The ampere is that constant current which, if maintained in two
straight parallel conductors of infinite length, of negligible
Electric current ampere A circular cross-section, and placed 1 metre apart in vacuum,
would produce between these conductors a force equal to 2 ×
10−7 newton per metre of length. (1948)
Thermodynamic The kelvin, is the fraction 1/273.16 of the thermodynamic
kelvin K
temperature temperature of the triple point of water. (1967)
The mole is the amount of substance of a system, which contains
Amount of
mole mol as many elementary entities as there are atoms in 0.012 kilogram
Substance of carbon - 12. (1971)
The candela is the luminous intensity, in a given direction, of a
Luminous source that emits monochromatic radiation of frequency 540 ×
candela cd
intensity 1012 hertz and that has a radiant intensity in that direction of
1/683 watt per steradian. (1979)
In addition to the seven fundamental units, two supplimentory units are defined which are given
in the table below.
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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
S I Units
Quantity
Name Symbol
Plane angle radian rad
Solid angle steradian sr

Plane angle: It is the ratio of arc length to the radius of the circle.
𝑠
𝜃= rad
𝑟
𝑠 = 𝑟𝜃
2𝜋𝑟
Maximum plane angle around point is, 𝜃 = = 2𝜋 rad or 𝜃 = 3600
𝑟

Note: (i) 3600 = 2𝜋 rad

1800 = 𝜋 rad
(ii) 1800 = 𝜋 rad (iii) 𝜋 rad = 1800
𝜋 1800
10 = 1800 rad 1 rad = = 57.30
𝜋
(iv) 60′ = 10 (v) 60′′ = 1′
1 0 1 ′
1′ = (60) 1′′ = (60)
1 𝜋 1
1′ = (60) 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1′′ = (60) × 2.9 × 10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑
180
1′ = 2.91 × 10−4 𝑟𝑎𝑑 1′′ = 4.85 × 10−6 𝑟𝑎𝑑

Solid angle: It is the ratio of spherical area enclosed to the square of the radius of the sphere.
𝑑𝐴
𝜔 = 2 𝑠𝑟
𝑟
Maximum solid angle at the centre of the sphere is,
4𝜋𝑟 2
𝜔= 2 𝑠𝑟
𝑟
𝜔 = 4 𝜋 𝑠𝑟

Derived units: The units which can be expressed as combination of base units are called derived
units.
Ex: ms-1, ms-2, kgms-1, m2, m3 etc.

General guidelines for using symbols and units

 Symbols for units are written in lower case starting with small letters.
 The unit names are never capitalised, however the unit symbols are capitalised only if the
symbol for a unit is derived from a proper name of scientist.
 Symbols for units do not contain any punctual marks and remain unaltered in the plural.

Advantages of SI units
 It is a rational system: It uses only one unit for a given quantity.
 It is a coherent system: Every unit can be derived from seven fundamental and two
supplementary units.
 It is a metric system: Multiple and sub multiples of unit can be expressed as the powers of
TEN.
 It is internationally accepted.

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Common SI prefixes:
Multiples and Submultiples Prefixes Symbols
1 000 000 000 000= 1012 tera T
9
1000 000 000= 10 giga G
6
1 000 000= 10 mega M
3
1000= 10 kilo k
100= 102 hecto h
1
10= 10 deka da
0
Base unit: 1= 10
0.1= 10−1 deci d
0.01= 10−2 centi c
−3
0.001= 10 milli m
−6 𝜇
0.000 001= 10 micro
−9
0.000 000 001= 10 nano n
0.000 000 000 001= 10−12 pico p
−15
0.000 000 000 000 001= 10 femto f
−18
0.000 000 000 000 000 001= 10 atto a

Measurement of length: Length of various objects or distances between the objects differ widely
ranging from the radius of proton of about 10-15m to the average size of the universe with a radius
of about 1026m.

Some of the simple measurement of length involves the use of

a) A metre scale for lengths from 10-3m to 102m.
b) Vernier callipers for lengths to accuracy of about 10-4m.
c) A screw gauge or spherometer to measure lengths of the order of 10-5m.
In order to measure lengths beyond these ranges some special indirect methods are adopted.
One of them is the parallax method.

Parallax: It is the change in the position of an object to its background, when the object is seen
from two different positions.
The distance between the two different points of observation is called the Basis.

Measurement of large distance by parallax method:

Let 𝐴 and 𝐵 are the two positions of observation of a distant object 𝑆.
Let 𝐷 be the distance between the distant object 𝑆 and the earth.
The distance between 𝐴 and 𝐵 be 𝑏
𝜃 be the angle made by two opposite ends 𝐴 and 𝐵.
𝑏
As 𝐷 is very large then ( ) is less than 1 and 𝐴𝐵 is taken as an arc.
𝐷
Then, 𝑏 = 𝐷𝜃
𝒃
𝑫=
𝜽
Where 𝜃 is in radian and is called parallactic angle.

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Some special units of length
 1 fermi = 1f = 10-15m
 1 angstrom = 1Ȧ = 10-10m (these are the shorter units of length)
 1 astronomical unit: It is the average distance between the earth and sun.
1 AU = 1.496×1011m
 1 light year: The distance travelled by the light in one year of time.
1 ly = 9.46 ×1015m
 1parsec: It is the distance at which an arc of length equal to one AU subtends an angle of one
second at a point.
1pc = 3.08×1016m (parsec is the largest unit of length)

Measurement of mass: Mass is the basic property of matter. It is expressed in kg, but for atomic
and sub atomic particles, we use unified atomic mass unit (u).

1 𝑡ℎ
unified atomic mass unit (u): One unified atomic mass unit is equal to (12) of the mass of an
atom of carbon-12 isotope including the mass of electrons.
1u = 1.66×10-27kg
The mass of various objects differ widely ranging from the mass of an electron about
10−30 𝑘𝑔 to the mass of universe with about 1055 𝑘𝑔. Masses of commonly available objects are
measured using a common balance. Inertial mass of an object is measured using an inertial
balance.
Masses of microscopic objects are determined by spectroscopic method, using a mass
spectroscope. Masses of astronomical objects are estimated using Newton’s law of gravitation.
Masses of binary stars are estimated using Kepler’s law of time periods.

Measurement of time: Time measurements are done using a clock. now we use an atomic
standard of time which is based on the periodic vibrations produced in a cesium-133 atom. Cesium
atomic clocks are very accurate.
Measurement of time intervals ranging from 10-16s to 10-24s is estimated using photographic
emulsions involved in the decay of elementary particles. Radioactive dating is used to estimate
time intervals in the range of several hundred years to millions of years.

Note: A Cesium atomic clock is used at the National physical laboratory (NPL), New Delhi to
maintain the Indian standard of time.

Accuracy, precision of instrument and errors in measurements

Accuracy: The accuracy is the measure of how much close the measured value is to the true value
of the quantity.

Precision: It indicates, to what resolution or limit the quantity is measured.

Least count of the instrument: The smallest value that can be measured by the measuring
instrument is called least count

Ex: least count of meter scale = 0.1 cm = 1 mm

least count of vernier callipers = 0.01 cm

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Error: The uncertainty in the measurement is called error. Errors are due to lack of accuracy and
insufficient precision.
The errors in measurement are classified into two types based on cause,
(i) Systematic error
(ii) Random error

Systematic error: Systematic errors are those errors that tend to be in one direction, either positive
or negative and affect each measurement by same amount. these errors are due to known cause.

Sources of systematic error (types of systematic errors)

a) Instrumental error: These errors occur due to faulty instrument or imperfect design of the
measuring instrument.
b) Imperfection in experimental procedure: These errors arise due to false procedure or
limitations of experimental arrangements.
c) Personal errors: These arise due to individual’s bias, lack of attentiveness or bad sights.

Methods of reducing systematic errors: Systematic errors can be minimised by,

a) Selecting better instruments
b) Improving experimental techniques.
c) Removing personal bias.

Random errors: The random errors are those errors which occur irregularly due to random and
unpredictable fluctuations in experimental conditions. Random errors appear due to unknown
reasons.
Ex: Reading of physical balance may change due to settling of dust, change in temperature,
pressure etc.

Minimising random errors: Random errors can be minimised by repeating the measurements and
taking the arithmetic mean of all measurements.

Least count error: This error is associated with the resolution or the precision of the instrument.

Minimising least count error: Least count error can be minimised by

a) using instruments of higher precision
b) improving experimental techniques
c) taking mean of all observations.

Absolute error, relative error and percentage error: There are three ways to express the
magnitude of errors. They are,
a) Absolute error
b) Relative error
c) Percentage error

Absolute error: The difference between the individual measured value and true value is called an
absolute error.
The mean value am of measured values is taken as true value.
If a1, a2,….an are the individual measured values in different trails then the mean value is,

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
𝑎1 + 𝑎2 + 𝑎3 +. . . . . . . . +𝑎𝑛 ∑ 𝑎𝑖
𝑎𝑚 = =
𝑛 𝑛
The absolute error in the measured values are given by,
∆𝑎1 = 𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑚
∆𝑎2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑎𝑚
.
.
.
∆𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛 − 𝑎𝑚
The absolute error may be either positive or negative.

Mean absolute error: The arithmetic mean of the magnitude of the absolute error is called the
mean absolute error (∆𝑎𝑚 ).
|∆𝑎1 | + |∆𝑎2 |+. . . . . . . . +|∆𝑎𝑛 | ∑ |∆𝑎𝑖 |
∆𝑎𝑚 = =
𝑛 𝑛
The final result is expressed as 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑚 ± ∆𝑎𝑚 . this means that the true value of 𝑎 lies between
the limits 𝑎 − 𝑎𝑚 and 𝑎 + 𝑎𝑚 .

Relative error: The ratio of mean absolute error to the mean value of the quantity measured is
called the relative error.
∆𝒂𝒎
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒆𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 =
𝒂𝒎

Percentage error: Relative error when expressed in percentage is called percentage error.
∆𝑎𝑚
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑎𝑚
∆𝒂𝒎
𝜹𝒂 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝒂𝒎

Combination of errors: In each measurement, there is some error and when we get the final result,
these errors are combined to have the net error in the final result.

Error due to a sum or difference:

Let two physical quantities A and B have measured values 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴, 𝐵 ± ∆𝐵 respectively where
∆𝐴 and ∆𝐵 are their absolute error.
The error ∆𝑍 in the sum 𝑍 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 is, 𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) + (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵)
= (𝐴 + 𝐵) ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵)
The maximum possible error in Z is, ∆𝒁 = ∆𝑨 + ∆𝑩
For difference, 𝑍 =𝐴−𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) − (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵)
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 − 𝐵) ± (∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵)
∆𝑍 = ∆𝐴 + ∆𝐵
The maximum error is again ∆𝒁 = ∆𝑨 + ∆𝑩

When two quantities are added or subtracted, the absolute error in the final result is the sum of the
absolute errors in the individual quantities.
The absolute errors due to sum or difference always add up.

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Error due to a product or a quotient:
Let two physical quantities A and B have measured values 𝐴 ± ∆𝐴, 𝐵 ± ∆𝐵 respectively where
∆𝐴 and ∆𝐵 are their absolute error.
The error ∆𝑍 in the product, 𝑍 = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 is,
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) ∙ (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵)
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴𝐵 ± 𝐴∆𝐵 ± 𝐵∆𝐴 ± ∆𝐴∆𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴𝐵 ± ( 𝐴∆𝐵 + 𝐵∆𝐴) (∵since ∆𝐴 ∙ ∆𝐵 is small)
∆𝑍 = 𝐴∆𝐵 + 𝐵∆𝐴
∆𝑍 𝐴∆𝐵 𝐵∆𝐴
Divide through by 𝐴𝐵, = +
𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵 𝐴𝐵
∆𝒁 ∆𝑩 ∆𝑨 ∆𝑨 ∆𝑩
= + = +
𝒁 𝑩 𝑨 𝑨 𝑩

For division,
𝐴
𝑍=
𝐵
𝐴 ± ∆𝐴
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) (𝐵 ± ∆𝐵)−1
𝐵 ± ∆𝐵
∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 −1
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴 (1 ± ) 𝐵−1 (1 ± )
𝐴 𝐵
−1
𝐴 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (1 ± ) (1 ± )
𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
∆𝐵 −1 ∆𝐵
Using binomial theorem, we have (1 ± ) = 1 ±
𝐵 𝐵
𝐴 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (1 ± ) (1 ± )
𝐵 𝐴 𝐵
∆𝐴 ∆𝐵 ∆𝐴∆𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝑍 (1 ± ± ± )
𝐴 𝐵 𝐴𝐵
∆𝐴∆𝐵
Since is very small and neglecting it, we have
𝐴𝐵
∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝑍 (1 ± ± )
𝐴 𝐵
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
1± =1± ±
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
∆𝑍 ∆𝐴 ∆𝐵
1± =1±( + )
𝑍 𝐴 𝐵
∆𝒁 ∆𝑨 ∆𝑩
= +
𝒁 𝑨 𝑩
When two quantities are multiplied or divided the relative error in the result is the sum of the
relative errors in the individual quantities.

Errors due to exponentiation

If 𝑍 = 𝑍 2
𝑍 =𝐴∙𝐴
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴) ∙ (𝐴 ± ∆𝐴)
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴𝐴 ± 𝐴∆𝐴 ± 𝐴∆𝐴 ± ∆𝐴∆𝐴
(∆𝐴∆𝐴 is very small, ∆𝐴∆𝐴 ≈ 0)
𝑍 ± ∆𝑍 = 𝐴𝐴 ± 𝐴∆𝐴 ± 𝐴∆𝐴
𝑍 + ∆𝑍 = 𝐴𝐴 ± 2𝐴∆𝐴
∆𝑍 = 2𝐴∆𝐴
∆𝑍 2𝐴∆𝐴 ∆𝐴
= = 2( )
𝑍 𝐴𝐴 𝐴
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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Generally, 𝑍 = 𝐴𝐾
∆𝒁 ∆𝑨
= 𝑲( )
𝒁 𝑨
The relative error in a physical quantity raised to the power K is K times the relative error in the
individual quantity.

Significant figures: In a measured value the reliable digits and the first uncertain digit are known
as significant figures.

Importance of significant figures: Significant figures indicate the precision of the instrument.
Number of significant figure does not change if we measure a physical quantity in different units.

Rules for determining the significant figures

 All non-zero digits are significant.
 Ex: 2341 m → has 4 significant figures.
 14.3m → has 3 significant figures

 All the zeros between two non-zero digits are significant.

 Ex: 308 m → has 3 significant figures.
 23.08 m → has 4 significant figures.

 In a number without decimal point trailing or terminal zeros are NOT significant.
 Ex: 12300 m → has 3 significant figures.
 104000 m → has 3 significant figures.

 In number with decimal point, trailing or terminal zeros are significant.

 Ex: 4.700 m → has 4 significant figures.
 23.04000 m → has 7 significant figures.

 If the number is less than 1, then zeros on the right of decimal point but to the left of the first
non-zero digit are NOT significant.
 Ex: 0.067 m → has 2 significant figures.
 0.0003080 m → has 4 significant figures.

Scientific notation: In this notation, every number is expressed as 𝑎 × 10𝑏 , where 𝑎 is a number
between 1 and 10 is called base number and 𝑏 is any positive or negative exponent of 10.
The power of 10 is irrelevant to the determination of significant figures. However all zeros
appearing in the base number in the scientific notation are significant.

Ex: 4.700× 102 𝑚 has 4 significant figures.

4.700× 10−3 𝑚 has 4 significant figures.

Rules for arithmetic operations with significant figures

(i) When numbers are added or subtracted, the number of decimal places in the final result
should be equal to the smallest number of decimal places of any term.
Ex: (a) 436.32 + 227.2 = 663.5 (but not 663.52)
(b) 0.3074 – 0.304 = 0.003 (but not 0.0034)

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
(ii) In multiplication or division, the number of significant figures in the final result should be
equal to the number of significant figures in the quantity having the smallest number of
significant figures.
Ex: (a) 1.21 ×0.12 = 0.14 (but not 0.1452)
5.74
(b) = 4.8 (but not 4.7833)
1.2

Rounding of the uncertain digits

(i) If the digit to be dropped in a number is less than 5, then the preceding digit remains
unchanged.
Ex: 1.344 is rounded as 1.34

(ii) If the digit to be dropped in a number is greater than 5, then the preceding digit is raised by 1.
Ex: 1.346 is rounded as 1.35

(iii) If the digit to be dropped in a number is 5, then

(a) the preceding digit remains unchanged if it is EVEN.
Ex: 1.345 is rounded as 1.34
(b) the preceding digit is raised by 1, if it is ODD.
Ex: 1.375 is rounded as 1.38

Dimensions of physical quantities: Dimensions of a physical quantity are the power to which the
base quantities are raised to represent the physical quantity.

Note: Dimensions of a physical quantity explain its relationship with fundamental quantities. All
the derived physical quantities can be expressed in terms of some combination of seven
fundamental quantities. Dimensions of a physical quantity are denoted with square bracket.

Symbols for dimensions of fundamental quantities

Base quantity Symbol for its dimension
Length [L]
Mass [M]
Time [T]
Current [A]
Thermodynamic temperature [K]
Luminous intensity [cd]
Amount of substance [mol]
Ex: Dimensions of force are MLT -2 . Hence force has one dimension in mass, one dimension in
length and -2 dimensions in time.

Dimensional formula: Expression of physical quantity in terms of the base quantities is called
dimensional formula.
Ex: Dimensional formula of volume is [𝑀0 𝐿3 𝑇 0 ] , Dimensional formula of Speed is [𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 −1 ]

Dimensional equation: Equation obtained by equating a physical quantity with its dimensional
formula is called dimensional equation.
Ex: [𝐹] = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ], [𝑉] = [𝑀0 𝐿3 𝑇 0 ]

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Different types of variables and constants:
 Dimensional variable: The physical quantities which possess dimensions and have variable
values are called dimensional variables.
Ex: Area, volume, speed, velocity, acceleration, momentum, force etc.

 Dimensionless variables: The physical quantities which have no dimensions but have variable
values are called dimensionless variables.
Ex: Angle, specific gravity, strain, 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 etc.

 Dimensional constants: The physical quantities which possess dimensions and have constant
values are called dimensional constants.
Ex: Planck’s constant, Gravitational constant, speed of light in vacuum etc.

 Dimensionless constants: The physical quantities which do not have dimensions but have
constant values are called dimensionless constants.
Ex: 𝜋, 𝑒, pure numbers like 1, 2, 3….etc.

Dimensional analysis: The process of examination of dimensions of various physical quantities

involved in a relation is called dimensional analysis.

Uses of Dimensional analysis:

(i) The dimensions of all the terms in an equation must be identical. This principle is called the
principle of homogeneity and it is useful method to check whether an equation may be correct
or not.
(ii) Dimensional analysis helps to deduce relations between physical quantities.
(iii) Dimensional analysis helps us to convert the unit of a physical quantity from one system to
another.

Check the correctness of the following equation by dimensional analysis

(i) 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
[𝐿]
[𝑣] = = [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]
[𝑇]

𝑣0 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
[𝑣0 ] = [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]

𝑎𝑡 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑡 = × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
[𝑎𝑡] = [𝐿𝑇 −1 ]

The dimensions of each term on both sides of the equation are the same. Thus equation is
dimensionally correct.

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
𝟏
(ii) 𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟐
𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝑥 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
[𝑥] = [𝐿]

𝑣0 𝑡 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣0 𝑡 = × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
[𝑣0 𝑡] = [𝐿]

𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑡 2 = × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 2
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑎𝑡 2 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
1
[𝑎𝑡 2 ] = [𝐿] (∵ 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)
2

The dimensions of each term on both sides of the equation are the same. Thus equation is
dimensionally correct.

(iii) 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙

𝑣 2 = (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)2
(𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡)2
𝑣2 =
(𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒)2
[𝐿]2 [𝐿2 ]
[𝑣 2 ] = = = [𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]
[𝑇]2 [𝑇 2 ]

𝑣0 2 = (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)2
[𝑣 2 ] = [𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ]

𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑎𝑥 = × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × = 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑎𝑥 = (𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)2
[𝑎𝑥] = [𝐿2 𝑇 −2 ] (∵ 2 𝑖𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑠)

The dimensions of each term on both sides of the equation are the same. Thus equation is
dimensionally correct.

Deducing the relation

1) The time period of oscillation of a simple pendulum(T) depends on its length(l), mass of the
bob(m) and acceleration due to gravity(g). Derive the expression for its time period using the
method of dimension.
Let 𝑇 ∝ 𝑙 𝑎 𝑚𝑏 𝑔𝑐
𝑇 = 𝑘 𝑙 𝑎 𝑚𝑏 𝑔𝑐 (where 𝑘 is constant and dimensionless)
[𝑇] = [𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒] = [𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇]
[𝑙 𝑎 ] = [(𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)𝑎 ] = [𝐿𝑎 ]
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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
[𝑚𝑏 ] = [(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)𝑏 ] = [𝑀𝑏 ]
[𝑔𝑐 ] = [(𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦)𝑐 ] = [(𝐿𝑇 −2 )𝑐 ] = [𝐿𝑐 𝑇 −2𝑐 ]

Then, from the principle of homogeneity,

[𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇] = [𝐿𝑎 ][𝑀𝑏 ][𝐿𝑐 𝑇 −2𝑐 ]
[𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇] = [𝐿𝑎 𝐿𝑐 𝑀𝑏 𝑇 −2𝑐 ]
[𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇] = [𝑀𝑏 𝐿𝑎+𝑐 𝑇 −2𝑐 ]

Comparing the exponents on both sides, we have

𝑏=0
𝑎+𝑐 =0
−2𝑐 = 1

On solving the above equations,

1
−2𝑐 = 1 ⟹ 𝑐 = −
2
and, 𝑎 + 𝑐 = 0
1 1
𝑎− =0 ⟹ 𝑎=
2 2

Now substituting the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐, in the equation 𝑇 = 𝑘 𝑙 𝑎 𝑚𝑏 𝑔𝑐

1⁄ −1
𝑇=𝑘𝑙 2 𝑚0 𝑔 ⁄2

𝒍
𝑻 = 𝒌√
𝒈

2) The centripetal force(F) acting on a particle moving in a circle depends upon mass(m),
velocity(v) and radius of the circle(r). Derive an expression foe centripetal force using the
method of dimensions.

Given, 𝐹 ∝ 𝑚𝑎 𝑣 𝑏 𝑟 𝑐
𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑚𝑎 𝑣 𝑏 𝑟 𝑐 (where 𝑘 is dimensionless constant)
[𝐹] = [𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒] = [𝑀𝐿𝑇 ] −2

[𝑚𝑎 ] = [(𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠)𝑎 ] = [𝑀𝑎 ]

[𝑣 𝑏 ] = [(𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦)𝑏 ] = [(𝐿𝑇 −1 )𝑏 ] = [𝐿𝑏 𝑇 −𝑏 ]
[𝑟 𝑐 ] = [(𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)𝑐 ] = [𝐿𝑐 ]
Then, from the principle of homogeneity,
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀𝑎 ][𝐿𝑏 𝑇 −𝑏 ][𝐿𝑐 ]
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀𝑎 𝐿𝑏 𝐿𝑐 𝑇 −𝑏 ]
[𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ] = [𝑀𝑎 𝐿𝑏+𝑐 𝑇 −𝑏 ]

On comparing, 𝑎=1
𝑏+𝑐 =1
−𝑏 = −2

Solving for b and c, we have

−𝑏 = −2 ⟹ 𝑏 = 2
𝑏+𝑐 =1
2 + 𝑐 = 1 ⟹ 𝑐 = 1 − 2 = −1
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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Now substituting the values of 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑐, in the equation F= 𝑘 𝑚𝑎 𝑣 𝑏 𝑟 𝑐
𝐹 = 𝑘 𝑚1 𝑣 2 𝑟 −1
𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑭=𝒌
𝒓

Limitations of dimensional analysis

1) Correctness of the constants appearing in an equation cannot be verified.
2) Dimensionally correct equation need not be actually correct
3) Equations involving trigonometric and exponential functions cannot be verified.
4) An equation can be derived only if it is of product type.
5) While deriving en equation the value of constant of proportionality cannot be obtained.
6) This method works only if there are as many equations available as there are unknowns.

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Quantity symbol formula S I unit DF

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS

Quantity symbol formula S I unit DF

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 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS
Suggested questions.
One mark.
1) Define unit.
2) What are derived units?
3) Define unified atomic mass unit.
4) How many metres make one parsec?
5) Define the term relative error.
6) What is dimension of a physical quantity?
7) Write the dimensional formula of work.
8) Write the dimensional formula for linear momentum.
9) Write the dimensional formula for force.
10) State principle of homogeneity of dimensions.

Two marks.
1) What are fundamental units? Give an example for fundamental units.
2) With a diagram explain the parallax method of measuring the large distance like a planet or a
star from the earth.
3) Distinguish between accuracy and precision of measurement.
4) Mention the types of errors.
5) Define (a) error (b) accuracy.
6) Write any two methods to minimise the systemic error.
7) What is systemic error? Mention any one source of systemic errors.
8) The resistance R =V/I, where V=(100±5) volt and I= (10±0.2) A, Find the percentage error in R.
9) Define the term significant figures with example.
10) Write the number of significant figures in the following. a) 0.007 𝑚2 b) 2.64 𝑘𝑔
11) Give the number of significant figures in a) 0.00603 𝑚2 b) 0.0203 𝑘𝑔
12) Write the SI unit and dimensional formula for acceleration.
13) Write dimensional formula for force and work.
14) Name any two physical quantities, which have same dimensions.
15) Mention the Physical quantity represented by the dimensional formula [𝑀1 𝐿1 𝑇 −1 ]
16) What are the advantages of dimensional analysis?

Three marks.
1) Name the SI unit of (i) momentum (ii) luminous intensity (iii) solid angle (iv) plane angle
(v) Power (vi) Impulse
2) Write the dimensional formula for pressure, wavelength and force.
3) Using the method of dimensions, deduce the relation connecting the time period, mass of the
bob, length of the pendulum and acceleration due to gravity.
1
4) Check the correctness of the equation 𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 by the method of dimensions.
5) Check the correctness of the equation 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑥 by the method of dimensions.
6) Check the correctness of the equation 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 by the method of dimensions.
7) Check the correctness of the equation 𝐾𝐸 = 1⁄2 𝑚𝑣 2 by the method of dimensions.
8) Check the correctness of the equation 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ by the method of dimensions.
9) Write the limitations of dimensional analysis.

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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
CHAPTER-3 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE

Mechanics: Mechanics is the oldest and fundamental branch of physics and it is the study of the
state of rest as well as the state of motion of object under the action of force.
The study of mechanics is broadly classified in to (i) Statics and (ii) Dynamics

Statics: It deals with bodies at rest under the action of system of force.

Dynamics: It deals with motion of a body under the action of force.

Dynamics is again divided into (a) Kinematics and (b) Kinetics

Kinematics: It deals with the description of motion without reference to the cause of motion.

Kinetics: It deals with what moves and what causes motion.

Some of the terms used in describing motion are given below.

Particle: A particle is ideally just a piece or quantity of matter, having no linear dimensions but
only position and mass.

Event: An event is a physical process that occurs at a point in space and at an instant of time.

Observer: A person or equipment which can locate, record, measure and interpret an event is
called an observer.

Frame of reference: It is the reference in which an observer sits and makes the observations.
In order to specify the position, we need to use a reference point and set of axes. The choice of set
of axes in a frame of reference depends on the situation.

Motion: Motion is change in position of an object with time.

Rectilinear motion: Motion of objects along a straight line.

Ex: A car moving along a straight road, A freely falling body.

Rest: A body is said to be at rest when it does not changes its position with time.

Path length: It is the actual distance covered by a body in time 𝑡.

It is also called as distance travelled.
 Path length is a scalar quantity.
 SI unit of path length is "𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒" (𝑚). Dimensions are 𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 0
 Path length depends on the actual path.
 Path length is always positive.

Displacement: It is the shortest distance between the initial point and final point.
 It is vector quantity.
 SI unit of displacement is "𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒"(𝑚). Dimensions are 𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 0
 Displacement may be positive, negative and zero.
 Magnitude of the displacement can never be greater than path length.
 When a body moves in straight line displacement is equal to path length.
 It is independent of the actual path travelled and it denoted by ∆𝑥
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Difference between path length and displacement

Path length Displacement
It is the actual distance covered by a body in It is the shortest distance between the initial point
time𝑡. It is also called as distance travelled and final point
Path length is a scalar quantity It is vector quantity
Path length is always positive Displacement may be positive, negative and zero
Path length is always greater than or equal to Displacement is always less than or equal to path
displacement length

Speed: Speed is defined as rate of change of position of a particle.

𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑡
 Speed is a scalar quantity.
 Its SI unit is 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (𝑚𝑠 −1 ). Dimensions are 𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 −1
 It is always positive.
 Speed gives no indication about the direction of motion of the particle.

Average speed: The average speed of a particle in motion is defined as the ratio of the total path
length to the total time taken.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Instantaneous speed (speed): It is defined as the limit of average speed as the time interval is
infinitesimally small.

Velocity: Velocity is defined as the rate of change of displacement of a body.

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝒙
𝒗=
𝒕
 Velocity is a vector quantity.
 SI unit is 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (𝑚𝑠 −1 ) . Dimensions are 𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 −1
 Velocity may be positive, negative or zero.

Average velocity: The average velocity of a particle in motion is defined as the ratio of total
displacement to the total time taken.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
𝑣̅ =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
∆𝑥
𝑣̅ =
∆𝑡

Instantaneous velocity: Velocity is defined as the limit of average velocity as the time interval ∆𝑡
becomes infinitesimally small.
∆𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕

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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

 Instantaneous velocity is also called velocity.

 In position-time graph, instantaneous velocity at a point is the slope to the tangent drawn to
the curve at that point.
 Instantaneous speed or speed is the magnitude of velocity.

Uniform velocity: If equal changes of displacement take place in equal intervals of time is called
uniform velocity.

Note: When a body moves with uniform velocity, neither the magnitude nor the direction of the
velocity changes.
Difference between speed and velocity
Speed Velocity
It is defined as the ratio of the path length It is defined as the ratio of displacement to
to the time taken. the time taken.
Speed is a scalar quantity. Velocity is a vector quantity.
It is always positive Velocity may be positive, negative or zero.

Acceleration: It is defined as rate change of velocity of a particle.

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝐴𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
𝒗 − 𝒗𝟎
𝒂=
𝒕
 Acceleration is a vector quantity.
 SI unit is 𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 (𝑚𝑠 −2 ) and dimensions are 𝑀0 𝐿𝑇 −2
 Since velocity is a quantity having both magnitude and direction, Acceleration may result
from a change in magnitude or a change in direction or changes in both.
 Acceleration can be positive, negative or zero.
 The negative acceleration is called retardation or deceleration.

Average acceleration: It is defined as the total change in velocity divided by the total time taken.
𝑣2 − 𝑣1 ∆𝑣
𝑎̅ = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡

Instantaneous acceleration: It is defined as the limit of the average acceleration as the time interval
∆𝑡 becomes infinitesimally small.
∆𝒗 𝒅𝒗
𝒂 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕

Uniform acceleration: If the velocity of a body changes by equal amount in equal intervals of time,
however small these time intervals may be, is called uniform acceleration.

Graphical representation of motion:

Graph: A diagrammatical representation of variation of one quantity with respect to another
quantity is called a graph.

Position-time graph: It is a graph obtained by plotting instantaneous positions of a particle versus

time.
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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
 The slope of the position time graph gives the velocity of the particle.
Position-time graphs:
Slno Type of motion Position-time graph

1 Object at rest

2 Uniform motion along a straight line

3 Motion with positive acceleration

4 Motion with negative acceleration

5 Motion with zero acceleration

Velocity time-graph: A graph of velocity versus time is called velocity-time graph.

 The area under v-t graph with time axis gives the value of displacement covered in given
time.
 The slope of tangent drawn on graph gives instantaneous acceleration.

Uses of velocity-time (v-t) graph / Significance of velocity-time (v-t) graph:

 It is used to study the nature of the motion.
 It is used to find the velocity of the particle at any instant of time.
 It is used to derive the equations of motion.
 It is used to find displacement and acceleration.

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Velocity time-graphs
Slno Type of motion v-t graph

Motion in positive direction with

positive acceleration or uniform
1
acceleration having some initial
velocity.

Motion in positive direction with

2 negative acceleration having some
initial velocity.

Motion in negative direction with

3 negative acceleration having some
initial velocity.

Motion of an object with negative

acceleration that changes direction
4
at time 𝑡1 having some initial
velocity.

Kinematic equation for uniformly accelerated motion: For uniformly accelerated motion, we can
derive some simple equations that relate displacement (𝑥), time taken (𝑡), initial velocity (𝑣0 ), final
velocity (𝑣), and acceleration (𝑎). These equations are called Kinematic equations for uniformly
accelerated motion.

The Equations are, (i) 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡

1
(ii) 𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2
(iii) 𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑎𝑥

Derivation of equation of motion by graphical method

(i) 𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕
Consider a particle in motion with initial velocity 𝑣0 and constant
acceleration 𝑎.
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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
Let 𝑣 be the final velocity of the body at time 𝑡.
From graph,
𝐵𝐶 𝐵𝐷 − 𝐶𝐷
slope = =
𝐴𝐶 𝐴𝐶
But, 𝐶𝐷 = 𝑂𝐴 and 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑂𝐷
𝐵𝐷 − 𝑂𝐴 𝑣 − 𝑣0
Slope = =
𝑂𝐷 𝑡
But, slope of v-t graph gives the acceleration.
𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑎=
𝑡
𝑎𝑡 = 𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎𝑡
𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕

𝟏
(ii) 𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝒂𝒕𝟐
Consider a particle in motion with initial velocity 𝑣0 and constant acceleration 𝑎.
Let 𝑣 be the final velocity of the body at time 𝑡.
From graph,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣 − 𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐷
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ∆𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶 + 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝐴𝐶𝐷
1
𝑥 = [ × 𝐴𝐶 × 𝐵𝐶] + [𝑂𝐷 × 𝑂𝐴]
2
1
𝑥 = 𝑡(𝑣 − 𝑣0 ) + 𝑡𝑣0
2
But, 𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎𝑡
1
𝑥 = 𝑡(𝑎𝑡) + 𝑣0 𝑡
2
1 2
𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 + 𝑣0 𝑡
2
𝟏
𝒙 = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐

(iii) 𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙

Consider a particle in motion with initial velocity 𝑣0 and constant acceleration 𝑎.
Let 𝑣 be the final velocity of the body at time 𝑡.
From graph,
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑣 − 𝑡 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ
𝑥 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑧𝑖𝑢𝑚 𝑂𝐴𝐵𝐷
1
𝑥 = (𝑂𝐴 + 𝐵𝐷)𝐴𝐶
2
1
𝑥 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)𝑡
2
𝑣 − 𝑣0
But, 𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎𝑡 and 𝑡 =
𝑎
1 𝑣 − 𝑣0
𝑥 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣) ( )
2 𝑎
1 (𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 )
𝑥=
2 𝑎
2𝑎𝑥 = 𝑣 2 − 𝑣02
𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 = 2𝑎𝑥
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𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂𝒙
Note: The set above equations were obtained by assuming that at 𝑡 = 0, the position of the Particle
𝑥 is 0 (zero).
When at 𝑡 = 0, If the position of the particle is at 𝑥0 (𝑛𝑜𝑛 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜), then the equations are,
1
(i) 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 (ii) 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 (iii) 𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
2

Free fall: An object released near the surface of the earth is accelerated downward under the
influence of the force of gravity. If the air resistance is neglected, then the motion of the body is
known as free fall.

Acceleration due to gravity: The acceleration produced in object due to gravity is called
acceleration due to gravity, denoted by 𝑔.
Free fall is an example for motion along a straight line under constant acceleration.
 Acceleration due to gravity is always a downward vector directed towards the centre of the
earth.
 The magnitude of 𝑔 is approximately 9 ∙ 8𝑚𝑠 2 near the surface of the earth.
 Acceleration due to gravity is the same for all freely falling bodies irrespective of their size,
shape and mass.
 The distance traversed by a body falling freely from rest during equal intervals of time are in
the ratio 1: 3: 5: 7: … … …. this is known as Galileo’s law of ODD numbers.

Equations of motion under gravity: The motion of a freely falling body is in Y-direction. If we
take vertically upward as positive Y-axis, acceleration is along the negative Y-axis, therefore 𝑎 =
−𝑔. Then, (i) 𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡
1
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
(iii) 𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 − 2𝑔𝑦
For freely falling body the initial velocity, 𝑣0 = 0. Then,
(i) 𝑣 = −𝑔𝑡
1
(ii) 𝑦 = − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
(iii) 𝑣 2 = −2𝑔𝑦
The 𝑎 − 𝑡 graph, 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph and 𝑦 − 𝑡 graph to a body released from rest at 𝑦 = 0 are as shown.

𝑎 − 𝑡 graph 𝑣 − 𝑡 graph 𝑦 − 𝑡 graph

Note: (i) Stopping distance: When breaks are applies to a moving vehicle, the distance travelled
before travelled before stopping is called stopping distance.

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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
−𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝒅𝒔 =
𝟐𝒂
It is an important factor for road safety and it depends on initial velocity and deceleration (−𝑎).

(ii) Reaction time: When a situation demands our immediate action, it takes some time before we
really respond this time is called reaction time.

Relative velocity: The relative velocity of body 𝐴 with respect to body 𝐵 is defined as the time
rate of change of displacement of 𝐴 with respect to 𝐵.

Explanation: Consider two bodies A and B moving with constant velocity 𝑣𝐴 and 𝑣𝐵 respectively,
along positive X-axis.
Let 𝑥𝐴 (𝑡) and 𝑥𝐵 (𝑡) be the position of 𝐴 and 𝐵 at any given instant of time 𝑡, then
𝑥𝐴 (𝑡) = 𝑥𝐴 (0) + 𝑣𝐴 𝑡
𝑥𝐵 (𝑡) = 𝑥𝐵 (0) + 𝑣𝐵 𝑡

Separation between 𝐴 and 𝐵 at time 𝑡 is, 𝑥𝐵 (𝑡) − 𝑥𝐴 (𝑡) = 𝑥𝐵 (0) − 𝑥𝐴 (0) + (𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 )𝑡
Here, 𝑥𝐵 (0) − 𝑥𝐴 (0) is the separation between 𝐴 and 𝐵 at 𝑡 = 0 and (𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 ) is the time rate of
change of relative velocity of 𝐵 with respect to 𝐴, denoted by 𝑣𝐵𝐴 .
Hence, 𝒗𝑩𝑨 = 𝒗𝑩 − 𝒗𝑨
Similarly velocity of A with respect to B is 𝒗𝑨𝑩 = 𝒗𝑨 − 𝒗𝑩
and it can be shown that 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = −𝑣𝐵𝐴

Case(1): When two bodies move with the same velocity in

same direction, then 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑣𝐵 and 𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 = 0 and 𝑣𝐴𝐵 =
𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 0,
Then two bodies appear at rest with respect to each other.
In this case relative velocity is minimum.

Case(2): When two bodies move in the same direction

with different velocities,
If 𝑣𝐴 > 𝑣𝐵 then 𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 and 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.

Case(3): When two bodies move in different velocities or

same velocities in opposite direction.
The magnitude of the relative velocity of either of them with
respect to the other is equal to the sum of the magnitude of
their velocities.
𝑣𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣𝐴 + 𝑣𝐵
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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
In this case relative velocity is maximum.

Problems:
1) A car is moving along a straight line. It moves O to P in 18 second covering a distance of 360m
and returns from P to Q in 6second by covering a distance of 120m. Calculate average velocity
and average speed of a car in going (a) from O to P (b) from O to P and back to Q.
Given
𝑂𝑃 = 360𝑚
𝑄𝑃 = 120𝑚
𝑂𝑄 = 𝑂𝑃 − 𝑄𝑃 = 360 − 120 = 240𝑚

𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
(a) Avg. velocity = (b) ) Avg. velocity =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑂𝑃 360 𝑂𝑄 240
𝑣= = = 20𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣= = = 10𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑡 18 𝑡 24
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 360 + 120
Avg. speed = Avg. speed = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 24
360 480
Avg. speed = = 20𝑚𝑠 −1 Avg. speed = = 20𝑚𝑠 −1
18 24

2) A car moving along a straight line takes 5 second to increase its velocity from 15𝑚𝑠 −1 to
30𝑚𝑠 −1 . What is the acceleration of the car? Also calculate the distance travelled by the car in
5 second.
Given 𝑡 = 5𝑠, 𝑣0 = 15𝑚𝑠 −1, 𝑣 = 30𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑎 = ?, 𝑥 = ?
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 1
𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
30 = 15 + 𝑎 × 5 2
5𝑎 = 30 − 15 1
𝑥 = 15 × 5 + × 3 × 52
15 2
𝑎= = 3𝑚𝑠 −2 75
5 𝑥 = 75 +
2
𝑥 = 75 + 37.5 = 112.5𝑚

3) A car moving along a straight road increases its velocity from 10𝑚𝑠 −1 to 30𝑚𝑠 −1 in 4 second.
Calculate (a) the acceleration of the car and
(b) the distance travelled by the car in 4 second.
Given 𝑣0 = 10𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑣 = 30𝑚𝑠 −1, 𝑡 = 4𝑠, 𝑎 = ?, 𝑥 = ?
1
𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 2
1
30 = 10 + 𝑎 × 4 𝑥 = 10 × 4 + × 5 × 42
2
4𝑎 = 30 − 10
80
20 𝑥 = 40 +
𝑎= = 5𝑚𝑠 −2 2
4 𝑥 = 40 + 40 = 80𝑚

4) A truck moving along a straight highway with a speed of 20𝑚𝑠 −1 is brought to rest in 10𝑠.
What is the retardation of the truck? How far will the truck travel before it comes to rest?
Given 𝑣0 = 20𝑚𝑠 −1, 𝑣 = 0𝑚𝑠 −1 , 𝑡 = 10𝑠, 𝑎 = ? , 𝑥 = ?
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 −20
𝑎= = −2𝑚𝑠 −2
0 = 20 + 𝑎 × 10 10
10𝑎 = −20
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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
1 𝑥 = 200 − 100
𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2
2 𝑥 = 100𝑚
1
= 20 × 10 + × (−2) × 102
2
5) A player throws a ball upwards with an initial speed of 29.4𝑚𝑠 −1
(a) What is the direction of acceleration during the upward motion of the ball?
(b) What is the velocity and acceleration at the highest point of its path?
(c) To what height does the ball rise and after how long does the ball returns to the player’s
hand?
Given 𝑣0 = 29.4𝑚𝑠 −1
(a) The ball is moving under the gravity, so the direction of acceleration is vertically downwards
and towards the centre of the earth.
(b) At the highest point, 𝑣 = 0𝑚𝑠 −1 and acceleration is equal to acceleration due to gravity, 𝑎 =
9.8𝑚𝑠 −2
(c)
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑥 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
2 0 = 29.4 + (−9.8) × 𝑡
0 = (29.4) + 2 × (−9.8) × 𝑥
(29.4) 2 29.4
𝑥= = 44.1𝑚 𝑡= =3𝑠
2 × (9.8) 9.8
Total time = time of ascent + time of decent = 3s +3s = 6s

6) A car is moving along a straight highway with a speed of 126kmph is brought to stop with in a
distance of 200m. What is the retardation of the car and how long does it take for the car to
stop?
Given 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑥
𝑣0 = 126𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ 0 = 352 + 2 × 𝑎 × 200
126 × 1000 400𝑎 = −35 × 35
𝑣0 = 𝑚𝑠 −1 = 35𝑚𝑠 −1
3600 35 × 35
𝑥 = 200𝑚 𝑎=− = −3.06 𝑚𝑠 −2
400
𝑣 = 0𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑎 =?, 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
𝑡 =? 0 = 35 + (−3.06) × 𝑡
35
𝑡= = 11.42 𝑠
3.06

7) Two trains A and B of length 300m each are moving on two parallel tracks with an uniform
speed of 54kmph in the same direction, with the train A ahead of B. The driver of train B
decides to overtake A and accelerates by 2𝑚𝑠 −2 . If after 25s, the guard of train B just brushes
past the driver of A. What original distance between them?
Given 𝑙𝐴 = 300𝑚 1
𝑥𝐴 = 𝑣𝐴 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐴 𝑡 2
𝑙𝐵 = 300𝑚 2
𝑣𝐴 = 54𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ = 15𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑥𝐴 = 15 × 25 +0
𝑣𝐵 = 15𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑥𝐴 = 375𝑚
𝑎𝐴 = 0𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑎𝐵 = 2𝑚𝑠 −2 Distance travelled by B in 25s,
𝑡 = 25𝑠 1
𝑥𝐵 = 𝑣𝐵 𝑡 + 𝑎𝐵 𝑡 2
Original distance, 𝑙 = ? 2
1
Distance travelled by A in 25s, 𝑥𝐵 = 15 × 25 + × 2 × 25 × 25
2
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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
𝑥𝐵 = 375 + 625 = 1000 1000 = 300 + 𝑙 + 375 + 300
1000 = 975 + 𝑙
Distance travelled by B in 25s, 𝑙 = 1000 − 975 = 25𝑚
𝑥𝐵 = 𝑙𝐵 + 𝑙 + 𝑥𝐴 + 𝑙𝐴
8) The displacement (in metre) of a particle moving along x-axis is given by 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 + 3.
Calculate (i) Average velocity between 𝑡 = 3 𝑠 and 𝑡 = 5 𝑠.
(ii) Instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 5 𝑠 and
(iii) Instantaneous acceleration.
Given 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 + 3

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑥
(i)Avg. velocity = (ii) Instantaneous velocity, 𝑣=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛 𝑑𝑡
When 𝑡1 = 3 𝑠, 𝑥1 = 2(3)2 + 3 = 21 𝑚 𝑥 = 2𝑡 2 + 3
When 𝑡2 = 5 𝑠, 𝑥2 = 2(5)2 + 3 = 53 𝑚 𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = 2(2)𝑡 + 0 = 4𝑡
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 𝑑𝑡
Average velocity = 𝑑𝑥
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 When 𝑡 = 5 𝑠, 𝑣 = = 4(5) = 20 𝑚𝑠 −1
53 − 21 32 𝑑𝑡
𝑣̅ = = = 16 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑑𝑣
5−3 2 (iii)Instantaneous acceleration, 𝑎=
𝑑𝑡
𝑣 = 4𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= = 4 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑑𝑡
9) Obtain equations of motion for constant acceleration using method of calculus.
𝑑𝑣
(i) By definition, 𝑎 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 = 𝑎 𝑑𝑡
𝑣 𝑡

Integrating both sides, ∫ 𝑑𝑣 = ∫ 𝑎 𝑑𝑡

𝑣0 0
[𝑣]𝑣𝑣0 = 𝑎[𝑡]𝑡0
𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎[𝑡 − 0]
𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎𝑡
𝒗 = 𝒗𝟎 + 𝒂𝒕

𝑑𝑥
(ii) Now, we have 𝑣=
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣𝑑𝑡
𝑥 𝑡

Integrating both sides, ∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑡

𝑥0 0
𝑥 𝑡

∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫(𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝑥0 0
𝑡
𝑡2
[𝑥]𝑥𝑥0 = [𝑣0 𝑡]𝑡0 +𝑎[ ]
2 0
𝟏
(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 ) = 𝒗𝟎 𝒕 + 𝒂𝒕𝟐
𝟐

𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑥
(iii) we have, 𝑎= = ∙
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑡

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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE
𝑑𝑣
𝑎= ∙𝑣
𝑑𝑥
𝑎 ∙ 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑣 ∙ 𝑑𝑣
𝑥 𝑣

Integrating on both sides, ∫ 𝑎𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑣

𝑥0 𝑣0
2 𝑣
𝑣
[𝑎𝑥]𝑥𝑥0 = [ ]
2 𝑣
0
1
𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) = (𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 )
2
2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) = (𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 )
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝒂(𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 )

Suggested Questions.
One mark.
1) When will the magnitude of displacement equal to the path length?
2) Define average speed.
3) Define instantaneous speed.
4) Define instantaneous velocity.
5) Define average velocity.
6) Define acceleration.
7) What is retardation?
8) What is the acceleration of a body moving with uniform velocity?
9) What does the slope of position-time graph represent?
10) What does the slope of velocity-time graph represent?
11) Draw v-t graph for motion in uniform acceleration.

Two marks.
1) Distinguish between distance travelled and displacement of a particle.
2) Distinguish between speed and velocity.
3) Define uniform velocity and uniform acceleration.
4) What is position time graph? Draw 𝑥 − 𝑡 graph for an object at rest.
5) Draw position time graph for (a) a particle at rest,(b) a body moving with uniform velocity.
6) Draw the position time graph of a particle moving with
a) Positive acceleration. b) Negative acceleration.
7) Draw v-t graph for body moving in uniform acceleration.
8) Define relative velocity. When will the relative velocity of two bodies be zero?
9) Define relative velocity with an example.

Three marks.
1) Write the significance of v-t graph.
2) Derive the equation 𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 with usual notation by using v-t graph.
3) Define relative velocity. When does the relative velocity become maximum and minimum if
two particles are moving along a straight line?
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 MOTION ALONG A STRAIGHT LINE

Five marks.
1) What is v-t graph? Derive the equation 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑥 with usual notation by using v-t graph.
1
2) What is v-t graph? Derive the equation 𝑥 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑡 2 with usual notation by using v-t graph.

Additional Problems:
1) The displacement of the particle moving along x-axis is given by 𝑥 = 3𝑡 3 − 5𝑡 2 + 1 where x is
in metre and t is in second. Calculate
(i) Instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 2 𝑠
(ii) Instantaneous acceleration at 𝑡 = 3 𝑠
2) A body is thrown up with velocity of 78.4 𝑚𝑠 −1 . Find how high it will rise and how much
time it will take to return to its point of projection.
3) A ball thrown vertically upwards and it reaches a height of 90 𝑚. Find the velocity with
which it was thrown and the height reached by the ball 7 second after it was thrown?
4) A body travelling with an initial velocity 36 𝑚𝑠 −1 comes to rest after travelling 90 𝑚.
Assuming the retardation to be uniform, find its value. What time does it take to cover that
distance?
5) A car is moving along a straight highway with a speed of 108 𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑟 −1 is brought to stop with
a distance 200 𝑚. What is the retardation of the car? And how long does it take for the car to
stop?
6) A car travels a distance from A to B at a speed of 40 𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑟 −1 and returns to A at the speed of
30 𝑘𝑚 ℎ𝑟 −1 . What is the average speed for the whole journey?

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

Chapter 4 MOTION IN A PLANE

When a body moves in a plane (a two dimensional motion) or in a space (a three

dimensional motion) then the position, displacement, velocity and acceleration of the body have
two or three components respectively. Then we need to use Vectors to describe the concept of
position, displacement, velocity and acceleration.

Scalar quantity: A physical quantity having only magnitude is called a scalar quantity. It is
specified completely by a single number along with proper unit.
Ex: mass, length, temperature, speed, charge, area etc.
Scalars can be added, subtracted, multiplied and divided just as the ordinary numbers.
They follow the rules of algebra.

Vector quantity: A Physical quantity having both magnitude and direction and obey the triangle
law of addition is called Vector quantity. It is represented by a number with an appropriate unit
and direction.
Ex: Displacement, velocity, acceleration, force, momentum etc.

Differences between Scalar quantity and Vector quantity

Scalar Quantity Vector Quantity
It has only magnitude It has both magnitude and direction
They follow the rules of ordinary algebra They follow the rules of vector algebra
Ex: Mass, Length, Temperature, Area Ex: Displacement, velocity, Acceleration, Force
These changes when magnitude changes or
These change when magnitude changes
direction changes or both of them changes.

Representation of a vector: To represent a vector we use a bold face letters or

an arrow placed over a letter.
Ex: a = 𝑎⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃
Here O is called the initial point and P is called the terminal point.
Length of the line segment OP represents the magnitude and arrow at the end
point indicates the direction.
The magnitude of a vector is often called the absolute value and indicated by, |𝐚| = |𝑎⃗| = 𝑎

Classification of vectors:
Parallel vectors: Two or more vectors having same direction are called parallel vectors.

Anti-parallel vectors (opposite vectors) : Vectors having opposite directions are called anti-
parallel vectors (opposite vectors).

Equality of vector (Equal vectors): Two (or more) vectors having same
magnitude and direction, representing the same physical quantity are called
Equal vectors.

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

Negative of a vector: A vector having same magnitude but having

opposite direction to that of the given vector is called negative of a given
vector.

Zero(Null) vector: A vector whose magnitude is zero is called Zero

⃗⃗ and the direction is not specified.
vector. It is represented by 0
⃗⃗
Properties of Zero vector are, 𝐴⃗ − 𝐴⃗ = 0
⃗⃗| = 0
|0
𝐴⃗ − ⃗0⃗ = 𝐴⃗
⃗0⃗ 𝐴⃗ = 𝐴⃗ 0
⃗⃗ = ⃗0⃗
𝜆0 ⃗⃗ = 0
⃗⃗

Unit vector: A vector having unit magnitude is called unit vector.

Its purpose is to specify a direction. Unit vector has no dimensions and unit.
If 𝑎⃗ is a vector, then the unit vector in direction of 𝑎⃗ is written as 𝑎̂ (read as “a cap”) 𝑎⃗ = |𝑎⃗| 𝑎̂,
𝑎⃗
Then, mathematically unit vector can be represented as, 𝑎̂ =
|𝑎⃗|
Note: The unit vectors in the positive directions of x, y and z axes are labelled as 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂
respectively.

Addition of vectors – Graphical method

Two vectors representing the same quantity in the same unit are added using following rules.

(i) Triangle method of vector addition:

Law of triangle of vectors or Triangular law of vector addition:
If two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are represented by two sides of a triangle in head to tail form, then the
closing side of the triangle taken from tail of the first to head of the second represent the vector
sum of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ .

Explanation:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Consider two vectors, 𝑎⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶 are of same nature.
The triangle ABC is completed by joining A and C.
According to triangle law of addition, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝐴𝐶 = 𝑟⃗ represents the
sum of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ .
𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ or ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + 𝐵𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶
Note: In this procedure of vector addition, vectors are arranged head-to-tail. Hence it is called
head-to-tail method.

Properties vector addition:

(a) Vector addition is commutative. (b) Vector addition is Associative.
𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑟⃗ = 𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑎⃗ (𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗) + 𝑐⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + (𝑏⃗⃗ + 𝑐⃗)

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

(ii) Parallelogram method of vector addition

Law of parallelogram of vectors or Parallelogram law of vector addition:
If two vectors are represented by two adjacent sides of a parallelogram, then the diagonal drawn
from the common initial point represents their vector sum.
Explanation: Vector 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ are drawn with a
common initial point and parallelogram is
constructed using these two vectors as two
adjacent sides of a parallelogram. The diagonal
originating from the common initial point is
vector sum of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗.

Subtraction vectors – Graphical method: Subtraction of vectors can be defined in terms of

addition of vectors.
Consider two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ of same nature and another vector −𝑏⃗⃗
which is opposite (negative) vector of 𝑏⃗⃗ , then
𝑎⃗ + ( −𝑏⃗⃗) = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗

Note: Subtraction vector is neither commutative nor associative.

Multiplication of a vector by real(Scalar) number OR Scalar multiplication of a Vector:

The product of a vector 𝑣⃗ and a positive number (Scalar) 𝜆 gives a vector, whose magnitude is
changed by a factor 𝜆 but direction is same as that of 𝑣⃗.
|𝜆𝑣⃗| = 𝜆|𝑣⃗ | (𝑖𝑓 𝜆 > 0)
If 𝜆 is negative, the direction of the vector 𝜆𝑣⃗ is opposite to the direction of the vector 𝑣⃗ and
magnitude is – 𝜆 times |𝑣⃗ |.
If the multiplying factor 𝜆 is dimensionless then 𝜆𝑣⃗ have the same dimensions as that of 𝑣⃗ and is
product of dimensions if 𝜆 has dimensions.

Resolution of vectors: Splitting a given vector into a number of components is called resolution of
vectors OR The process of finding the components of a given vector is called resolution the vector.

Expressions for X and Y components of a Vector:

Consider a vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = 𝑎⃗ in X-Y plane, which makes an angle 𝜃 with the positive X-axis.
Draw AM and AN perpendicular to X and Y axes respectively.
Let ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗𝑦
𝑂𝑀 = 𝑎⃗𝑥 and 𝑂𝑁
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
From parallelogram law of addition, we have 𝑂𝑀 𝑂𝑁 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴
𝑎⃗𝑥 + 𝑎⃗𝑦 = 𝑎⃗
(Here 𝑎⃗𝑥 is x - component of 𝑎⃗ and 𝑎⃗𝑦 is y - component of 𝑎⃗)
𝑂𝑀 𝑎𝑥
From ∆𝑙𝑒 𝑂𝐴𝑀, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = =
𝑂𝐴 𝑎
𝒂𝒙 = 𝒂 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
𝐴𝑀 𝑎𝑦
and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 = =
𝑂𝐴 𝑎
𝒂𝒚 = 𝒂 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
Vectoricaly ⃗⃗𝒙 = 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 and ⃗⃗𝒚 = 𝒂
𝒂 ⃗⃗ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽

Note: 𝑎⃗𝑥 and 𝑎⃗𝑦 being perpendicular are called Rectangular components of 𝑎⃗

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

Magnitude: Magnitude of 𝑎⃗ is given by |𝑎⃗| = 𝑎

Now, 𝑎𝑥2 = 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃 and 𝑎𝑦2 = 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃
Taking 𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 = 𝑎2 cos2 𝜃 + 𝑎2 sin2 𝜃
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 = 𝑎2 (cos 2 𝜃 + sin2 𝜃)
𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 = 𝑎2

𝒂 = √𝒂𝟐𝒙 + 𝒂𝟐𝒚
𝑎𝑦 𝑎 sin 𝜃
𝐃𝐢𝐫𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: By taking =
𝑎𝑥 𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝑎𝑦
= tan 𝜃
𝑎𝑥
𝒂𝒚
𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝒂𝒙

Note:
(i) In terms of unit vectors, 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ + sin 𝜃 𝑗̂
where 𝑎⃗𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝑖̂ and 𝑎⃗𝑦 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑗̂
(ii) If 𝑎⃗ is in XYZ plane and makes an angle 𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 with X, Y and Z axes
respectively, then 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝛼, 𝑎𝑦 = 𝑎 cos 𝛽, 𝑎𝑧 = 𝑎 cos 𝛾 and
𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂

The magnitude of 𝑎⃗ is, 𝑎 = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 + 𝑎𝑧2

Find the magnitude and direction of the resultatnt of two vectors ⃗𝑨⃗ and ⃗𝑩
⃗⃗ in terms of their
magnitudes and angle 𝜽 between them.

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗

Let 𝑂𝑃 𝑂𝑄 represent the two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ making an angle 𝜃.
Then using the parallelogram method of vector addition 𝑂𝑆 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ represents the resultant vector 𝑅⃗⃗.
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝐴⃗ + 𝐵
⃗⃗
Draw SN is normal to OP extended.
𝑃𝑁
In ∆𝑙𝑒 𝑆𝑃𝑁, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 =
𝑆𝑃
𝑃𝑁 = 𝑆𝑃 cos 𝜃 = 𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝑆𝑁
and 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 =
𝑆𝑃
𝑆𝑁 = 𝑆𝑃 sin 𝜃 = 𝐵 sin 𝜃

Magnitude: From geometry,

𝑂𝑆 2 = 𝑂𝑁 2 + 𝑆𝑁 2
𝑂𝑆 2 = (𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑁)2 + 𝑆𝑁 2
𝑅 2 = (𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃)2 + (𝐵 sin 𝜃)2
𝑅 2 = 𝐴2 + (𝐵 cos 𝜃)2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 + 𝐵2 sin2 𝜃
𝑅 2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 cos 2 𝜃 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 + 𝐵2 sin2 𝜃

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 MOTION IN A PLANE
2 2 2 (cos 2 2
𝑅 =𝐴 +𝐵 𝜃 + sin 𝜃) + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
2 2 2
𝑅 = 𝐴 + 𝐵 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝑹 = √𝑨𝟐 + 𝑩𝟐 + 𝟐𝑨𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

Direction: Let 𝛼 be angle made by the resultant vector 𝑅⃗⃗ with the vector 𝐴⃗, then
𝑆𝑁 𝑆𝑁
tan 𝛼 = =
𝑂𝑁 𝑂𝑃 + 𝑃𝑁
𝐵 sin 𝜃
tan 𝛼 =
𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝜶 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝑨 + 𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

Limitations of Graphical method of adding vectors:

(i) It is very difficult method.
(ii) It has limited accuracy.
To overcome these limitations Analytical method of addition of vectors is preferred.

Addition of vectors – Analytical method:

In two Dimensions: Consider two vectors 𝑎⃗ and 𝑏⃗⃗ in X-Y plane.
If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ then, 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗
𝑅⃗⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂) + (𝑏𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂)
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂
𝑅⃗⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 )𝑖̂ + (𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 )𝑗̂
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑹𝒙 𝒊̂ + 𝑹𝒚 𝒋̂
𝑹
Where 𝑅𝑥 = 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 and 𝑅𝑦 = 𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦

In three Dimensions: If 𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝑏⃗⃗ = 𝑏𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂ then, 𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑎⃗ + 𝑏⃗⃗

𝑅⃗⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂ ) + (𝑏𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂ )
𝑅⃗⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑏𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑏𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂ + 𝑏𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑅⃗⃗ = (𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 )𝑖̂ + (𝑎𝑦 + 𝑏𝑦 )𝑗̂ + (𝑎𝑧 + 𝑏𝑧 )𝑘̂
̂
⃗⃗⃗ = 𝑹𝒙 𝒊̂ + 𝑹𝒚 𝒋̂ + 𝑹𝒛 𝒌
𝑹
This method can be extended to addition and subtraction of any number of vectors.

Motion in a plane
Position vector: The position vector 𝑟⃗ of a particle located in
X-Y plane with reference to the origin is given by, 𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑗̂
Where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are component of 𝑟⃗ along X-axis and Y-axis
respectively.

Displacement: Consider a particle moves along curve.

Initially it is at 𝑃1 at time 𝑡1 and moves to a new position 𝑃2 at time 𝑡2 .
Then the displacement is given by, ∆𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1
∆𝑟⃗ = (𝑥2 𝑖̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̂) − (𝑥1 𝑖̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̂)
∆𝑟⃗ = (𝑥2 𝑖̂−𝑥1 𝑖̂) + (𝑦2 𝑗̂ − 𝑦1 𝑗̂)
∆𝑟⃗ = (𝑥2 −𝑥1 )𝑖̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̂
⃗⃗ = ∆𝒙𝒊̂ + ∆𝒚𝒋̂
∆𝒓 Where ∆𝑥 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 and ∆𝑦 = 𝑦2 − 𝑦1

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

Velocity:
Average velocity: It is defined as ratio of the displacement to the time taken.
∆𝑟⃗ ∆𝑥𝑖̂ + ∆𝑦𝑗̂
𝑣̅⃗ = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
𝑣̅⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
⃗𝒗
̅⃗ = 𝒗
̅𝒙 𝒊̂ + 𝒗
̅𝒚 𝒋̂ Where 𝑣̅𝑥 = and 𝑣̅𝑦 =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
Direction of the average velocity is same as that of the displacement.

Instantaneous velocity (Velocity): It is given by the limiting value of the average velocity as the
time interval approaches to zero.
∆𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝒅𝒓⃗⃗
⃗⃗ =
𝒗
𝒅𝒕
The direction of velocity at any point on the path of the object is tangential to the path at that point
and in the direction of the motion.
The components of the velocity 𝑣⃗ are given by,
∆𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗ = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
𝑣⃗ = lim ( 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑥 ∆𝑦
𝑣⃗ = lim 𝑖̂ + lim 𝑗̂
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦
𝑣⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗ = 𝒗𝒙 𝒊̂ + 𝒗𝒚 𝒋̂
𝒗
𝒗
The magnitude is given by 𝒗 = √𝒗𝟐𝒙 + 𝒗𝟐𝒚 and Direction is given by 𝜽 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( 𝒗𝒚 )
𝒙

Acceleration:
Average acceleration: It is defined as the change in velocity divided by time interval.
∆𝑣⃗ ∆(𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂)
𝑎̅⃗ = =
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
∆𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑣𝑦
𝑎̅⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
⃗𝒂
̅⃗ = 𝒂
̅ 𝒙 𝒊̂ + 𝒂̅ 𝒚 𝒋̂

Instantaneous acceleration (Acceleration): It is the limiting value of the average acceleration as

the time interval approaches zero.
∆𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
⃗⃗
𝒅𝒗
⃗⃗ =
𝒂
𝒅𝒕
The Components are given by,
∆𝑣⃗
𝑎⃗ = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
∆(𝑣𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̂)
𝑎⃗ = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
∆𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑣𝑦
𝑎⃗ = lim 𝑖̂ + lim 𝑗̂
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦
𝑎⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗ = 𝒂𝒙 𝒊̂ + 𝒂𝒚 𝒋̂
𝒂
In one dimension the direction of velocity and acceleration is same or in opposite direction but in
two or three dimensions, velocity and acceleration vectors may have any angle between 0 0 and
1800.

Motion in a plane with constant acceleration

Consider an object moving in x-y plane and its acceleration 𝑎⃗ is constant.
Let the velocity of the object be 𝑣⃗0 at time 𝑡 = 0 and 𝑣⃗ at time 𝑡, then
(i) 𝑣⃗ = 𝑣⃗0 + 𝑎⃗𝑡
In terms of its components, 𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡
1
(ii) Displacement is 𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗0 = 𝑣⃗0 𝑡 + 2 𝑎⃗𝑡 2
1
In terms of its components, 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
1
𝑦 − 𝑦0 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 2 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2

𝑣 2 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
(iii) ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣02 + 2𝑎⃗(𝑟⃗ − 𝑟⃗0 )
2
In terms of its components, 𝑣𝑥2 = 𝑣0𝑥 + 2𝑎𝑥 (𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
2
𝑣𝑦2 = 𝑣0𝑦 + 2𝑎𝑦 (𝑦 − 𝑦0 )
The motion in plane can be treated as two separate simultaneous one-dimensional motions with
constant acceleration along two perpendicular directions.

Relative velocity in two Dimensions: Suppose two objects 𝐴 and 𝐵 are moving with velocities 𝑣⃗𝐴
and 𝑣⃗𝐵 , then the velocity of the object 𝐴 relative to that of 𝐵 is, 𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 = 𝑣⃗𝐴 − 𝑣⃗𝐵
Similarly, the velocity of the object 𝐵 relative to that of 𝐴 is, 𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴 = 𝑣⃗𝐵 − 𝑣⃗𝐴
Therefore, 𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 = −𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴 and |𝑣⃗𝐴𝐵 | = |𝑣⃗𝐵𝐴 |

Examples for Motion in a plane:

(i) Projectile motion (Uniformly accelerated motion)
(ii) Circular motion (Non-uniformly accelerated motion)
When a particle traces a curve in two dimensional plane, the velocity of the particle changes at
least in direction. Hence, a two dimensional motion along a curve is essentially an accelerated
motion. Acceleration may be uniform or non-uniform.

Projectile: A projectile is any object thrown into air or space.

Projectile motion: Motion associated with a projectile in parabolic path is called Projectile motion.
Ex: A ball leaving the hand of a bowler, A stone thrown at an angle to the horizontal, An object
dropped from an aeroplane in horizontal flight.
The motion of projectile may be thought of as the result of two separate, simultaneously
occurring components of motion. One component is along a horizontal direction with any
acceleration and other along the vertical direction with constant acceleration due to gravity. It was
Galileo, who first stated this independency of the horizontal and vertical components of projectile motion.

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

Analysis of Projectile motion:

Let a projectile is projected with initial velocity 𝑣⃗0
that makes an angle 𝜃 with x-axis.
The acceleration acting on it is due to gravity and is
directed vertically downwards.
𝑎𝑥 = 0, 𝑎𝑦 = −𝑔, hence 𝑎⃗ = −𝑔𝑗̂
The components of initial velocity 𝑣⃗0 are,
𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃
𝑣0𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
The components of velocity at time 𝑡 are,
𝑣𝑥 = 𝑣0 cos 𝜃
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
The components of displacements at time 𝑡 are,
1
(i) 𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 (∵ 𝑎𝑥 = 0)
𝒙 = (𝒗𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽) 𝒕 (along X-axis)
1
(ii) 𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2
𝟏
𝒚 = (𝒗𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)𝒕 − 𝒈𝒕𝟐 (along 𝑌 − axis)
𝟐

Path of a projectile: The path described by the projectile is called trajectory. The trajectory is a
parabola

Expression for path of a projectile (Show that the path of a projectile is Parabola):
The displacement of the projectile along X-axis is,
𝑥 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃) 𝑡
𝑥
𝑡=
𝑣0 cos 𝜃
The displacement of the projectile along Y-axis is,
1
𝑦 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃)𝑡 − 𝑔𝑡 2
2
𝑥 1 𝑥 2
𝑦 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃) ( )− 𝑔( )
𝑣0 cos 𝜃 2 𝑣0 cos 𝜃
sin 𝜃 1 𝑔
𝑦= 𝑥− 𝑥2
cos 𝜃 2 𝑣02 cos 2 𝜃
1 𝑔
𝑦 = tan 𝜃 𝑥 − 2 𝑥2
2 𝑣0 cos2 𝜃
1 𝑔
𝒚 = 𝒂𝒙 − 𝒃𝒙𝟐 where 𝑎 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 and 𝑏 = 2
2 𝑣0 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜃
2
The equation 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑥 − 𝑏𝑥 represents a parabola. Hence the trajectory is a parabola.

Time of Flight: It is the time during which the projectile is in flight. It is denoted by 𝑇𝑓 .

Expression for Time of flight:

The component of velocity along Y-axis at time t is,
𝑣𝑦 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡
At maximum height 𝑣𝑦 = 0 and time for maximum height, 𝑡 = 𝑡𝑚 .
0 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 − 𝑔𝑡𝑚
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 MOTION IN A PLANE

𝑔𝑡𝑚 = 𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝑡𝑚 =
𝑔
Time of flight 𝑇𝑓 = 2𝑡𝑚 because “time of ascent = time of descent”
𝟐𝒗𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
𝑻𝒇 =
𝒈

Maximum height of a projectile: It is the maximum height reached by the projectile in time 𝑡𝑚 .
It is denoted by ℎ𝑚 .

Expression for maximum height of a projectile:

1 2
The displacement along Y − axis is, 𝑦 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃)𝑡𝑚 − 𝑔𝑡𝑚
2
𝑣0 sin 𝜃 1 𝑣0 sin 𝜃 2
ℎ𝑚 = (𝑣0 sin 𝜃) ( )− 𝑔 ( )
𝑔 2 𝑔
(𝑣0 sin 𝜃)2 1 (𝑣0 sin 𝜃)2
ℎ𝑚 = − 𝑔
𝑔 2 𝑔2
(𝑣0 sin 𝜃)2 1 (𝑣0 sin 𝜃)2
ℎ𝑚 = −
𝑔 2 𝑔
2
1 (𝑣0 sin 𝜃)
ℎ𝑚 = (1 − )
2 𝑔
2
1 (𝑣0 sin 𝜃)
ℎ𝑚 =
2 𝑔
(𝒗𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)𝟐
𝒉𝒎 =
𝟐𝒈

Horizontal Range of projectile: It is the horizontal distance covered by the projectile during its
flight. It is denoted by 𝑅.

Expression for Horizontal Range of projectile:

Displacement along X-axis is, 𝑥 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃) 𝑡
Now 𝑥 = 𝑅 and 𝑡 = 𝑇𝑓
𝑅 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃) 𝑇𝑓
2𝑣0 sin 𝜃
𝑅 = (𝑣0 cos 𝜃) ( )
𝑔
𝑣02
𝑅= 2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑔
𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝑹= 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝜽
𝒈

Note:
(i) For a given speed of projection, the projectile will have maximum range (𝑅𝑚 ) when sin 2𝜃 is
maximum or angle of projection is 450 .
sin 2𝜃 = 1 ⟹ 2𝜃 = 900
Then angle of projection, 𝜃 = 450
𝑣02
Maximum range, 𝑅𝑚 = sin 2(450 )
𝑔
𝒗𝟐𝟎
𝑹𝒎 =
𝒈

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 MOTION IN A PLANE
𝟎
(ii) Show that 𝑹𝒎 = 𝟒𝒉𝒎 when the angle of projection is 𝜽 = 𝟒𝟓 .
0
𝑣02
For 𝜃 = 45 , 𝑅𝑚 = and
𝑔
𝑣02 sin2 𝜃 𝑣02 sin2 45 𝑣02 1
ℎ𝑚 = = = ×
2𝑔 2𝑔 2𝑔 2
𝑣02 1 𝑣02
ℎ𝑚 = = ( )
4𝑔 4 𝑔
1
ℎ𝑚 = (𝑅𝑚 )
4
𝑹𝒎 = 𝟒𝒉𝒎
∴ The maximum range of a projectile is equal to 4 times the maximum height reached.

Uniform circular motion: Motion of the object in a circular path at a constant speed is called
uniform circular motion.
Even though the object moves at a constant speed it has acceleration, because there is a
continuous change in its direction of motion. Hence there is a change in its velocity from point to
point.

Expression for Acceleration:

Let 𝑟⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗′ are the velocities of
𝑟 ′ be the position vectors and 𝑣⃗ and 𝑣
the object when it is at 𝑃 and 𝑄 as shown.

Velocity at a point is along the tangent at that point in the direction

of motion.
From∆𝑙𝑒 𝐴𝐵𝐶, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐶
𝑣⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗′
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐵𝐶 = 𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗′ − 𝑣⃗ = ∆𝑣⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗′ are
∆𝑣⃗ is change in velocity, which is towards the centre. Since the path is circular, 𝑣⃗ and 𝑣
perpendicular to 𝑟⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟 ′ respectively. Therefore ∆𝑣⃗ is perpendicular to∆𝑟⃗.
∆𝑣⃗
The average acceleration =
∆𝑡
Since ∆𝑣⃗ is perpendicular to ∆𝑟⃗, 𝑎̅ is along ∆𝑣⃗ and perpendicular to ∆𝑟⃗ and directed towards the
centre of the circle.

∆𝑣⃗
The Instantaneous acceleration is, 𝑎⃗ = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
Its magnitude is given by, 𝑎𝑐 = |𝑎⃗|
|∆𝑣⃗|
𝑎𝑐 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗′ are always perpendicular to 𝑟⃗ and 𝑟⃗⃗⃗⃗′ , the angle between 𝑣⃗ and
Since the velocity vectors 𝑣⃗ and 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗′ is also ∆𝜃
𝑣
∴ ∆𝐴𝐵𝐶 and ∆𝑂𝑃𝑄 are similar.
𝐵𝐶 𝐴𝐵
Then, =
𝑃𝑄 𝑂𝑃
|∆𝑣⃗| 𝑣
= (∵ |𝑟⃗| = 𝑅 = 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠)
|∆𝑟⃗| 𝑅
|∆𝑟⃗| 𝑣
∆𝑣⃗ =
𝑅

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

|∆𝑟⃗| 𝑣
∴ 𝑎𝑐 = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑅
𝑣 |∆𝑟⃗|
𝑎𝑐 = lim
𝑅 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
𝑣
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑣
𝑅
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒄 =
𝑹
This equation represents the magnitude of acceleration and is directed towards centre.

Centripetal acceleration: The acceleration, which is directed towards the centre, is called
centripetal acceleration.
The term centripetal acceleration was termed by Newton and Centripetal comes from a Greek term
which means Centre seeking of towards centre.

Note:
(i) In uniform circular motion as the object moves from P to Q (in the above figure) in time ∆𝑡 the
line OP turns through an angle∆𝜃, called angular distance.
∆𝜃
But angular speed, 𝜔 =
∆𝑡
If the distance travelled 𝑃𝑄 = ∆𝑠 then,
∆𝑠
Speed, 𝑣=
∆𝑡
But ∆𝑠 = 𝑅 ∆𝜃, where R is the radius of the trajectory.
𝑅 ∆𝜃 ∆𝜃
∴𝑣= = 𝑅( )
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
𝒗 = 𝑹𝝎 → (1)
𝑣 2 𝑅 2 𝜔2
The Centripetal acceleration 𝑎𝑐 = =
𝑅 𝑅
𝟐
𝒂𝒄 = 𝑹𝝎

(ii) Time period (T): Time taken by an object to make one revolution.

(iii)Frequency (𝝂): Number of revolution made in one second.

1
𝜈=
𝑇
Distance moved in time period 𝑇 = 2𝜋𝑅
2𝜋𝑅
Speed, 𝑣 = = 2𝜋𝑅𝜈
𝑇
𝑣 = 𝑅(2𝜋𝜈) → (2)
Comparing equation (1) and (2), we get
𝝎 = 𝟐𝝅𝝂
Then Acceleration, 𝑎𝑐 = (2𝜋𝜈)2 𝑅
𝒂𝒄 = 𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝝂𝟐 𝑹

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

Problems:
1) A cricket ball is thrown at a speed of 28𝑚𝑠 −1 in direction 300 with the horizontal. Calculate
(a) the maximum height
(b) the time taken by the ball to return to the same level.
(c) the distance from the thrower to the point where the ball returns to the same level.

Given 𝑣0 = 28𝑚𝑠 −1, 𝜃 = 300

2𝑣0 sin 𝜃
(b) 𝑇𝑓 =
(𝑣0 sin 𝜃)2 𝑔
(a) ℎ𝑚 = 1
2𝑔 2 × 28 × sin 30 2 × 28 × 2
(28 × sin 30)2 𝑇𝑓 = =
ℎ𝑚 = 9.8 9.8
2 × 9.8 𝑇𝑓 = 2.85𝑠
1 2 𝑣02
(28 × 2)
ℎ𝑚 = (c) 𝑅 = sin 2𝜃
2 × 9.8 𝑔
142 282 282
ℎ𝑚 = 𝑅= sin(2 × 30) = × 0.866
19.6 9.8 9.8
ℎ𝑚 = 10𝑚 𝑅 = 69.28𝑚

2) A cricket ball projected at an angle of 300 with the horizontal takes 3 second to reach the ground.
Calculate (a) the velocity of projection. (b) The horizontal range of the ball.

Given, = 300 , 𝑇𝑓 = 3𝑠
2𝑣0 sin 𝜃 𝑣02
(𝑎) 𝑇𝑓 = (𝑏) 𝑅 = sin 2𝜃
𝑔 𝑔
2 × 𝑣0 × sin 30 (29.4)2
3= 𝑅= sin(2 × 30)
9.8 9.8
3 × 9.8 3 × 9.8 864.36
𝑣0 = = = × 0.866
2 × sin 30 1 9.8
2×2
𝑅 = 76.38𝑚
𝑣0 = 29.4𝑚𝑠 −1

3) The ceiling of a long hall is 25m high. What is the maximum horizontal distance that a ball
thrown with a speed of 40𝑚𝑠 −1 can go without hitting the ceiling of the hall?
Given 𝑣0 = 40𝑚𝑠 −1 , Height of the hall, ℎ𝑚 = 25𝑚, 𝜃 = ?

(𝑣0 sin 𝜃)2 𝑣02

ℎ𝑚 = 𝑅= sin 2𝜃
2𝑔 𝑔
(40 × sin 𝜃)2 (40)2
25 = 𝑅= sin(2 × 33.6)
2 × 9.8 9.8
25 × 2 × 9.8 = (40 × sin 𝜃)2 1600
𝑅= × 0.9219
40 × sin 𝜃 = √25 × 2 × 9.8 9.8
𝑅 = 150.5𝑚
√25 × 2 × 9.8
sin 𝜃 = = 0.5534
40
𝜃 = sin−1 (0.5534) = 33.60

4) A cricketer can throw a ball to a maximum horizontal distance of 100m. How much high above
the ground can the cricketer throw the same ball?

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 MOTION IN A PLANE
0
Given 𝑅𝑚 = 100𝑚, For maximum range, 𝜃 = 45
𝑣02 To throw the ball vertically upwards, 𝜃 = 900
𝑅𝑚 =
𝑔 (𝑣0 sin 𝜃)2
ℎ𝑚 =
𝑣02 2𝑔
100 =
9.8 (31.3 × sin 90)2
2
𝑣0 = 100 × 9.8 = 980 ℎ𝑚 =
2 × 9.8
𝑣0 = 31.3𝑚𝑠 −1 31.3 × 31.3
ℎ𝑚 =
2 × 9.8
ℎ𝑚 = 49.98𝑚 ≈ 50𝑚

5) A stone tide to the end of a string 80cm long is whirled in a horizontal circle with a constant
speed. If the stone makes 14 revolutions in 25s, what is the magnitude and direction of
acceleration of the stone?
Given
Radius, 𝑟 = 80𝑐𝑚 = 0.80𝑚
14 −1
Frequency, 𝜈 = 𝑠
25
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜈 𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟𝜔2
22 14
𝜔 = 2 × 7 × 25 𝑎𝑐 = 0.80 × (3.52 )2
𝜔 = 3.52 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 𝑎𝑐 = 9.91𝑚𝑠 −2

6) An aircraft executes a horizontal loop of radius 1km with a speed of 900kmph. Compare its
centripetal acceleration with the acceleration due to gravity.
Given Radius, 𝑟 = 1𝑘𝑚 = 1000𝑚
900 × 1000
Speed, 𝑣 = 900𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ = 𝑚𝑠 −1 = 250𝑚𝑠 −1
3600
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟 Comparison:
2502 62500 But 𝑔 = 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑎𝑐 = =
1000 1000 𝑎𝑐 62.5
𝑎𝑐 = 62.5𝑚𝑠 −2 = = 6.38
𝑔 9.8
𝑎𝑐 = 6.38𝑔

7) Rain is falling vertically with a speed of 30𝑚𝑠 −1. A woman rides a bicycle with a speed of
10𝑚𝑠 −1 in the north-south direction. What is the direction in which she should hold her
umbrella?
Given
Velocity of bicycle, 𝑣⃗𝐵 = 10𝑚𝑠 −1
Velocity of rain, 𝑣⃗𝑅 = 30𝑚𝑠 −1

Magnitude of velocity, 𝑣𝑅𝐵 = √𝑣𝐵2 + 𝑣𝑅2

𝑣𝑅𝐵 = √302 + 102 = √1000 𝑣𝐵

Direction, 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝑣𝑅𝐵 = 31.6𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣𝑅
10
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (0.3333)
30
𝜃 = 180 26′

She should hold the umbrella at an angle 180 26′ with the vertical in south-west direction.
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 MOTION IN A PLANE

8) An aeroplane flying at 540kmph drops a missile towards the ground. If the height of the plane is
1000m then calculate (a) time taken by the missile to hit the ground. (b) Horizontal distance
covered by the missile from the initial point.
Given 1
1000 = 0 + × 9.8 × 𝑡 2
𝑎𝑦 = 9.8𝑚𝑠 −2 2
1000 × 2
𝑎𝑥 = 0 𝑡2 =
9.8
𝑦 = 1000𝑚
𝑡 = 14.29𝑠
At the top, 𝑣0𝑥 = 540𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ = 150𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑣0𝑦 = 0 1
(b) 𝑥 = 𝑣0𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑥 𝑡 2
2
(a) Time taken can be calculated as, 𝑥 = 150 × 14.29
1 𝑥 = 2142.86𝑚
𝑦 = 𝑣0𝑦 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑡 2
2

9) Two concurrent forces 20N and 30N are acting at an angle of 600 with respect to each other.
Calculate the magnitude and direction of the resultant.

Given 𝐴 = 20𝑁, 𝐵 = 30𝑁, 𝜃 = 600

(a) Magnitude, 𝑅 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 + 2𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 𝐵 sin 𝜃
(b) Direction, 𝛼 = tan−1 ( )
𝐴 + 𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝑅 = √202 + 302 + 2 × 20 × 30 × cos 60
30 × sin 60
𝛼 = tan−1 ( )
1 20 + 30 × cos 60
𝑅 = √400 + 900 + 2 × 600 × = √1900 25.98
2 𝛼 = tan−1 ( ) = 360 58′
35
𝑅 = 43.50𝑁
Resultant force is 43.50𝑁 in the direction of 360 58′ with respect to 20𝑁.

Suggested Questions.
One mark.
1) What is unit vector?
2) What is Zero (null) vector?
3) Is scalar multiplied by a vector, a vector or a scalar?
4) What is the minimum number of vectors to give zero resultant?
5) When will be the resultant of two given vectors is maximum?
6) What is resolution of vector?
7) What is time of flight of a projectile?
8) At what angle range of a projectile is maximum?
or
When the range of a projectile does become maximum?
9) What is the relation between maximum height and maximum range of a projectile?
10) For angle of projection300 , 𝑅 is the range of the projectile. Then write another angle of
projection for which the range is same.
11) Represent the unit vector in mathematical form.

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 MOTION IN A PLANE

Two marks.
1) What are scalar and vector? Give example. OR Distinguish between scalar and vector.
2) What is a projectile? Give an example.
3) Write the equation for the trajectory of a projectile motion. What is the nature of its trajectory?
4) State and explain parallelogram law of vector addition.
5) A unit vector is represented by 𝐴𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑗̂ + 𝐶𝑘̂ . If the value of 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 0.5 and 0.8
respectively, then find the value of 𝐶.

Three marks.
1) State and explain the triangle law of vectors addition.
2) Obtain an expression for maximum height reached by a projectile.
3) Obtain an expression for time of flight of a projectile.
4) What is resolution of vectors? Write expressions for 𝑥 and 𝑦 components (Rectangular) of a
vector. or
Obtain the equations for rectangular components of a vector in two dimensions.
5) Derive an expression for magnitude of resultant of two concurrent vectors.
or
Find the magnitude of the resultant of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 in terms of their magnitude and
angle 𝜃 between them.
6) Obtain the expression for range of a projectile.

Five marks.
1) What is centripetal acceleration? Derive an expression for centripetal acceleration of a particle
in uniform circular motion.
or
What is centripetal acceleration? Derive the expression for radial acceleration.
2) What is projectile motion? Show that trajectory of projectile is a parabola.
or
What is projectile motion? Derive an expression for trajectory of projectile.
or
Show that the path of the projectile is a parabola.

Additional Problems:
1) A bullet is fired at a velocity of 392 𝑚 𝑠 −1 at an angle of 300 to the horizontal. Find the
maximum height attended ad time of flight.
2) A body is projected with a velocity of 50 𝑚 𝑠 −1 in a direction making an angle of 300 with the
horizontal. Find (a) The maximum height. (b) the time taken by the body to return to the same
level and (c) the range.
3) A ball is thrown into air with a speed of 62 𝑚 𝑠 −1 at an angle 450 with the horizontal. Calculate
(a) The maximum height attained. (b) the time of flight and (c) the horizontal range.
4) A player hits a cricket ball at angle of 400 to the horizontal. If the ball moves with a velocity of
20 𝑚 𝑠 −1. Find (a) The maximum height reached by the ball. (b) the time of flight and (c) the
horizontal range. Given 𝑔 = 10 𝑚 𝑠 −1 .
5) A football player kicks a ball at an angle of 300 to the horizontal with an initial velocity of
15 𝑚 𝑠 −1. Assuming that the ball travels in a vertical plane. Calculate (a) The maximum height
reached. (b) the time of flight and (c) the horizontal range.

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 LAWS OF MOTION
Chapter 5 LAWS OF MOTION

Motion of the object needs the concept of Velocity and acceleration. In earlier chapter we have
studied the motion but not what causes the motion? In this chapter we study about what causes
the motion?
In early days it was known that some influence was needed to keep the body in motion and
it was also known that rest is the natural state of an object.

Aristotle’s Law and its Fallacy:

Law: An external force is required to keep a body in motion.

Fallacy in the law: A moving object comes to rest because; the external force of friction on the
object by the floor opposes its motion. If there is no friction no force is required to keep the object
in motion.

Law of Inertia: If the net external force is zero, a body at rest continues to be at rest and a body in
motion continues to be in uniform motion.

Note: Aristotle’s view point about the motion of the body was rejected by Galileo and gave the law
of Inertia.

Inertia: The property of a body to change its state of rest or uniform motion unless some external
force acts on it. Mass of a body is measure of inertia.

Types of inertia:
(i) Inertia of rest: The property of a body to remain at rest.
(ii) Inertia of motion: The property of a body to oppose the change in its motion.

Newton’s laws of motion: Based on the Galileo’s idea, the intimate relationship between force
acting on a body and its motion executed by the body was first understood by Isaac Newton.

Newton’s first law of motion: Everybody continues to be in its state of rest or of uniform motion
in a straight line unless compelled by some external force to act otherwise.

Alternate statement of Newton’s first law: The first law can be stated in terms of acceleration as
“If the net external force on a body is zero, its acceleration is zero. Acceleration can non zero only if
there is a net external force on the body”.

Ex: A passenger in a bus is pushed back when the bus suddenly starts moving.
A person in a moving vehicle tends to fall forward when the vehicle suddenly stops.

Significance: Newton’s first law of motion gives the definition for force and reveals Inertia, a
fundamental property of all matter. Force is a vector quantity and dimensions are [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −2 ]

Force: The external agency which changes or tends to change the state of rest or state of uniform
motion of a body in a straight line.

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 LAWS OF MOTION
Momentum: Momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass and velocity.
Momentum = mass × velocity
⃗ = 𝒎𝒗
𝒑 ⃗
Momentum is a vector quantity and its SI unit is 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 . Dimensions of momentum are [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −1 ]

Note: The concept of momentum was introduced by Newton. It is a measure of the ability of a
body to impart motion to another.

Newton’s Second law of motion: The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly
proportional to the applied force and takes place in the direction in which the force acts.
𝑑𝑝
Mathematically, ∝ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹
𝑑𝑡

Derivation of 𝑭 = 𝒎𝒂 using Newton’s second law of motion:

⃗⃗⃗⃗1 and having momentum 𝑝
Consider a body of mass 𝑚, moving with a velocity 𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 .
Let a force 𝐹 acts on it for time ∆𝑡.
Then velocity changes to ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑣2 and momentum to ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑝2 .
Then change momentum is, ⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑝2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝1 = 𝑚𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 − 𝑚𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗1
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑚(𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗⃗1 )
⃗⃗⃗⃗2 − 𝑣
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑚 𝑑𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗
𝑑𝑝
From second law of motion, 𝐹 ∝
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝
𝐹=𝑘
𝑑𝑡
𝑚 𝑑𝑣
𝐹=𝑘
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
𝐹=𝑘𝑚
𝑑𝑡
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑚𝑎
For simplicity, we choose 𝑘 = 1
Then, ⃗⃗⃗ = 𝒎𝒂
𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗

Significance: Newton’s second law of motion signifies momentum and gives a formula to measure
the force.

Unit of Force: SI unit of force is 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 or 𝑁 and 1𝑁 = 1𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −2

newton(N): One newton is that force which causes an acceleration of 1𝑚𝑠 −2 to a body of mass 1𝑘𝑔.

Some applications of Newton’s second law:

 A cricket player lowers his hands while catching a ball
 A person falling on a cemented floor gets injured but a person falling on heap of sand is not.
 The vehicles are fitted with shockers (springs).
 Glass wares and china wares are wrapped with straw pieces before transportation.

Components of force:
We have, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂
Then, 𝐹𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐹𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐹𝑧 𝑘̂ = 𝑚(𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂ )
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 LAWS OF MOTION
On comparing the co-efficient of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘̂
We have, 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑚𝑎𝑦 and 𝐹𝑧 = 𝑚𝑎𝑧

Impulsive force: Large force acting on a body for a short time is called an impulsive force.
Ex: A ball hit by bat, kicking a football, hammering a nail etc.

Impulse: It is the product of the force and time interval for which the force acts. It is denoted by J.
𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑢𝑙𝑠𝑒(𝐽) = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 = 𝐹 𝑡
It is a vector. SI unit of Impulse is 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑(𝑁𝑠). Dimensions are [𝑀𝐿𝑇 −1 ]

Note: Impulse and momentum have same dimensions.

Impulse-Momentum theorem: Impulse is equal to change in momentum.

Proof: Impulse, 𝐽 = 𝐹 𝑡
But we have 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐽 = 𝑚𝑎𝑡
𝐽 = 𝑚(𝑣 − 𝑣0 ) (∵ 𝑣 − 𝑣0 = 𝑎𝑡)
𝐽 = 𝑚𝑣 − 𝑚𝑣
⃗⃗⃗⃗0
𝐽 = 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 − 𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚
𝑱 = 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎

Newton’s third law of motion: To every action there is always an equal and opposite reaction.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝐴 𝑏𝑦 𝐵 = −(𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝐵 𝑏𝑦 𝐴)
⃗ 𝑨𝑩 = −𝑭
𝑭 ⃗ 𝑩𝑨

Note: The term action and reaction means the force and the force on the object A by the object B
and the force on object B by A act at the same instant. Action and reaction forces act on different
bodies, not on the same body. So they do not cancel each other.

Significance: Newton’s third law signifies that forces never occur singly in nature, but they
always occur in pairs. Launching of rocket is based on this law.

Illustrations of Newton’s third law:

 When a person jumps from a boat, he pushes the boat in the backward direction while the
boat pushes him in the forward direction.
 A swimmer pushes the water in the backward direction and the water pushes the swimmer in
the forward direction.
 A person walking on the floor.

Law of conservation of momentum: The total momentum of an isolated system of interacting

particle is conserved.
Ex: Recoil of gun, the motion of rocket is based on this principle.

Proof: Consider two bodies A and B, with initial momentum ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐴 and ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐵 .
⃗⃗⃗⃗′ and 𝑝
Let the bodies collide and get apart with final momentum 𝑝 ⃗⃗⃗⃗′ respectively.
𝐴 𝐵
From Newton’s second law,

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 LAWS OF MOTION
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝′ − ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐴
Force on 𝐴 by 𝐵 is, 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = 𝐴 and
𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑝𝐵′ − ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐵
Force on 𝐵 by 𝐴 is, 𝐹𝐵𝐴 = where 𝑑𝑡 is time for which the bodies are in contact.
𝑑𝑡
But from Newton’s third law, 𝐹𝐴𝐵 = −𝐹𝐵𝐴
⃗⃗⃗⃗′ − ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐴
𝑝 ⃗⃗⃗⃗′ − ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐵
𝑝
𝐴 𝐵
= −( )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗′ − ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐵 )
𝑝𝐴′ − ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐴 = − (𝑝 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗′ + 𝑝𝐵
𝑝𝐴′ − ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐴 = − 𝑝 𝐵
⃗⃗⃗⃗
′ ⃗⃗⃗⃗′
𝑝 + 𝑝 = ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐴 + ⃗⃗⃗𝑝𝐵
𝐴 𝐵
𝑭𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎 = 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒎𝒐𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒖𝒎

Note: Isolated system: It is a system with no external force acts on it.

Equilibrium of a particle:
Resultant force: Resultant force is that single force which produces the same effect on the body as
the net effect of all the forces together.
Equilibrium: A set of forces are said to be in equilibrium if their resultant is zero.
Equilibrant: The equilibrant is that force which when acts together with those forces keep the
body in equilibrium.

Equilibrium of a particle: The particle is said to be in equilibrium if the net external force acting
on the particle is zero.

Equilibrium under two forces: Let two forces, ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 act on a particle.
𝐹1 and 𝐹
The particle will be in equilibrium, if ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 = 0
𝐹1 + 𝐹
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 = −𝐹⃗⃗⃗⃗2
That is two forces on the particle must be equal and opposite.

Equilibrium under three forces:

Let three forces, ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗2 and ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 , 𝐹 𝐹3 act on a particle.
⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
The particle will be in equilibrium, if 𝐹 𝐹2 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐹3 = 0

Equilibrium under several forces: A particle is in equilibrium under the action of several forces, if
the resultants of the resolved components of these forces in each of the X and Y-directions are
independently zero.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

Note: For a particle to be in equilibrium, minimum number of forces acting on a particle must be
two.

Common forces in mechanics: Common forces in mechanics are

 Gravitational force
 Spring force
 Tension in the string

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 LAWS OF MOTION
Gravitational force: It is the force of attraction between the two bodies due to their masses. Every
object on the earth experiences the force of gravity due to earth and it can act at a distance without
need of material medium.

Weight: The force exerted by the earth on the object is called the weight of the object.
It is given by, 𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔. Weight is vector quantity and its unit is 𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑡𝑜𝑛.

Spring force (F): When a spring is compressed or extended by an external force a restoring force is
generated. This restoring force is called spring force.
For small displacements, the spring force is proportional to the compression or elongation.
The spring force is given by, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
where 𝑘 → spring constant and 𝑥 → Displacement.
The −𝑣𝑒 sign denotes that the force is opposite to the displacement.

Tension in a string (T): The restoring force in a string is called tension.

For an inextensible string the force constant is very high.

Contact forces: When two bodies are in contact then they exert force on each other. These forces
are called as contact forces.

Ex: Except the gravitational force all the above forces are contact forces. Buoyant force, Viscous
force and air resistance are examples for contact forces.

When bodies are in contact, there are mutual contact forces. They are in accordance with Newton’s
third law. All the contact forces are electrical in nature. Although macroscopically bodies are
unchanged, at microscopic level all the matter consists of charged particles namely, electrons and
protons. The contact forces between objects in contact arising due to elasticity of bodies, molecular
collisions and impacts etc.

Normal reaction (N): The component of contact force normal to the surface in contact is called
Normal reaction.

Friction(f): The component of contact force parallel to the surface in contact is called Friction.
Friction opposes impending or relative motion between the two surfaces.
There are two types of friction. They are,
 Static friction
 Kinetic friction

Static friction(𝒇𝒔 ): Static friction is the force which balances the applied force when a body is in
the state of rest.
When there is no applied force, there is no static friction. It comes to play at that moment
when there is an applied force. As the applied force increases, static friction also increases and
remains equal and opposite to applied force up to a certain limit. Hence it is called a self-adjusting
force.

Limiting friction: The maximum static friction that a body can exert on the other body in contact
with it is called limiting friction.
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 LAWS OF MOTION
The limiting friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction between the two surfaces.
That is, (𝑓𝑠 )𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ 𝑁.
(𝒇𝒔 )𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝒔 𝑵
where 𝜇𝑠 → co-efficient of static friction and it has no unit.

Kinetic friction: Frictional force that opposes the relative motion between the surfaces in contact is
called kinetic friction.
𝒇𝒌 = 𝝁𝒌 𝑵
where 𝜇𝑘 → co-efficient of kinetic friction and it has no unit.

When the body begins, the force acting on the body is given by, 𝐹 − 𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚𝑎
If velocity is constant then = 0 , 𝐹 − 𝑓𝑘 = 0
𝐹 = 𝑓𝑘
If the applied force is removed, 𝐹 = 0 then, −𝑓𝑘 = 𝑚𝑎
𝑓𝑘
𝑎=− , the body eventually comes to rest.
𝑚

Laws of friction:
(1) The direction of static friction is opposite to the impending motion and the magnitude is given
by, 𝑓𝑠 ≤ 𝜇𝑠 𝑁
(2) The direction of kinetic friction is opposite to relative motion of the body and the magnitude is
given by, 𝑓𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁
(3) The values of 𝜇𝑠 and 𝜇𝑘 depend on the nature of the surfaces and 𝜇𝑘 is generally less than 𝜇𝑠
(4) The coefficients of friction are independent of area of contact, provided normal force is
constant.
(5) Kinetic friction is nearly independent of velocity.

Rolling friction: The force which opposes the rolling motion of a body is called rolling friction.
In principle, a body like ring rolling without slipping over a horizontal plane will suffer no friction.
But in practice some resistance to motion does occur. Rolling friction has a complex origin and
somewhat different from that of static and kinetic friction.
Rolling friction is much smaller than these.

Advantages of friction:
(1) Friction helps in walking on ground.
(2) Brakes of vehicle work on account of friction.
(3) Writing with chalk on the black board is possible because of friction.
(4) Nails and screws can be fixed an account of friction.
(5) A match stick is lighted due to friction.
(6) Moving belt remains on the rim of wheel because of friction.

Disadvantages of friction:
(1) Friction causes wear and tear of machine parts.
(2) Efficiency of the machine is reduced on account of friction.
(3) Heat is generated because of friction that may damage the machinery.
(4) Friction restricts the speed of the vehicles.

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 LAWS OF MOTION
Methods of reducing friction:
(1) By polishing the surfaces.
(2) Using lubricants like oil, grease etc. in machines.
(3) Using the materials of low co-efficient of friction.
(4) Using ball bearing in wheels, axels and shafts of automobiles.
(5) By providing the streamlined shape to moving vehicles (car, bus, aeroplanes etc.).

Circular motion: Motion of a body in circular path is known as circular motion.

In circular motion, the moving body possess an acceleration which is directed towards the centre
of the circular path is given by,
𝑣2
𝑎= where 𝑅 is the radius of the circular path
𝑅

Centripetal force: The force which is directed towards the centre of the circular path is called
centripetal force.

Expression for centripetal force: Force acting on the body is given by, 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑚𝑎
where 𝑚 → mass of the body executing circular motion and 𝑎 → centripetal acceleration
𝑣2
But 𝑎 =
𝑅
𝑣2
Then, 𝑓𝑐 = 𝑚
𝑅
𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝒇𝒄 =
𝑹

Examples of centripetal force:

(1) When a stone is rotated in a circle by a string, the centripetal force is provided by the
tension in the string.
(2) The centripetal force for the motion of planet around the sun is provided by gravitational
force on the planet due to the sun.
(3) When a car takes turn on a horizontal road, the centripetal force is the force of friction.

Motion of car on level road: Forces acting on the car are,

 The weight of the car, 𝑚𝑔
 Normal reaction, 𝑁
 Friction, 𝑓

Expression for Maximum speed on the level road:

There is no acceleration in the vertical direction;
𝑁 − 𝑚𝑔 = 0
𝑁 = 𝑚𝑔
Since the car is moving in circular path, the centripetal
force is provided by friction.
𝑓𝑠 = 𝑓𝑐
2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
(𝑓
For maximum speed, 𝑠 𝑚𝑎𝑥 =)
𝑅
2
𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝜇𝑠 𝑁 =
𝑅

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 LAWS OF MOTION
2
𝜇𝑠 𝑅𝑁
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
𝑚
2
𝜇 𝑠 𝑅(𝑚𝑔)
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 𝜇𝑠 𝑅𝑔
𝑚
𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √𝝁𝒔 𝑹𝒈

Motion of a car on a banked road:

Banking of road: Rising of outer edge of the road as compared to the inner edge to provide
centripetal for vehicles is called banking of roads.
We can reduce the contribution of friction in circular motion of the car if the road is banked.

Expression for Maximum speed on the banked road:

As there is no acceleration in the vertical direction,
𝑁 cos 𝜃 = 𝑓 sin 𝜃 + 𝑚𝑔
𝑁 cos 𝜃 − 𝑓 sin 𝜃 = 𝑚𝑔 → (1)
The centripetal force is provided by
horizontal components of 𝑁 and 𝑓
𝑚𝑣 2
𝑁 sin 𝜃 + 𝑓 cos 𝜃 = → (2)
𝑅
Taking equation (2) ÷ (1),
𝑁 sin 𝜃 + 𝑓 cos 𝜃 𝑚𝑣 2 1
= ×
𝑁 cos 𝜃 − 𝑓 sin 𝜃 𝑅 𝑚𝑔
2
𝑁 sin 𝜃 + 𝑓 cos 𝜃 𝑣
=
𝑁 cos 𝜃 − 𝑓 sin 𝜃 𝑅𝑔
Taking 𝑁 as common in LHS,
𝑓
𝑁 (sin 𝜃 + 𝑁 cos 𝜃) 𝑣 2
=
𝑓
𝑁 (cos 𝜃 − sin 𝜃) 𝑅𝑔
𝑁
𝑓
(sin 𝜃 + 𝑁 cos 𝜃) 𝑣 2
=
𝑓
(cos 𝜃 − 𝑁 sin 𝜃) 𝑅𝑔
𝑓
To obtain maximum speed we put 𝑁
= 𝜇𝑠
2
sin 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 cos 𝜃 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥
=
cos 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑠 sin 𝜃 𝑅𝑔
2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 sin 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠 cos 𝜃
=( )
𝑅𝑔 cos 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑠 sin 𝜃
Divide RHS of numerator and denominator by cos 𝜃
2
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 tan 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠
=( )
𝑅𝑔 1 − 𝜇𝑠 tan 𝜃
2
tan 𝜃 + 𝜇𝑠
𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑅𝑔 ( )
1 − 𝜇𝑠 tan 𝜃
𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 + 𝝁𝒔
𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √𝑹𝒈 ( )
𝟏 − 𝝁𝒔 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽
This is the maximum speed, that a car can take turn without slipping in a circular path.

Note: The optimum speed to negotiate a curve can be obtained by putting 𝜇𝑠 = 0

𝑣2
𝑣0 = √𝑅𝑔 tan 𝜃 and banking angle, 𝜃 = tan−1 (𝑅𝑔
0
)
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 LAWS OF MOTION
Steps in solving problems in mechanics:
(1) Draw the free body diagram showing a given body as a point.
(2) Consider a body of interest in a given problem and mark as a point. If the given problem
has two bodies, then mark then as different points.
(3) Mark the various forces acting on each body.
(4) Write the equation of motion and solve the given unknown parameters.

Differences between Mass and Weight

Mass Weight
It is the amount of matter contained in a body It is the gravitational force attraction on a body
It is a scalar It is vector
Mass of the body remains same at all places Weight of the body varies from place to place
SI unit is kilogram SI unit is newton

Problems:
1) A constant retarding force of 50N is applied to a body of mass 20kg moving initially with a
speed of 15ms-1. How long does the body take to stop?

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡
Given 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎 5
𝐹 = −50 𝑁 −50 = 20 × 𝑎 0 = 15 + (− ) × 𝑡
2
𝑚 = 20 𝑘𝑔 −50 5 5
𝑎= = − 𝑚𝑠 −2 ( ) 𝑡 = 15
𝑣0 = 15 𝑚𝑠 −1 20 2 2
𝑣=0 15 × 2
𝑡= =6𝑠
𝑡 =? 5

2) A constant force acting on a body of mass 3kg changes its speed from 2ms-1 to 3.5ms-1 in 25s. The
direction of motion of the body remains unchanged. What is the magnitude and direction of the
force?
𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
3.5 = 2 + 𝑎 × 25 1.5
Given 𝐹 =3×
25𝑎 = 3.5 − 2 25
𝑚 = 3 𝑘𝑔 1.5 4.5
𝑎= 𝑚𝑠 −2 𝐹= = 0.18 𝑁
𝑣0 = 2 𝑚𝑠 −1 25 25
𝑣 = 3.5 𝑚𝑠 −1 The direction of the force is along
𝑡 = 25 𝑠 the motion of the body.

3) A body of mass 5kg is acted upon by two perpendicular forces 8N and 6N. Give the magnitude
and direction of the acceleration of the body.

Given
𝑚 = 5 𝑘𝑔, 𝐹1 = 8 𝑁, 𝐹2 = 6 𝑁, 𝜃 = 900

Magnitude of Resultant force, 𝐹 = √𝐹12 + 𝐹22 + 2𝐹1 𝐹2 cos 𝜃

𝐹 = √82 + 62 + 2 × 8 × 6 × cos 90
𝐹 = √82 + 62 = 10 𝑁
6
Direction of force, 𝛼 = tan−1 ( )
8
𝛼 = tan−1 (0.75)
𝛼 = 360 53′
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 9
 LAWS OF MOTION
0 ′
Resultant force F makes an angle 36 53 with 𝐹1
𝐹
Acceleration, 𝑎 = 𝑚
10
𝑎= = 2 𝑚𝑠 −2
5
Direction of acceleration is along resultant force F.

4) The Driver of a three wheeler moving with a speed of 36kmph sees a child standing in the
middle of the road and brings his vehicle to rest in 4s just in a time to save the child. What is the
average retarding force on the vehicle? The mass of the three wheeler is 400kg and the mass of the
driver is 65kg.

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
Given 0 = 10 + 𝑎 × 4 5
−1 𝐹 = 465 × (− )
𝑣0 = 36 𝑘𝑚𝑝ℎ = 10 𝑚𝑠 4𝑎 = −10 2
𝑡 =4𝑠 10 5 𝐹 = −1162.5 𝑁
𝑎=− = − 𝑚𝑠 −2
𝑣=0 4 2 Negative sign shows
𝑚 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 force is applied against
= 400 + 65 = 465 𝑘𝑔 the motion.

5) A shell of mass 0.02kg is fired by a gun of mass 100kg. If the muzzle speed of the shell is 80ms -1,
what the recoil speed of the gun?

Given
Mass of the shell, 𝑚1 = 0.020 𝑘𝑔
Initial speed of the shell, 𝑣1𝑖 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1
Final Speed of the shell, 𝑣1𝑓 = 80 𝑚𝑠 −1
Mass of the gun, 𝑚2 = 100 𝑘𝑔
Initial speed of the gun, 𝑣2𝑖 = 0 𝑚𝑠 −1
Final (Recoil) speed of the gun, 𝑣2𝑓 = ?

From the law of conservation of momentum, we have 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑝𝑓

Initially the gun and shell are at rest, therefore Initial momentum 𝑝𝑖 = 0
0 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
0 = 0.020 × 80 + 100 × 𝑣2
100𝑣2 = −(0.020 × 80)
−(0.020 × 80)
𝑣2 =
100
𝑣2 = −0.016 𝑚𝑠 −1
Negative sign shows that gun recoils in a direction opposite to direction of motion of shell.

6) A bullet of mass 0.04kg moving with a speed of 90ms-1 enters a heavy wooden block and is
stopped after a distance of 60cm. What is the average resistive force exerted by the block on the
bullet?
Given
𝑚 = 0.04 𝑘𝑔, 𝑣0 = 90 𝑚𝑠 −1, 𝑥 = 60 𝑐𝑚 = 0.60 𝑚, 𝑣 = 0
𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑥
0 = 90 × 90 + 2 × 𝑎 × 0.60
90 × 90
𝑎=−
2 × 0.60

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 LAWS OF MOTION
−2
𝑎 = −6750 𝑚𝑠

𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 = 0.04 × −6750
𝐹 = −270 𝑁
Negative sign shows the force is resistive.

Suggested Questions.
One mark.
1. State Aristotle’s law of motion.
2. Define momentum. or Define linier momentum of a body.
3. Define SI unit of force.
4. On what principle does a rocket work?
5. Which law of motion is used to explain rocket propulsion?
6. What is friction?
7. Mention a way of reducing kinetic friction.
8. What is Normal reaction?

Two marks.
1. Name any two forces acting on a car when it is moving on the level road.
2. State Newton’s third law of motion. Give an illustration.
3. A net force of 5 𝑁 is acting on a body of mass 10 𝐾𝑔. What is the acceleration produced?
4. Calculate Impulse of force when a force of 10 𝑁 acting for 0.1 𝑠.
5. Define impulsive force. Give one example.
6. What are static friction and limiting friction?
7. Write any two differences between mass and weight.

Three marks.
1. State Newton’s first law of motion. Hence define Force and inertia.
2. Distinguish between impulse and impulsive force. Give an example for impulsive force.
3. Mention the common forces in mechanics.
4. Prove that the total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particle is conserved.
or
Prove law of conservation of linear momentum from Newton’s law of motion.
or
Total momentum of an isolated system of interacting particle is conserved. Prove it in the case
of collision of two bodies.
or
Prove law of conservation of linear momentum in the case of collision of two bodies.
5. Write any three methods to reduce friction.
6. Mention any three advantages of friction.
7. Give any three disadvantages of friction
8. Show that Impulsive force is equal to change in momentum.
9. Show that 𝑣𝑚 = √𝜇𝑠 𝑅𝑔 for the motion of a car on level road.
10. State laws of Friction.
11. Distinguish between mass and weight.

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 LAWS OF MOTION
Five marks.
1. State Newton’s second law of motion and derive, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎.
2. State and prove law of conservation of linear momentum.
or
State and prove law of conservation of linear momentum from Newton’s third law of motion.
3. Derive an expression for maximum safe speed of a vehicle on a banked road in circular
motion.

Additional Problems:
1. A circular racetrack of radius 300 m is banked at an angle of 15°. If the coefficient of friction
between the wheels of a race-car and the road is 0.2, what is the (a) optimum speed of the race
car to avoid wear and tear on its tyres, and (b) maximum permissible speed to avoid slipping?
2. A stone of mass 0.25 kg tied to the end of a string is whirled round in a circle of radius 1.5 m
with a speed of 40 rev/min in a horizontal plane. What is the tension in the string? What is the
maximum speed with which the stone can be whirled around if the string can withstand a
maximum tension of 200 N?
3. A body of mass 6 𝑘𝑔 is moving with a velocity of 2 𝑚/𝑠. Calculate the force required to stop in
5 𝑠. How far it will travel before coming to rest.
4. A body of mass 0.2 𝑘𝑔 which is at rest is acted upon by a force of 8 𝑁 for 4 𝑠. Find (i) Change
in momentum of the body and (ii) The velocity of the body.
5. Two masses 8 𝑘𝑔 and 12 𝑘𝑔 are connected at the two ends of a light inextensible string that
goes over a frictionless pulley. Find the acceleration of the masses and the tension in the string
when the masses are released (𝑔 = 10 𝑚/𝑠).

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Chapter -6 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Multiplication of vectors: There are two ways of multiplying vectors. One way known as the
scalar product gives a scalar from two vectors. The other known as the vector product gives a new
vector from the two vectors.

The Scalar product (Dot product): The Scalar product of two vectors is defined as the product of
the magnitude of the first vector and the component of second vector in the direction of first
vector.
⃗⃗⃗ and 𝐵
The scalar product or dot product of any two vectors 𝐴 ⃗⃗⃗ denoted by 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵
⃗ is given by
⃗𝑨 ∙ ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝑨𝑩 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽
Where 𝜃 → angle between the two vectors
⃗ = (𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐴) × (𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵
𝐴∙𝐵 ⃗ 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝐴)

Properties of scalar product of two vectors

i. Dot product is commutative.
𝐴∙𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
⃗ ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐵𝐴 cos 𝜃 = 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃
𝐵
𝐴∙𝐵 ⃗ =𝐵⃗ ∙𝐴

ii. Dot product is distributive over the addition of vectors.

⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) cos 𝜃
𝐴 ∙ (𝐵
= 𝐴𝐵 cos 𝜃 + 𝐴𝐶 cos 𝜃
=𝐴∙𝐵 ⃗ +𝐴∙𝐶
⃗ + 𝐶) = 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵
𝐴 ∙ (𝐵 ⃗ +𝐴∙𝐶

iii. Dot product of two parallel vectors.

⃗ be two parallel vectors. The angle between two parallel vectors is zero.
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ = AB cos 0
𝐴∙𝐵
⃗ = 𝐴𝐵
𝐴∙𝐵 (cos 0 = 1)

iv. Dot product of two equal vectors.

⃗ be two equal vectors. The angle between two equal vectors is zero.
Let 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝐴 ∙ 𝐴 = 𝐴𝐴 cos 0 = 𝐴2
Similarly 𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑖̂ = 1 × 1 × cos 0 = 1
𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑗̂ = 1 × 1 × cos 0 = 1
𝑘̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ = 1 × 1 × cos 0 = 1

v. Dot product of perpendicular vectors.

If two vector 𝐴 and 𝐵⃗ are perpendicular, then angle between them is 𝜃 = 900
𝐴∙𝐵 ⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 cos 900
𝐴∙𝐵 ⃗ =0
Similarly 𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑗̂ = 1 × 1 × cos 900 = 0
𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ = 1 × 1 × cos 900 = 0
𝑘̂ ∙ 𝑖̂ = 1 × 1 × cos 900 = 0

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

vi. Dot product of two anti-parallel vectors.

⃗ are two anti parallel vectors, angle between them is 1800.
If 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ = 𝐴𝐵 cos 1800
𝐴∙𝐵
⃗ = −𝐴𝐵
𝐴∙𝐵 (cos 1800 = −1)

Dot product of two vectors in terms of their components:

𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ and 𝐵
⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂
⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ ) ∙ (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂ )
𝐴∙𝐵
= 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑖̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑗̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ ) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑖̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑗̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 (𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ )
+𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 (𝑘̂ ∙ 𝑖̂) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (𝑘̂ ∙ 𝑗̂) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (𝑘̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ )
But 𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ = 1 and
𝑖̂ ∙ 𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂ ∙ 𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂ ∙ 𝑖̂ = 0
∴ ⃗𝑨 ∙ ⃗𝑩
⃗ = 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒛

Determination of angle between vectors:

⃗ = |𝐴||𝐵
Let 𝜃 be the angle between 𝐴 and 𝐵, then 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵 ⃗ | cos 𝜃
𝐴∙𝐵⃗ 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
cos 𝜃 = =
⃗|
|𝐴||𝐵
√𝐴2𝑥 + 𝐴2𝑦 + 𝐴2𝑧 √𝐵𝑥2 + 𝐵𝑦2 + 𝐵𝑧2

𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒚 + 𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒛
𝜽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔−𝟏
√𝑨𝟐 + 𝑨𝟐𝒚 + 𝑨𝟐𝒛 √𝑩𝟐𝒙 + 𝑩𝟐𝒚 + 𝑩𝟐𝒛
[ 𝒙 ]

Work: Work is said to be done when a force applied on a body displaces the body through a
certain distance in the direction of applied force.

Work done by a constant force: Let the force 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ be applied on the
body such that the direction of the force makes an angle 𝜃 with the
horizontal direction.
Let the body is displaced through a distance 𝑑 horizontally.
Then work done is, 𝑊 = (𝐹 cos 𝜃)𝑑
𝑾 = 𝑭 𝒅 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝑭 ⃗⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝒅

Definition: The work done by the force is defined to be the product of component of the force in
the direction of the displacement and the magnitude of this displacement.
The SI unit of work is joule (J). Work is a scalar.

Nature of work done:

(i) Positive work: The force and the displacement are in the same direction. i.e. 𝜃 is less than 900 .

Ex: (1) When a spring is stretched, force acting on the spring and the displacement are in same
direction.
(2) When a lawn roller is pulled or pushed by applying a force then the work done is positive.

(ii) Zero work: If displacement is zero, or if the force is zero or if the force and the displacement
are mutually perpendicular (𝜃 = 900 ) then the work done is zero.
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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Ex:(1) A man holding a mass of 50 kg on his head then work done is zero, because d= 0.
(2) A particle moving on a smooth surface which is not acted upon by a horizontal force.
(3) A man holding a suitcase on his head and moves on a horizontal road. Here force on the
suitcase is upward and displacement is along Horizontal.
(4) A particle moving in a circle with constant speed the centripetal force is always perpendicular
to the displacement.

(iii) Negative work: The force and displacement are in opposite direction.
i.e. 𝜃 is greater than 900 up to 1800

Ex: (1) When a body of mass m is raised upwards from the ground through a height h.
(2) When breaks are applied to stop a moving car the work done by the breaking force is negative

Energy: The energy of a body is its capacity or ability for doing work.
There are many forms of energy such as mechanical energy heat energy, light energy, electrical
energy etc. Mechanical energy has two types, (i) Kinetic energy and
(ii) Potential energy

Kinetic energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy.
Ex: Flowing water, Moving vehicles, A bullet fired from a gun. Etc.

Expression for Kinetic energy:

Consider an object of mass 𝑚 has velocity 𝑣
⃗⃗⃗ .
1
The kinetic energy is, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 ⃗⃗⃗ ∙ ⃗⃗⃗
𝑣
2
𝟏
𝑲 = 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝟐
The SI Unit energy/kinetic energy/potential energy is 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 (𝐽). Dimensions are [ML2 T-2]
Note: Work done and energy have same dimensions.

Alternate units of work / Energy

1. In CGS system ‘erg’ 1erg = 10-7 J
2. Electron volt 1eV = 1.6 x 10-19 J
3. Kilowatt hour 1 kWh = 3.6x 106 J
4. Calorie 1 Cal = 4.186 J

Work energy Theorem for constant force:

Statement: The change in kinetic energy of a particle is equal to the work done on it by the net
force.
Proof: One of the equations of motion for rectilinear motion is, 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎𝑥
By generalizing the equation to three dimensions, we have 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑎 ∙ 𝑑
𝑣 2 − 𝑣02 = 2𝑎 ∙ 𝑑
1 1 1 1
Multiplying both sides by 𝑚, we have, 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑣02 = 𝑚 2𝑎 ∙ 𝑑
2 2 2 2
1 1
𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑣02 = 𝑚𝑎 ∙ 𝑑
2 2
𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑
𝑲𝒇 − 𝑲𝒊 = 𝑾 or ∆𝑲 = 𝑾

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Work done by a variable force:

Let us consider a variable force (Whose magnitude changes continuously) acting on a body.
Let the body be displaced in the direction of applied force.
The graph of variable force, F(x) and displacement, 𝑥 of the body is as shown.

To calculate the work done, divide the total displacement of the body into a number of small
intervals each of width ∆𝑥.
The width ∆𝑥 is so small that the force 𝐹(𝑥) is considered constant over that interval.
Then ∆𝑊 = 𝐹(𝑥)∆𝑥
𝑥𝑓

Total work done is given by, 𝑊 = ∑ ∆𝑊

𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑓

𝑊 = ∑ 𝐹(𝑥)∆𝑥
𝑥𝑖
If displacements are allowed to approach zero, then number of strips increases infinitely, and the
sum approaches a definite value.
𝑥𝑓

𝑊 = lim ∑ 𝐹(𝑥)∆𝑥
∆𝑥→0
𝑥𝑖
𝒙𝒇

𝑾 = ∫ 𝑭(𝒙)𝒅𝒙
𝒙𝒊

Note: Work = Area under the force & displacement graph

Work energy theorem for variable force:

1
We know that 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑡,
𝑑𝑘 𝑑 1
= ( 𝑚𝑣 2 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑘 1 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
= 𝑚 (2𝑣 ) = 𝑚 𝑣
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑘
= 𝑚𝑎𝑣
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑘 𝑑𝑥
= 𝐹𝑣 = 𝐹
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
When 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑖 , 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑖 & 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑓 , 𝐾 = 𝐾𝑓
𝐾𝑓 𝑥𝑓
∫ 𝑑𝐾 = ∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥
𝐾𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑓 𝐾𝑓
∫ 𝐹 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ 𝑑𝐾
𝑥𝑖 𝐾𝑖
𝐾
𝑊= [𝐾]𝐾𝑓
𝑖

𝑾 = 𝑲𝒇 − 𝑲𝒊

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Discussion of work energy theorem

1. Work done by a Force is zero, if there is no change in the speed of a body.
1 1 1 1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑣02 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑣 2 = 0. (𝑣 = 𝑣0 )
2 2 2 2
Ex: When a body moves in a circular path with constant speed, there is no change in kinetic energy
of the body.

2. Work done by a Force is positive, if there is increase in the velocity of the particle.
1
𝑊 = 𝑚 (𝑣 − 𝑣0 )
2
If 𝑣 > 𝑣0 , 𝑣 − 𝑣0 = +𝑣𝑒, W = positive
Ex: When a particle is dropped from the top of the building the velocity of the particle increases.

3. Work done by a force is negative, if there is decrease in the speed of the particle
1
𝑊 = 𝑚 (𝑣 − 𝑣0 )
2
If 𝑣 > 𝑣0 , 𝑣 − 𝑣0 = −𝑣𝑒, W = negative
Ex: When particle is projected upwards, the speed of the particle decreases, work done is negative.

Relation between kinetic energy and Linear momentum

1 1 𝑚2 𝑣 2 1 𝑃2
We have 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = = (𝑚𝑣 = 𝑃)
2 2 𝑚 2 𝑚

The Concept of Potential energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its position or
configuration (shape) is called potential energy.
Here position refers to the height above the surface of earth and configuration refers to
arrangement/shape of the body. Potential energy is a stored energy when work is done on that
body.

Ex:
1. An object lifted to a certain height from the surface of the earth has potential energy at the
position.
2. A stretched bow and arrow system has potential energy.
3. A wound spring of a watch has potential energy.
4. An apple/mango hanging from the branch of a tree has a potential energy.

Expression for Potential energy:

Consider a block of mass 𝑚 which is to be raised to a height ℎ above the ground.
Work done by the External force is,
⃗ = 𝐹𝑒 ℎ cos 𝜃
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑒 ∙ ℎ
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ cos 0
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
This work done is stored as potential energy 𝑉(ℎ).
𝑽(𝒉) = 𝒎𝒈𝒉

Gravitational Potential energy: Work done by the gravitational force on the body when it is raised
to a certain height is known as gravitational potential energy and denoted by V(h) as function of
the height ℎ.

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Expression for Gravitational potential energy:

Consider a block of mass 𝑚 which is to be raised to a height ℎ above the ground.
Work done by the Gravitational force is,
⃗ = 𝐹𝑔 ℎ cos 𝜃
𝑊 = 𝐹𝑔 ∙ ℎ
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ cos 1800
𝑊 = −𝑚𝑔ℎ
This work done is stored as gravitational potential energy 𝑉(ℎ).
𝑽(𝒉) = −𝒎𝒈𝒉
Here negative sign indicates that gravitational force acts downwards.

Types of Potential energy:

(i) Gravitational potential energy: The energy passed by a body by virtue of its position.
(ii) Elastic potential energy: The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its deformed shape.

Note: 1) When the block comes down with an increasing speed, just it hits the ground; its speed is
given by the equation, 𝑣 2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣 2 = 2𝑔ℎ
𝑚 1 𝑚
Multiplying both sides with , 𝑚𝑣 2 = × 2𝑔ℎ
2 2 2
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
2
This shows that the gravitational potential energy of the object at height ℎ when the object is
released manifests itself as kinetic energy of the object on reaching the ground.

2) Mathematically the potential energy is defined if the force 𝐹(𝑥) can be written as,
𝑑𝑉(𝑥)
𝑉(𝑥) = −𝑚𝑔𝑥 ⇒ = −𝑚𝑔
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑉
− = 𝐹(𝑥)
𝑑𝑥
This implies that, 𝐹(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑑𝑉
𝑥𝑓 𝑉𝑓
On integration ∫ 𝐹(𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 = − ∫ 𝑑𝑉 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓
𝑥𝑖 𝑉𝑖

3) The change in Gravitational potential energy for a conservative force 𝐹(𝑥), ∆𝑉 is equal to the
negative of the work done by the force. ∆𝑉 = −𝐹(𝑥)∆𝑥

Conservative force and Non conservative force

Conservative force: If the amount of work done by or against a force depends only on the initial
and final positions of a body and not on the path followed by the body then such a force is called a
conservative force.
Work done by the conservative force on a body around a closed path is zero.

Ex: Gravitational force, spring force and electrostatic force are conservative forces.

Non conservative force: It the amount of work done against a force depends on the path followed
by a body then the force is said to be non-conservative force.
Work done by a non-conservative force on a body around a closed path is not zero.

Ex: Frictional force and viscous force are non-conservative forces.

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Conservative force Non-conservative force

Work done depends on initial point and final Work done depends on path followed by the
point body
Work done is zero around a closed path Work done is not-zero around a closed path
Work done is path independent Work done is path dependent

Conservation of Mechanical energy:

Statement: The total mechanical energy of a system is conserved, if the forces doing the work on it
are conservative.

Explanation:
Suppose a body undergoes displacement 𝑑𝑥 under the action of a conservative force, 𝐹.
𝑥𝑓
Then from work energy theorem 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖
𝑥𝑓
The potential energy 𝑉(ℎ) is defined by the force F can be written as, ∫ 𝐹(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓
𝑥𝑖
From the above equations we get, 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑓
𝐾𝑖 + 𝑉𝑖 = 𝐾𝑓 + 𝑉𝑓
Thus Initial mechanical energy of a system is equal to final mechanical energy of system.

Illustration for conservation of mechanical energy

In case of freely falling body mechanical energy (𝐾 + 𝑉) of the body remains constant.

At point A:
Consider a body of mass 𝑚 having 𝑣0 = 0 at a height ℎ from the ground.
1
The kinetic energy is, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣02 = 0 (∵ 𝑣0 = 0)
2
The potential energy is 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
∴ Mechanical energy at 𝐴, 𝐾 + 𝑉 = 0 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 𝑚𝑔ℎ – − − (1)
At point B:
Let the body is allowed to fall. It reaches to 𝐵 travelling a distance 𝑥 with a
velocity 𝑣𝐵 .
Then 𝐴𝐵 = 𝑥 and 𝐵𝐶 = (ℎ − 𝑥)
The potential energy is, 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔 (ℎ − 𝑥)
The velocity attained by the body is, 𝑣𝐵2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑔𝑥
𝑣𝐵2 = 2𝑔𝑥
1
∴ The kinetic energy is 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2
2
1
𝐾 = 𝑚 × 2𝑔𝑥 = 𝑚𝑔𝑥
2
Mechanical energy at 𝐵 is (K+V) = 𝑚𝑔𝑥 + 𝑚𝑔(ℎ − 𝑥)
= 𝑚𝑔𝑥 + 𝑚𝑔ℎ − 𝑚𝑔𝑥
= 𝑚𝑔ℎ − − − (2)
At point C:
Now the body reaches to the ground at C.
Here ℎ = 0, then potential energy, 𝑉 = 𝑚𝑔 × 0 = 0.
The velocity attained by the body just reaches the point C, 𝑣𝑐2 = 𝑣02 + 2𝑔ℎ
𝑣𝐶2 = 2𝑔ℎ

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

1
The kinetic energy is 𝐾= 𝑚𝑣𝑐2
2
1
𝐾 = 𝑚 × 2𝑔ℎ
2
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
Mechanical energy at C is (𝐾 + 𝑉) = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 0 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ – − − (3)
From the equations (1), (2) and (3), it is clear that, the mechanical energy of a body during the free
fall of a body under the action of gravity remains constant.

Spring force: When a spring is compressed or stretched, the spring force is given by,
𝐹𝑠 = −𝑘𝑥 where 𝑘 is spring constant.
This force law for spring is called Hooke’s law.
The spring force is an example for a variable force which is conservative.

Definition of spring constant: Force constant or spring constant is the restoring force per unit
displacement of the spring. Its SI unit is Nm-1. Dimensional formula is [ML0T-2]
𝑭
𝒌=
𝒙

Spring force is conservative:

𝑥𝑚 𝑥𝑚
Work done by spring force, 𝑊=∫ 𝐹𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ − 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
If the spring is stretched from initial displacement 𝑥𝑖 to final displacement 𝑥𝑓 then,
𝑥𝑓 𝑥𝑓
𝑊 = −∫ 𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑘 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑥𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑥
𝑥2 𝑓 1
𝑊 = −𝑘 [ ] = − 𝑘[𝑥𝑓2 − 𝑥𝑖2 ]
2 𝑥 2
𝑖

If the spring is pulled from 𝑥𝑖 and allowed to return to 𝑥𝑖 then,

1
𝑊 = − 𝑘[𝑥𝑖2 − 𝑥𝑖2 ]
2
1
𝑊 = − 𝑘[0] = 0 Thus spring force is Conservative.
2

Potential energy of a spring: Work done by the spring force when it is compressed or stretched is
stored as energy called Potential energy.

Expression for Potential energy of a spring:

Let a block attached to a light (mass less) spring and resting on a smooth horizontal surface.
Let the spring is stretched through a displacement 𝑥𝑚 .
𝑥𝑚 𝑥𝑚
Work done by spring force is, 𝑊 = ∫ 𝐹𝑠 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ −𝑘𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0 0
𝑥𝑚
𝑊 = −𝑘 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
0
𝑥
𝑥2 𝑚 1 2
𝑊 = −𝑘 [ ] = − 𝑘[𝑥𝑚 − 0]
2 0 2
1
𝑊=− 𝑘𝑥 2
2 𝑚
𝟏
The work done is stored as the potential energy of the stretched string. 𝑽(𝒙) = − 𝒌𝒙𝟐
𝟐
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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

1
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: (1) The same is true when the spring is compressed 𝑽(𝒙) = − 𝑘𝑥𝑐2
2
1 2
(2) The work done by the external force is positive and 𝑉(𝑥) = 𝑘𝑥
2

Expression for Kinetic Energy of spring: The total mechanical energy of a spring at any arbitrary
point 𝑥, where 𝑥 lies between −𝑥𝑚 and +𝑥𝑚 will be given by,
Total mechanical energy = 𝑉 + 𝐾
1 1
𝑘𝑥 2 = 𝑘𝑥 2 + 𝐾
2 𝑚 2
1 2 1 2
𝐾 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚 − 𝑘𝑥
2 2
𝟏
𝑲 = 𝒌 (𝒙𝟐𝒎 − 𝒙𝟐 )
𝟐

Expression for maximum speed of spring:

1 2
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝐾𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚
2
1 2
1 2
Further, 𝑚𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚
2 2
𝒌 𝒌
𝒗𝒎𝒂𝒙 = (√ ) 𝒙𝒎 has the dimension of [𝑇 −2 ]
𝒎 𝒎

Discussion of variation of Potential energy and kinetic energy during elongation and
compression of spring:
1 2
(1) We have 𝐾 = 𝑘 (𝑥𝑚 − 𝑥2)
2
1 2
When 𝑥 = 0, 𝐾 = 𝑘 𝑥𝑚 ⇒ Kinetic energy is maximum at mean position
2
1 1
But, 𝑉 = 𝑘𝑥 2 = 𝑘(0) = 0 ⇒ Potential enegy is minimum at mean position
2 2
1 2 2)
(ii)When 𝑥 = 𝑥𝑚 , 𝐾 = 𝑘 (𝑥𝑚 − 𝑥𝑚 = 0 ⇒ Kinetic energy is minimum at extream position
2
1 2
But, 𝑉 = 𝑘𝑥𝑚 ⇒ Potential enegy is maximum at extream position
2

Graphical representation of Variation of Mechanical energy of spring:

The total mechanical energy can be graphically represented as shown.
Kinetic energy is maximum at normal position and potential energy is
zero or total energy at normal position is purely kinetic and at extreme
ends the total energy is purely potential energy.

Various forms of energy: We have discussed one form of energy. i.e. mechanical energy which is
the sum of K and V. The other forms of energy are discussed below.

Heat or Thermal energy: In mechanics we say that kinetic energy is lost due to the frictional force,
but the work done by the friction is not lost, but is transferred as heat energy. This raises the
internal energy of the system. An object possesses heat energy due to the disorderly motion of the
molecules of the object.

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Chemical energy: Chemical energy arises from the fact that the molecules participating in the
chemical reaction have different binding energies. Chemical energy is released during the chemical
reaction.
If the total energy of the reactants is more than the products of the reaction, heat is released and
the reaction is said to be an exothermic reaction.
If the total energy of the reactant is less than the product of the reaction, heat is absorbed and the
reaction is endothermic.

Electrical energy: The flow of charges constitutes the electrical energy. Work is done to move the
electric charge from one point to another point in the electric field. This work done appears as the
electrical energy.

The equivalence of mass and energy: The mass of an isolated system is conserved during the
physical and chemical process. Albert Einstein showed that mass and energy are inter convertible.
That is mass can be converted into energy and energy can be converted into mass
according to the relation, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝐶 2 Where 𝐶 → speed of light in vacuum= 3 × 108 𝑚𝑠 −1
For 1𝑘𝑔 of matter, 𝐸 = 1 × (3 × 108 ) = 9 × 1016 𝐽 released.

Ex: (i) Annihilation of matter: When an electron and a positron combine with each other they
destroy each other and mass of electron and position is converted into energy according to
Einstein’s equation and released in the form of two 𝛾 – rays.
𝑒− + 𝑒+ → 𝛾 + 𝛾
(ii) Pair production: This process is the reverse of annihilation of matter and energy is converted
into mater

Nuclear Energy: The energy required to hold the nucleons in the nucleus is called Nuclear energy.
When light nuclei combine (fuse) to form a relatively heavy nucleus is called nuclear fusion. In this
case mass of heavy nucleus is less than the sum of the masses of the reactants. This mass difference
is called mass defect (∆𝑚). ∆𝑚 is converted in to energy according to the relation 𝐸 = (∆𝑚)𝑐 2 .
Energy is released in sun and stars by nuclear fusion.
When a less stable heavy nucleus like 92U 235 breaks up into two stable nuclei this reaction is
called nuclear fission. In this case the final mass is less than the initial mass and mass difference
translates in to energy. By the method of controlled nuclear fission electricity is generated and
uncontrolled nuclear fission is employed in making of nuclear weapons such as atom bombs and
nuclear bombs.

Principle of conservation of energy: Energy may be transformed from one form to another but the
total energy of the isolated system remains constant energy can neither be created nor destroyed.

Power: It is defined as the time rate at which work is done or time rate at which energy is
transferred.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
But work done = energy supplied or consumed.
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
∴ 𝑃𝑎𝑣 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

𝑾 𝑬
∴ 𝑷𝒂𝒗 = =
𝒕 𝒕

Instantaneous power:
It is the limiting value of the average power as the time interval approaches zero.
We have, 𝑃 = lim 𝑃𝑎𝑣
𝑡→0
𝒅𝑾
𝑷=
𝒅𝒕
But 𝑑𝑊 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠⃗⃗ where 𝑑𝑠⃗⃗ → diplacment
𝑑𝑠⃗⃗
∴𝑃=𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ .
𝑑𝑡
𝑷=𝑭 ⃗ ∙𝒗 ⃗

Note: If the Force 𝐹 acts in the direction of motion then 𝜃 = 0, cos 0 = 1

∴ 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 cos 𝜃 = 𝐹𝑣 cos 0
𝑷 = 𝑭𝒗

1J
Unit of Power: SI unit of power is watt (W), its dimensions are [ML2T-3] and 1 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 =
1𝑆

watt: The power is said to be 1 watt of one joule work is done/energy is consumed in one second by
any agent.

Practical unit: The practical unit of power is horse power (hp). 1 horse power (hp) = 746 W

Collisions: The term collision refers to the interaction between two bodies due to which the
direction and magnitude of the velocity of the colliding bodies change. In a collision external forces
acting on the colliding particles are neglected.

Types of collisions:
Elastic collisions: In a collision, if both the linear momentum and kinetic energy of the system are
conserved then such a collision is called elastic collision.
It means, the linear momentum and the kinetic energy of the system before and after the collision
are same.

Ex: (i) Perfectly elastic collision are rare event, collisions between atomic particles are nearly elastic.
(ii) A ball dropped from a certain height will rebound to the same height, if the collision with the
surface is elastic.

Inelastic (plastic) collision: A collision is said to be inelastic if the linear momentum of the system
remains conserved but its kinetic energy is not conserved.
In inelastic collision, the loss of kinetic energy appears in the form of heat, elastic potential energy
sound and light energy.

Ex: collisions between macroscopic bodies are inelastic A ball dropped from a certain height will
not rebound to the some height, if the collision with the surface is inelastic.

Perfectly inelastic collision: A collision is said to be perfectly inelastic if the two bodies after
collision stick together and move as one body.
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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Ex: When a moving bullet hits the stationary wooden block, then it is embedded into the wooden
block and both move as one body.

Difference between elastic and inelastic collisions

Elastic collision Inelastic collision
 Both the momentum and kinetic energy  Momentum is conserved but the kinetic
are conserved energy
 Force involved in the collision are  Forces involved are non-conservative
conservative
 Mechanical energy is not converted into  Mechanical energy is converted into
other forms of energy other forms of energy

Collisions in one Dimension: If the initial velocities and final velocities of both the bodies are
along the same straight line then it is called a one dimensional collision or Head-on collision.

(i) Expression for loss in Kinetic energy in a completely inelastic collision:

Consider two masses m1 and m2.
The particle m1 is moving with speed u1 and m2 is at rest.
After collision both masses m1 and m2 stick to each other and move as one body with velocity 𝑣.

In this type of collision the linear momentum is conserved.

𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣
𝑚1 𝑢1 = (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 (𝑣2 = 0 ⇒ 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 0)
𝑚1 𝑢1
𝑣=
𝑚1 + 𝑚2

As the final kinetic energy is less than the initial kinetic energy,
1 1
The change in kinetic energy is, ∆ 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑢12 − (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )𝑣 2
2 2
Substituting for 𝑣 from above equation
1 1 𝑚12
∆ 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑢12 − (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ). 𝑢2
2 2 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )2 1
1 1 𝑚12
∆ 𝐾 = 𝑚1 𝑢12 − 𝑢2
2 2 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 ) 1
1 𝑚1
∆ 𝐾 = 𝑚1 𝑢12 [1 − ]
2 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
1 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 − 𝑚1
∆ 𝐾 = 𝑚1 𝑢12 [ ]
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
1 𝑚2
∆ 𝐾 = 𝑚1 𝑢12 [ ]
2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝟏 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
∆𝑲= 𝒖𝟐
𝟐 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝟏
This loss in kinetic energy appears as the sound and heat energies, Thus total energy is conserved.

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

(ii) Expression for final velocities of the bodies in an elastic collision:

Consider two masses m1 and m2.

The body m1 is moving with speed u1 and m2 is at rest.
After collision their velocities are v1 and v2 respectively and are moving in the same straight line.
As the collision is elastic both the linear momentum and kinetic energies are conserved.
𝑀𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 ⇒ 𝑚1 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑢2 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 (𝑚2 𝑢2 = 0)
𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) = 𝑚2 𝑣2 ------ (1)
1 1 1
Kinetic energy ⇒ 𝑚1 𝑢12 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚1 𝑣22
2 2 2
2 2 2
𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑚1 𝑢12 − 𝑚1 𝑣12 = 𝑚2 𝑣22
𝑚1 (𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) = 𝑚2 𝑣22 ------ (2)
Dividing equation (2) by equation (1)
𝑚1 (𝑢12 − 𝑣12 ) 𝑚2 𝑣22
=
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑚1 (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 )(𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) 𝑚2 𝑣22
=
𝑚1 (𝑢1 − 𝑣1 ) 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑢1 + 𝑣1 = 𝑣2
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 + 𝑣1 − − − − − (3)
Substituting equation (3) in equation 𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2
𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 (𝑢1 + 𝑣1 )
𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚1 𝑣1 = 𝑚2 𝑢1 + 𝑚2 𝑣1
𝑚1 𝑢1 − 𝑚2 𝑢1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣1
𝑢1 (𝑚1 − 𝑚2 ) = 𝑣1 (𝑚1 + 𝑚2 )
(𝒎𝟏 − 𝒎𝟐 )
𝒗𝟏 = 𝒖 − − − − − (4)
(𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 ) 𝟏
Substituting (4) in (3)
𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 + ( )𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 1
𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 [1 + ]
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 [ ]
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
2𝑚1
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 [ ]
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝟐𝒎𝟏
𝒗𝟐 = ( ) 𝒖 − − − − − (5)
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝟏

The equation (4) and (5) gives the expression for the final velocities of the masses m1 and m2
𝑚1 − 𝑚2 2𝑚1
respectively. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑣1 = ( ) 𝑢1 and 𝑣2 = ( )𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 1

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Special cases:
Case (1): If two masses one equal. 𝑖. 𝑒 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚
𝑚−𝑚
𝑣1 = ( )𝑢
𝑚+𝑚 1
𝑣1 = 0
The final velocity of mass m1 will be become zero. It means after collision mass m1 comes to rest
and pushes off the second mass m2.
2𝑚 2𝑚
𝑣2 = ( ) 𝑢1 = .𝑢
𝑚+𝑚 2𝑚 1
𝑣2 = 𝑢1
Final velocity of mass m2 = Initial velocity of mass m1.
It means second mass m2 move with a velocity of m1

Case (2): If one the mass dominates. If m2 >> m1

𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑣2 = ( )𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 1
𝑎𝑠 𝑚2 > 𝑚1 then 𝑚1 − 𝑚2 = −𝑣𝑒
𝑣1 = −𝑢1
Final velocity of mass m1 get reversed it means it comes back with same velocity.
2𝑚1
𝑣2 = ( )𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 1
2𝑚1 𝑢1 2𝑚1 𝑢1
𝑣2 = ≈0 (𝑏𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠𝑒 𝑚2 ≫ 𝑚1 , ≈0)
𝑚2 𝑚2
𝑣2 = 0
Heavy mass m2 practically remains at rest.

Case (3): If 𝑚1 ≫ 𝑚2
𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑣1 = ( )𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 1
𝑚1
𝑣1 = 𝑢 (𝑚2 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑)
𝑚1 1
𝑣1 = 𝑢1
The mass m1 moves with same velocity.
2𝑚1 2𝑚1
𝑣2 = ( ) 𝑢1 = 𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 1
𝑣2 = 2𝑢1
The lighter mass m2 moves with twice the velocity of the heavy body.

Collisions in two Dimensions:

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Consider two masses m1 and m2.

The body m1 is moving with speed u1 and m2 is at rest.
The mass m1 collides with the stationary mass m2 and this is shown in the figure.

After collision, the masses m1 and m2 fly-off in different direction. The body m1 moves with velocity
v1 making an angle 𝜃1 , called deflecting angle, with 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and mass m2 move with a velocity v2
making an angle 𝜃2 , called angle of recoil, with 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

In all types of collision, momentum is conserved.

Therefore conservation of momentum along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 and 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 gives,
(i) 𝑚1 𝑢1 = 𝑚1 𝑣1 cos 𝜃 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 cos 𝜃2 along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
(ii) 0 = 𝑚1 𝑣2 sin 𝜃1 − 𝑚2 𝑣2 sin 𝜃2 along 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝑚1 𝑣2 sin 𝜃1 = 𝑚2 𝑣2 sin 𝜃2
If the collision is perfectly elastic, then kinetic energy is also conserved.
1 1 1
(iii) 2 𝑚1 𝑢12 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22
2 2

Assume that 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 and 𝑢1 are known. Now the motion after collision involves four unknowns i.e
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝜃1 and 𝜃2 . To evaluate these four quantities we need fourth equation. However we have only
three equations. Therefore fourth equation is to be developed, but this process of developing the
fourth equation is quite complicate. To overcome this problem the easiest way of developing
fourth equation is the measure the angle of defection 𝜃1 and the angle of recoil 𝜃2 experimentally.

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY

Problem (1): Show that 𝐴 = 2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ + 2𝑘̂ and 𝐵

⃗ = 2𝑖̂ − 2𝑗̂ − 𝑘̂ are perpendicular to each other.
𝐴∙𝐵⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
𝐴∙𝐵 ⃗ = (2)(2) + (1)(−2) + (2)(−1) = 4 − 2 − 2 = 0
⃗ = 0,
𝐴. 𝐵 So, vectors are perpendicular to each other.

Problem (2): Find the angle between two vectors 𝐴 = 𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and ⃗⃗⃗
𝐵 = 2𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂

⃗⃗⃗
𝐴 ∙𝐵 ⃗⃗⃗ = (1)(2) + (2)(−1) + (1)(1) = 2 − 2 + 1 = 1
|𝐴⃗⃗⃗ | = √(1)2 + (2)2 + (1)2 = √1 + 4 + 1 = √6
⃗⃗⃗ | = √(2)2 + (−1)2 + (1)2 = √4 + 1 + 1 = √6
|𝐵
⃗
𝐴. 𝐵 1
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( )
⃗|
|𝐴||𝐵 √6 × √6
1
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 ( ) = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 0.1667
6
𝜃 = 800 241

Problem (3): Find the angle between force 𝐹 = (3𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂ ) unit and displacement 𝑑 = (5𝑖̂ + 4𝑗̂ +
3𝑘̂ unit.
⃗⃗⃗ = (3)(5) + (4)(4) + (−5)(3) = 15 + 16 − 15 = 16 units
⃗⃗⃗ ∙ 𝑑
𝐹
⃗⃗⃗ | = √32 + 42 + (−5)2 = √9 + 16 + 25 = √50 unit
|𝐹
⃗⃗⃗ | = √52 + 42 + 32 = √25 + 16 + 9 = √50 unit
|𝑑
⃗⃗⃗
𝐹 .𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗
cos 𝜃 =
⃗⃗⃗ ||𝑑
|𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗ |
16 16
cos 𝜃 = =
√50 × √50 50
cos 𝜃 = 0.32
𝜃 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (0.32) ≈ 710

Problem (4): A body constrained to move along the z-axis of a coordinating system is subjected to
a constant force 𝐹 given by 𝐹 = −𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ 𝑁, where 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂ are unit vectors along x,y and z -
axis of the system respectively. What is the work done by this force in moving the body a distance
of 4m along the z-axis.

𝐹 = −𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ 𝑁 𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐹𝑦 𝑑𝑦 + 𝐹𝑧 𝑑𝑧

𝑑 = 4𝑘 𝑚 𝑊 = (−𝑖̂ + 2𝑗̂ + 3𝑘̂ ) ∙ (0𝑖̂ + 0𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ )
𝑊 = (−1)(0) + (2)(0) + (3)(4) = 12 𝐽

Problem (5): In a ballistics demonstration a police officer fires a bullet of mass 50g with speed
200ms-1 on soft plywood of thickness 2 cm. The bullet emerges with only 10% of its initial kinetic
energy what is the emergent speed of the bullet?

1
𝑚 = 50 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔 Initial kinetic energy is 𝑘𝑖 = 2 𝑚𝑣𝑖2
1
𝑣𝑖 = 200𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑘𝑖 = 2 × 50 × 100 × 200 × 10−3
𝑘𝑖 = 1000000 × 10−3 = 1000𝐽

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
10
Final kinetic energy is 10% of initial kinetic energy. ∴ 𝑘𝑓 = 10% 𝑘𝑖 = 100 × 1000 = 100𝐽
2𝑘𝑓
𝑣𝑓2 =
𝑚
2 × 100
𝑣𝑓2 = = 4 × 10+3
50 × 103
𝑣𝑓 = √4 × 103 = 63.2𝑚𝑠 −1

Problem (6): An electron and proton are detected in a cosmic ray experiment, the first with kinetic
energy10𝑘𝑒𝑉, and the second with100𝑘𝑒𝑉, which is faster, the electron or the proton? Obtain the
ratio of their speeds?

𝑚𝑒 = 9.11 × 10−31 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑝 = 1.67 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
𝑘𝑒 = 10 × 103 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽
𝐾𝑝 = 100 × 103 × 1.6 × 10−19 𝐽

2 × 𝐾𝑒 2𝐾𝑃
Velocity of electron is, 𝑣𝑒 = √ Velocity of the proton, 𝑣𝑃 = √
𝑚𝑒 𝑚𝑃
1 1
2 × 10 × 103 × 1.6 × 10−19 2 2 × 100 × 103 × 1.6 × 10−19 2
𝑣𝑒 = [ ] 𝑣𝑃 = [ ]
9.11 × 10−31 1.67 × 10−27
𝑣𝑒 = 5.9267 × 107 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑣𝑃 = 4.3774 × 106 𝑚𝑠 −1
𝑣𝑒 5.9267 × 107
Comparing ve and vp we get electron is moving faster, = = 13.54
𝑣𝑝 4.3774 × 106

Problem (7): A rain drop of radius 2mm falls from a height of 500m above the ground. It falls with
decreasing acceleration (due to viscous resistance of the air) until at half its original height it
attains its maximum (terminal) speed, and moves with uniform speed thereafter. What is the work
done by the gravitational force on the drop in the first and second half of its Journey? What is the
work done by the resistive force in the entire Journey if its speed on reaching the ground is 10 ms-1.

𝑟 = 2𝑚𝑚 = 2 × 10−13 𝑚 Mass of the drop is mass = volume × density

4 4
ℎ1 = 250 𝑚 Volume = 3 𝜋𝑟 3 = 3 × 3.14 × (2 × 1013 )3
ℎ2 = 250 𝑚 = 3.3493 × 10−8 𝑘𝑔
ℎ = ℎ1 + ℎ2 = 500𝑚 Mass = 3.3493 × 10−8 × 103 = 3.3493 × 10−5 𝑘𝑔
𝑊𝑔1 =? 𝑊𝑔1 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ = 3.3493 × 10−5 × 9.8 × 250
𝑊𝑔2 =? = 0.082 𝐽
𝑊𝑟 =? Since the distance travelled in the second half is same as first halt therefore
𝑊𝑞2 = 0.082𝐽
∴ Total work done on it is, 𝑊 = 𝑊𝑔1 + 𝑊𝑔2 + 𝑊𝑟
From work energy theorem, 𝑊 = ∆𝐾
1 1
𝑊𝑔1 + 𝑊𝑔2 + 𝑊𝑟 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖2
2 2
1
0.082 + 0.08 + w2 = ( × 3.3493 × 105 × 102 ) − (0) [∵ 𝑣𝑖 = 0]
2
0.164 + 𝑤𝑟 = 1.6746 × 10−3
𝑊𝑟 = 1.6746 × 10−3 − 0.164
𝑊𝑟 = −0.1623 𝐽
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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Problem (8): A body of mass 0.5 Kg travels in a straight line with velocity 𝑣 = 𝑎𝑥 3/2 , where 𝑎 =
−1
5𝑚 2 𝑠 −1. What is the work done by the net force during its displacement from 𝑥 = 0 to 𝑥 = 2𝑚
Initial velocity at 𝑥 = 0.
𝑚 = 0.5𝑘𝑔

3 From work energy theorem,

𝑣𝑖 = 𝑎𝑥 2
3 𝑊 = ∆𝐾
= 5 × (0)2 = 0 1 1
Final velocity at 𝑥 = 2 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑚𝑣𝑖2
2 2
3 1
𝑣𝑓 = 𝑎𝑥 2 = ( × 0.5 × 14.14212 ) = (0) ∵ 𝑣𝑖 = 0
3
2
= 5 × (2)2 = 5 × 2.8284 = 14.1421 𝑚𝑠 −1 𝑊 = 49.999 𝐽 ≈ 50𝐽

Problem (9): The potential energy of a certain spring when stretched through a distance 𝑥 is 10J.
What is the amount of work done on the same spring to stretch it through an additional distance?
1
We have 𝑘𝑥 2 = 10𝐽
2
1
When 𝑥 becomes 2𝑥, then, New P.E = 𝐾 (2𝑥)2
2
1
= 2 𝐾 (4𝑥 2 )
1
= 2 𝐾 𝑥 2 × 4 = 10 × 4 = 40𝐽
Work done = 40 𝐽 − 10𝐽 = 30𝐽

Problem (10): A 100W bulb is on for 10 hours - calculate the energy consumed in kWh.
To find energy in kWh, power must be in kW and time in hours.
100 ×𝑘𝑊 𝐸
𝑃 = 100𝑤 = 1000
= 100 × 10−3 𝑘𝑊 ∴𝑃= 𝑡
t = 10 h 𝐸 = 𝑝𝑡 = 100 × 10−3 × 10
= 1000 × 10−3
1000
𝐸 = +3 = 1 𝑘𝑤ℎ
10

Problem (11): A pump on the ground floor of a building can pump up water to fill a tank of
volume 30m3 in 15 min. If the tank is 40m above the ground and the efficiency of the pump is 30%
how much electric power is consumed by the pump?
(When water is pumped up against the gravitational force, work has to be done, and this work
done is stored as potential energy.)
Volume 𝑣 = 30𝑚3
Density of water 𝑓 = 1000 𝑘𝑔𝑚3
∴ Mass of the water, m = volume × density
𝑚 = 30 × 1000 = 3 × 104 𝑘𝑔
∴ Work done = 𝑚𝑔ℎ
= 3 × 104 × 9.8 × 40
Work done = 1176 × 104 𝐽
𝑊 1176×104
To do the above work actual power needed is 𝑃𝑎𝑐 = = = 13.0667 × 103 watt
𝑡 15×60
But the efficiency of the motor is only 30% therefore the power required is
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂= × 100
𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
Supplied power = × 100
𝜂
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur. Page|18
 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
13 × 0.667 × 103
Supplied power = × 100
30
Supplied power = 43555.5556 𝑊

Problem (12): A family uses 8kw of power. Direct solar energy is incident on the horizontal surface
at an average rate of 200W/m2. It 20% of this energy can be converted to useful electrical energy
how large an area is needed to supply 8 kW?

Power used by the family = 8𝑘𝑊

= 8000 𝑊
But it is only 20% of the total solar power supplied
∴ 20% of solar power = 8000 N
8000
Solar power supplied = × 100 = 40000 𝑊
20

Now, Area of the surface receives power of 200 W = 1 𝑚2

1𝑚2
Area of the surface receives 1𝑊 power =
200
1
Area of the surface receives 40000 𝑊 power is = × 40000 = 200𝑚2
200
∴ Area needed = 200 𝑚2
Area needed is nearly equal to 14𝑚 × 14𝑚 roof.

Problem (13) : The blades of a wind - mill sweep out a circle of area ‘A’ (a) If the wind flows at a
velocity v perpendicular to the circle, what is the mass of the air passing through it in time ‘t’ ?
(b) What is the kinetic energy of the air?
(c) Assume that the windmill converts 25% of the winds energy into electrical energy and that
A = 30m2,v= 36 km/h and the density of the air is 1.2 kgm-3 what is the electrical power produced?

(a) Volume of air passing per see = Area × velocity = Av

Mass of the wind passing per sec = volume × density
= 𝐴𝑣 × 𝜌 = 𝐴𝑣𝜌
Mass of the wind passing in time 𝑡 = 𝐴𝑣𝜌𝑡

1
(b) Kinetic energy of wind (Air) = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
Kinetic energy of wind (Air) = (𝐴𝑣𝜌𝑡)𝑣 2
2
1
Kinetic energy of wind (Air) = 𝐴𝜌𝑣 3 𝑡
2

(c) The wind mill converts only 25% of the wind energy
∴ Energy available is = 25% of KE
25 1 1
Energy available = × 𝐴𝜌𝑣 3 𝑡 = 𝐴𝜌𝑣 3 𝑡
100 2 8
𝐸𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑦 1 𝐴𝜌𝑣 3 𝑡
∴ 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 8 𝑡
𝐴𝜌𝑣 3 30 × 1.2 × (10)3
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = =
8 8
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑 = 4500 𝑊 = 4.5 𝑘𝑊

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 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Problem (14): A neutron having mass of 1.67 × 10−27 kg and moving at 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 collides with
deuteron at rest and stick to it. Calculate the speed of the combination given mass of the deutron is
3.34 × 10−27 kg.
Initial momentum = 𝑚𝑛 𝑢𝑛 + 𝑚𝑑 𝑢𝑑
𝑚𝑛 = 1.67 × 10−27 kg = 1.67 × 10−27 × 108 + 0
𝑢𝑛 = 108 𝑚𝑠 −1 = 1.67 × 10−19
Final momentum = (𝑚𝑛 + 𝑚𝑑 )𝑣
𝑚𝑑 = 3.34 × 10−27 𝑘𝑔
= (1.67 × 10−27 + 3.34 × 10−27 )𝑣
𝑢𝑑 = 0

As the momentum is conserved, Initial momentum = final momentum

1.67 × 10−19 = 5.01 × 10−27 × 𝑣
𝑣 = (1.67 × 1019 )/(5.01 × 10−27 ) = 3.3 × 10−6 𝑚𝑠 −1

Suggested Questions.
One mark.
1. State work-energy theorem.
2. When work is said to be done? or What is meant by “Work done by a force”?
or Define work done by the force.
3. Write an expression for potential energy of a compressed spring.
4. Mention the expression for work done by a force in vector form.
5. What type of energy decreases when a body is falling freely?
6. What does the area under ‘force-displacement’ curve represents?
7. What is potential energy?
8. What is meant by collision?
9. When the work done by a force does is zero?
10. Define power.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur. Page|20
 WORK, POWER AND ENERGY
Two marks.
1. Distinguish between elastic and inelastic collision.
2. Give one example for elastic and inelastic collision.
3. What are elastic and inelastic collision?

Three marks.
1. What is the value of (a) 𝑖̂. 𝑖̂ (b) 𝑗̂. 𝑗̂ (c) 𝑘̂ . 𝑘̂
2. What is the value of (a) 𝑖̂. 𝑗̂ (b) 𝑗̂. 𝑘̂ (c) 𝑘̂ . 𝑖̂
3. Give an example for (a) positive work (b) Negative work (c) zero work.
4. What is potential energy? Derive an expression for it.
5. Define kinetic energy. Give its unit and dimensional formula.
6. Obtain an expression for gravitational potential energy.
7. Define power. Show that the power is equal to the dot product of force and velocity.
8. Prove Work-Energy theorem for the motion of a particle under a constant acceleration.
or
Show that 𝐾𝑓 − 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑊, Where 𝐾𝑓 and 𝐾𝑖 represent final and initial kinetic energies
respectively and 𝑊 represents work.
or
Prove the work-energy theorem in case of a rectilinear motion under constant acceleration.
or
Show that work done by the system is equal to change in energy.
9. Distinguish between Conservative force and Non-conservative force.

Five marks.
1. State the principle of conservation of energy and illustrate it in case of freely falling body.
2. State the law of conservation of mechanical energy. Show that the mechanical energy of a
body dropped from a height is conserved.
or
State the law of conservation of mechanical energy. Show that the mechanical energy of a
body falling freely under gravity is conserved.
or
State the law of conservation of mechanical energy and show that the mechanical energy is
conserved in the case of a freely falling body.
or
State and prove the law of conservation of mechanical energy for a body falling under gravity.
or
Verify the law of conservation of mechanical energy in case of freely falling body.
3. State and Prove Work-Energy theorem for a constant force.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur. Page|21

 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Chapter – 7 System of particles and Rotational Motion

We have discussed the motion of a body by considering it as a point object. A point object
means an object having certain mass but negligible size. An extended object or a real object is made
up of large number of particular these particles exert force on each other.

System of particles: Collection of large number of particles interacting with each other is called
system of particles.

Rigid Body: Rigid body is a body with a perfectly definite and unchanging shape. The distances
between all pairs of particles of such a body do not change.
In real situation no body is a perfectly rigid body. However, in bodies like wheels, steel
beams, metallic sphere, wooden block etc. deformation under the force is so small that they can be
considered as rigid bodies.

Motion of a rigid body: The motion of a rigid body which is not pivoted or fixed in some way is
either a pure translation or a combination of translation and rotation.
The motion of a rigid body which is pivoted or fixed in some way is rotation. The rotation
may be about an axis that is fixed or moving.

Translational motion: At any instant of time if all the particles of a body have the same velocity
then the motion is said to be Translational.
Ex: Wooden block sliding on a inclined plane

Rotational motion (Rotation): If every particle of the body moves in a circle which lies in a plane
perpendicular to the fixed axis and has its centre on the fixed axis, then the motion is said to be
Rotational.
Ex: A ceiling fan

Note: Any particle lying on the axis of rotation remains at rest while the rigid body rotates about
the axis of rotation. Thus axis of rotation is fixed.

Precession: The movement of the axis of the rotating body around the vertical axis is termed as
precession. While precession the point of contact of the rotating body with the ground is fixed.

Centre of mass: Centre of mass of a system of particles is the point where the entire mass of the
system can be assumed to be concentrated.
Note: This point like mass has the same type of translational motion as the system as a whole if
some net external force acts on this point like mass as acting on the system. Centre of mass of a body
or a system is its balancing point.

Centre of mass of a two particle system:

Consider two particles on the X-axis.
Let the distances of the two particles be 𝑥1 and 𝑥2 respectively
from origin.
The masses of the two particles be m1 and m2 respectively.
The centre of mass of the system which is at a distance Xcm from
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Arankatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 1
 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

𝒎𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝑂 is given by, 𝑿𝒄𝒎 =
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
If 𝑅⃗ be the position vector of the centre of mass then 𝑅⃗ = 𝑋𝑐𝑚 𝑖̂

Note: (1) If the two particles have the same mass 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚, then
𝑚𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑥2 2𝑛(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 )
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = =
𝑚+𝑚 2𝑚
𝑥1 + 𝑥2
𝑋𝑐𝑚 =
2
Thus for two particles of equal mass the centre of mass lies exactly midway between them.

(2) If the particles not lying in the straight line, we define x and y axes in the plane in which the
particle lie and represent the positions of the two particle by co-
ordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) respectively.

The centre of mass located by the co-ordinates (𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 𝑌𝑐𝑚 ) is given by,
𝒎𝟏 𝒙𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝒎𝟏 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝑿𝒄𝒎 = and 𝒀𝒄𝒎 =
𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐 𝒎𝟏 + 𝒎𝟐
If 𝑅⃗ be the position vector of the centre of mass then 𝑅⃗ = 𝑋𝑐𝑚 𝑖̂ + 𝑌𝑐𝑚 𝑗̂

Centre of mass of three particle system:

Consider three particles, not lying in same straight line.
Let the masses of these particle be 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 and 𝑚3 respectively.
Positions of the three particles are represented by co-ordinates (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), (𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and (𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ).
The centre of mass located by the co-ordinates (𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 𝑌𝑐𝑚 ) is given by,
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑦3 𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + 𝑚3 𝑦3
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = and 𝑌𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
𝑅⃗ = 𝑋𝑐𝑚 𝑖̂ + 𝑌𝑐𝑚 𝑗̂

Note: For the particles of equal masses, 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 = 𝑚3 = 𝑚

𝑚𝑥1 + 𝑚𝑥2 + 𝑚𝑥3 𝑚(𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 )
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = =
𝑚+𝑚+𝑚 3𝑚
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3
𝑋𝑐𝑚 =
3
𝑚𝑦1 + 𝑚𝑦2 + 𝑚𝑦3 𝑚(𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3 )
𝑌𝑐𝑚 = =
𝑚+𝑚+𝑚 3𝑚
𝑦1 + 𝑦2 + 𝑦3
𝑌𝑐𝑚 =
3
Thus for three particles of equal mass, the centre of mass coincides with the centroid of the triangle
formed by the particles.

Centre of mass of a system of n-particles: Consider a system of n-particles.

Let 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 … … … 𝑚𝑛 be the respective masses of the particles.
Let 𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 𝑌𝑐𝑚 and 𝑍𝑐𝑚 are the co-ordinates of the centre of mass of the system.
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 +. … … … … + 𝑚𝑛 𝑥𝑛
Then 𝑋𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + … … … … . . +𝑚𝑛
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = 𝑛
∑𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

𝑛
1
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖
𝑀
𝑖=1
𝑛 𝑛
1 1
Similarly, 𝑌𝑐𝑚 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 and 𝑍𝑐𝑚 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑧𝑖
𝑀 𝑀
𝑖=1 𝑖=1
̂
⃗⃗ = 𝑿𝒄𝒎 𝒊̂ + 𝒀𝒄𝒎 𝑱̂ + 𝒁𝒄𝒎 𝒌
The position vector of the centre of mass is, 𝑹

𝑛 𝑛 𝑛
1 1 1
Further, 𝑅⃗ = ( ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖 ) 𝑖̂ + ( ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 ) 𝑗̂ + ( ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑧𝑖 ) 𝑘̂
𝑀 𝑀 𝑀
𝑖=1 𝑖=1 𝑖=1
𝑛
1
𝑅⃗ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑥𝑖 𝑖̂ + 𝑦𝑖 𝑗̂ + 𝑧𝑖 𝑘̂ )
𝑀
𝑖=1
𝒏
𝟏
⃗𝑹
⃗ = ∑ 𝒎𝒊 ⃗⃗⃗
𝒓𝒊
𝑴
𝒊=𝟏

Note: Centre of mass of a system may or may not lie inside the system

Centre of mass of a rigid body:

𝑛
1
For system of n − particles the centre of mass is given by, 𝑅⃗ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟⃗𝑖
𝑀
𝑖=1
This equation is applicable to rigid body also.
In case of a Rigid body the number of particles is so large that it is impossible to carry out the
summation over individual particles in the equation.
Since the spacing of the particle is small, we can treat the body as a continuous distribution of
mass.
We subdivide the body into n small elements of mass dm1, dm2, .........dmn.
Hence sum ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 ⃗𝑟𝑖 can be replaced by the integral ∫ 𝑑𝑚 𝑟.
𝑛

∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = ∫ 𝑑𝑚 𝑟
𝑖=1
1
𝑅⃗ =∫ 𝑟 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
Where 𝑅⃗ = 𝑋𝑐𝑚 𝑖̂ + 𝑌𝑐𝑚 𝐽̂ + 𝑍𝑐𝑚 𝑘̂
1
Now 𝑋𝑐𝑚 𝑖̂ + 𝑌𝑐𝑚 𝐽̂ + 𝑍𝑐𝑚 𝑘̂ = ∫(𝑥𝑖̂ + 𝑥𝑦̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂ ) 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
Comparing the co-efficient of 𝑖̂, 𝑗̂ and 𝑘̂
1
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
1
𝑌𝑐𝑚 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
1
𝑍𝑐𝑚 = ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
If we choose, the centre of mass as the origin of our co-ordinate system, then, 𝑅⃗ = 0

implies that, ∫ 𝑟𝑑𝑚 = 0

and ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑚 = ∫ 𝑦 𝑑𝑚 = ∫ 𝑧 𝑑𝑚 = 0

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Important conclusions:
i. In case of homogeneous bodies like a circular solid disc, an ice cube or a sugar cube, solid
sphere, hollow sphere, a marble ball, a billiard ball, an iron ball uniform thin rod etc. The
centre of mass coincides with the geometric centers of the bodies.
ii. In the case of bodies having axis of symmetry like a solid cylinder, hollow cylinder a wheel etc,
the centre of mass lies on the axis of symmetry of the body.

Centre of mass of uniform rod:

Consider a uniform rod of length L.
Let one end A of the rod is taken as the origin.
Since the rod is uniform, the mass per unit length of the rod (𝜆) is constant.

Consider a small element of the rod of length dx at a distance 𝑥 from end 𝐴 and having the mass,
𝑑𝑚 = 𝜆𝑑𝑥.
𝐿
1
The co − ordinate of the centre of the rod is given by, 𝑋𝑐𝑚 = ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑚
𝑀
0
𝐿
1
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = ∫ 𝑥 𝜆𝑑𝑥
𝑀
0
𝐿
1
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = 𝜆 ∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥
𝑀
0
𝐿
1 𝑥2 1 𝐿2
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = 𝜆[ ] = 𝜆( )
𝑀 2 0 𝑀 2
1 𝐿 1 𝐿
𝑋𝑐𝑚 = (𝜆𝐿) ( ) = 𝑀 ( )
𝑀 2 𝑀 2
𝑳
𝑿𝒄𝒎 =
𝟐

Motion of centre of mass:

Consider a system having n-particles of masses 𝑚1 , 𝑚2 , 𝑚3 … … . 𝑚𝑛 .
Let 𝑟⃗⃗⃗1 , 𝑟⃗⃗⃗2 , ⃗⃗⃗
𝑟3 … 𝑟⃗⃗⃗𝑛 be their respective position vectors.
∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
The centre of mass of the system is given by, 𝑅 = ⃗
𝑀
𝑛

𝑀𝑅⃗ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑀𝑅⃗ = 𝑚1 𝑟1 + 𝑚2 𝑟2 + 𝑚3 𝑟3 +. … … . +𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛
Differentiating the two sides of the equation with respect to time,
𝑑𝑅⃗ 𝑑𝑟1 𝑑𝑟2 𝑑𝑟3 𝑑𝑟𝑛
𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 +. … … … + 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑀𝑉⃗ = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚3 𝑣3 +. … … . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑛
Differentiating the two sides of the equation with respect to time again
𝑑𝑉⃗ 𝑑𝑣1 𝑑𝑣2 𝑑𝑣3 𝑑𝑣𝑛
𝑀 = 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 +. … … … + 𝑚𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑀𝐴 = 𝑚1 𝑎 + 𝑚2 𝑎2 + 𝑚3 𝑎3 +. … … . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑎𝑛

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Using Newton’s second law, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎

𝑀𝐴 = ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗3 +. … … 𝐹
𝐹2 + 𝐹 ⃗⃗⃗𝑛
⃗ = ⃗𝑭𝒆𝒙𝒕
𝑴𝑨 ⃗⃗⃗1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
where 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 𝐹 𝐹2 +. … + ⃗⃗⃗
𝐹𝑛

From the above equation we can conclude that, the centre of mass of the system of particles moves
as if the mass of the system was concentrated at the centre of mass and all the external force were
applied at that point.

Linear momentum of a system of particles: Consider a system of n particles of masses m1, m2, m3,
…. mn moving with velocities 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 …….. 𝑣𝑛 respectively.
The momentum of the system is given by, 𝑃⃗ = 𝑝1 + 𝑝2 + 𝑝3 +. … + 𝑝𝑛
𝑃⃗ = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚3 𝑣3 +. … … . +𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑛
But we have, 𝑀𝑉⃗ = 𝑚1 𝑣1 + 𝑚2 𝑣2 + 𝑚3 𝑣3 +. … … . . +𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑛
𝑀𝑉 ⃗ = 𝑃⃗ or 𝑃⃗ = 𝑀𝑉⃗
Thus the total momentum of a system of particles is equal to the product of the total mass of the
system and the velocity of the centre of mass.
Differentiating equation with respect to time
𝑑𝑃⃗ 𝑑𝑉⃗
=𝑀
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃⃗
= 𝑀𝐴
𝑑𝑡
But 𝑀𝐴 = 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑃⃗
= 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 This is the Newton’s second law for system of particles.
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑃⃗
If 𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0 then, = 0 implies that 𝑃⃗ = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
Thus, when the total external force acting on a system of particles is zero, the total linear
momentum of the system is constant. This is the law of conservation of the linear momentum of a
system of particles.
𝑑𝑃⃗
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: Now by considering equation, =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
(𝑀𝑉⃗)=0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉⃗
𝑀 =0
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣
But 𝑀 ≠ 0 therefore = 0, implies that 𝑉 ⃗ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
This shows that, when the total external force on the system is zero, the velocity of the center of
mass remains constant. In other words, a system interacting internally cannot accelerate itself.

Examples for motion of center of mass:

(1) In Radio-active decay the process is caused by the internal force of the
system. Therefore initial and final momentums are zero. The Nucleus zXA
decays into a new nucleus z-2YA-4 and a Helium Nucleus as shown in
figure. Since the disintegration occurs only due to the internal force, the
nucleus z-2YA-4 and Helium nucleus must move in such a directions that

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

sum of their momentum is zero and their center of mass moves along
the path followed by the nucleus zXA before decay.
However, when he decay of the nucleus is observed from a
frame of reference with respect to which the nucleus is at rest, then the decay products fly off in
the opposite directions. The Centre of mass of the system remains at rest. The heavy mass moves
with less speed than that of the light mass.

(2) Explosion of a projectile in mid air (fire cracker).

Let us consider a projectile which explodes in air. Before explosion,
the projectile moves along a parabolic path. After explosion each
fragment moves along their own parabolic path but the centre of
mass of the projectile continues to move in the same parabolic path.

Vector product or Cross product of two vectors: The vector product of two vectors gives a vector
quantity.

Definition: The vector product of two vectors is a single vector whose magnitude is equal to the
product of the magnitude of two given vectors multiplied by the sine of the smaller angle between
the two vectors and the direction of the vector is perpendicular to the plane containing the two
vectors.

Explanation: Consider two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ such that the angle between
⃗ is 𝐴 × 𝐵
them is 𝜃 then, the cross product of the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ (𝐴 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝐵
⃗)
which is given by,
⃗ ×𝑩
𝑨 ⃗⃗ = (𝑨𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽)𝒏
̂
⃗
𝑛̂ is the unit vector which gives the direction of the vector 𝐴 × 𝐵
⃗𝑨 × ⃗𝑩
⃗ ⃗𝑨 × ⃗𝑩⃗
̂=
𝒏 =
𝑨𝑩 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 |𝑨 ⃗ ×𝑩 ⃗⃗ |
The direction of the vector 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ can be determined by right hand screw rule.

Right hand screw rule: Take a right handed screw with its head lying in the plane
⃗ and the screw perpendicular to this plane. If we turn the head of the
of 𝐴 and 𝐵
screw in the direction from A to B through a small angle 𝜃, then the tip of the
⃗.
screw advances in the direction of the vector 𝐴 × 𝐵

Difference between Scalar product and vector product:

Scalar product Vector product
Scalar product of two vector is a scalar Vector product of two vector is a vector
Scalar product is commutative Vector product is not commutative
Scalar product of two equal or parallel vector is Vector product of two equal or parallel vector is
not equal to zero equal to zero
Scalar product of two perpendicular vectors is Vector product of two perpendicular vectors is
equal to zero not equal to zero

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Properties of cross product:

(i) The vector product is not commutative.
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃)𝑛̂
⃗ × 𝐴 = (𝐵𝐴 sin 𝜃)(−𝑛̂) = −(𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃)𝑛̂
𝐵
𝐴×𝐵⃗ = −(𝐵⃗ × 𝐴)
⃗ ≠𝐵
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ ×𝐴
⃗ and 𝐵
Note: Angle between 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ × 𝐴 is 1800 or 𝜋 radian.

(ii) Vector product is distributive over vector addition.

𝐴 × (𝐵⃗ + 𝐶 ) = [𝐴(𝐵 + 𝐶) sin 𝜃]𝑛̂
⃗ + 𝐶 ) = [𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃 + 𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃]𝑛̂
𝐴 × (𝐵
⃗ + 𝐶 ) = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃𝑛̂ + 𝐴𝐶 sin 𝜃 𝑛̂
𝐴 × (𝐵
⃗ + 𝐶) = 𝐴 × 𝐵
𝐴 × (𝐵 ⃗ +𝐴×𝐶

Vector product of two parallel vectors or equal vectors:

The angle between the parallel or equal vectors in zero
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃)𝑛̂
⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 00 )𝑛̂
𝐴×𝐵 (sin 00 = 0)
⃗ =0
𝐴×𝐵
For equal vectors, 𝐴 × 𝐴 = (𝐴𝐴 sin 𝜃)𝑛̂
𝐴 × 𝐴 = (𝐴𝐴 sin 0)𝑛̂
𝐴×𝐴=0
Similarly 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = (1 × 1 sin 0)𝑛̂ = 0
𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = (1 × 1 sin 0)𝑛̂ = 0
𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = (1 × 1 sin 0)𝑛̂ = 0
𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0

Vector product of two perpendicular vectors:

The angle between two perpendicular vectors is 900
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃)𝑛̂
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = (𝐴𝐵 sin 900 )𝑛̂ (sin 900 = 0)
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = (𝐴𝐵)𝑛̂
Similarly 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = (1 × 1 sin 900 )𝑘̂ = 𝑘̂
𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = (1 × 1 sin 900 )𝑖̂ = 𝑖̂
𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = (1 × 1 sin 900 )𝑗̂ = 𝑗̂
̂
𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘, 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂, 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂

Now 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = (1 × 1 sin 900 )(−𝑘̂) = −𝑘̂

𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = (1 × 1 sin 900 )(−𝑖̂) = −𝑖̂
𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = (1 × 1 sin 900 ) (−𝑗̂) = −𝑗̂
̂
𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘, 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂, 𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂

Cross – product of any two unit vectors in anticlockwise direction gives the positive value of the
third unit vector. If the cross product of two unit vectors is taken in clock wise direction then it
gives negative value of third unit vector.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Vector product of two vectors in their rectangular components (Analytical method):

⃗ can be written in terms of their rectangular component as,
The vector 𝐴 and 𝐵
𝐴 = 𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂
⃗ = 𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂
𝐵
⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘̂ ) × (𝐵𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝐵𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝐵𝑧 𝑘̂ )
𝐴×𝐵
⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 (𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 (𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂) + 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 (𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ ) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 (𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 (𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂) + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 (𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ )
𝐴×𝐵
+𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 (𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 (𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂) + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧 (𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ )
But 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂ = 0
𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ = 𝑘̂ , 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ = 𝑖̂, 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂ = 𝑗̂ and 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ = −𝑘̂ , 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ = −𝑖̂, 𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂ = −𝑗̂
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 )𝑘̂ + (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 )(−𝑗̂) + (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )(−𝑘̂ ) + (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 )(𝑖̂) + (𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 )(𝑗̂) + (𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )(−𝑖̂)
⃗𝑨 × ⃗𝑩
⃗ = (𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒛 − 𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒚 )𝒊̂ + (𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒙 − 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒛 )𝒋̂ + (𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒚 − 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒙 )𝒌 ̂

Vector product of two vectors in their rectangular components (Determinant method):

𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
⃗
𝐴 × 𝐵 = |𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑦 𝐴𝑧 |
𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧
𝐴 𝐴𝑧 𝐴 𝐴𝑧 𝐴𝑥 𝐴𝑧
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = 𝑖| 𝑦 | − 𝑗̂ | 𝑥 | + 𝑘̂ |𝐵 𝐵 |
𝐵𝑦 𝐵𝑧 𝐵𝑥 𝐵𝑧 𝑥 𝑦
⃗ = 𝑖̂ (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 ) − 𝑗̂(𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 ) + 𝑘̂ (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )
𝐴×𝐵
⃗ = (𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑧 − 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑦 )𝑖̂ + (𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑥 − 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑧 )𝑗̂ + (𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑦 − 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑥 )𝑘̂
𝐴×𝐵
Magnitude of ⃗A × B
⃗ is given by,

⃗⃗ | = √(𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒛 − 𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒚 )𝟐 + (𝑨𝒛 𝑩𝒙 − 𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒛 )𝟐 + (𝑨𝒙 𝑩𝒚 − 𝑨𝒚 𝑩𝒙 )𝟐

⃗ ×𝑩
|𝑨

Angular displacement: It is defined as angle described by the radius vector in given time
𝐴𝑟𝑐 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑥
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡(∆𝜃) = =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑟
SI unit of angular displacement is radian (rad).
Angular displacement is dimensionless quantity.

Angular velocity: It is defined as the ratio of the angular displacement of

the particle to the time interval for this displacement.

Explanation:
Consider a particle of the body whose position at any instant is P.
Let after time ∆t the position of the particle on the circle in which it is
moving is P’.
If ∆𝜃 is the angular displacment of the particle in time ∆t then average angular velocity of the
∆𝜃
rotating particle is given by, 𝜔 =
∆𝑡
As ∆t tends to zero the ratio (∆𝜃/∆𝑡) approaches a limit which is instantaneous angular velocity of
the particle.
∆𝜽 𝒅𝜽
𝝎 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 =
∆𝒕→𝟎 ∆𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The direction of angular velocity is along the axis of rotation which can be determined by Right-
hand screw rule.
S.I unit of 𝜔 is radian / second (rad - s-1) and Dimensional formula is [M0L0T-1]
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Note: If a body is rotating in the direction of

Increasing 𝜃 (anticlockwise) then angular velocity of
the body is positive.
If the body is rotating in a direction of decreasing 𝜃
(clockwise) then angular velocity of the body is
negative.

Vector relation between linear velocity and angular velocity:

Consider a particle at position P of a rigid body.
As the body rotates the particle also moves from position P to position P’
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗′ = 𝑑𝑟 and its angular displacement is 𝑑𝜃.
Let its linear displacement 𝑃𝑃
Now 𝑑𝑟 = 𝑑𝜃 × 𝑟⊥
Dividing both sides by dt,
𝑑𝑟 𝑑𝜃
= × 𝑟⊥
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑣=𝜔 ⃗ × 𝑟⊥
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
But from the ∆𝑙𝑒 OPC, 𝑟⊥ = 𝑟 − 𝑂𝐶
Substituting for 𝑟⊥ , ⃗ × (𝑟 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑣=𝜔 𝑂𝐶 )
𝑣=𝜔 ⃗ ×𝑟−𝜔 ⃗ × ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐶
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 0 as 𝜔
⃗ × 𝑂𝐶
But 𝜔 ⃗ is along 𝑂𝐶⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∴𝑣=𝜔 ⃗ ×𝑟−0
⃗ =𝝎
𝒗 ⃗⃗⃗ × 𝒓
⃗
where 𝑟 → position vector of the particle at P.
This relation shows that the linear velocity of particles situated at different position from axis of
rotation is different.

Note: (i) For the particle laying on the axis of rotation 𝑟 = 0. Therefore the linear velocity of the
particle at the axis of rotation is zero.
(ii) Angular velocity of every particle of the rigid body is same as that of the angular velocity of the
rigid body this is because every particle in the rigid body rotates through the same angle in the
same interval of time.

Angular Acceleration: The angular acceleration can be defined as the time rate of change of
angular velocity.

Explanation: Let 𝜔1 and 𝜔2 be the angular velocities of the body at instants t1 and t2 respectively.
Then the average angular acceleration of the body is given by,
𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ∆𝜔
𝛼̅ = =
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡
∆𝜔 𝑑𝜔
The instantaneous angular acceleration is given by, 𝛼 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝟐
𝒅𝝎 𝒅 𝒅𝜽 𝒅 𝜽
𝜶= = ( )= 𝟐
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
The unit of angular acceleration is rad s-2.Dimensional formula is [𝑀0 𝐿0 𝑇 −2 ]

Note: If the axis of rotation is fixed the direction of 𝜔 and hence that of 𝛼 is fixed, then vector
𝒅𝝎
equation reduces to scalar equation, 𝜶=
𝒅𝒕
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Moment of force or Torque: Torque acting on a particle is defined as the product of the magnitude
of the force acting on the particle and the perpendicular distance of the application of force from
the axis of rotation of the particle.

Explanation:
Consider a particle at P in X-Y plane with position vector 𝑟.
Let 𝐹 acts on the particle at angle 𝜃 with the direction of the
position vector, then torque, 𝜏 acting on the particle with respect the
⃗ =𝒓
origin is given by, 𝝉 ⃗ × ⃗𝑭
The magnitude of torque 𝜏 is given by,
𝝉 = 𝒓𝑭 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝑭( 𝒓 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽) = 𝑭𝒓⊥
where 𝑟⊥ = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 is perpendicular distance of the line of 𝐹 from O.
Unit of torque is Nm (newton-metre).
Dimensional formula is [ML2T-2]

Direction of torque: The direction of torque is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑟 and 𝐹 and
can be determined by Right hand rule.

Explanation: When a Force 𝐹 is applied at a

distance r from the bolt in anticlockwise, the
bolt moves up, thus the torque acting on the
bolt is in the upward direction.
On the other hand when force 𝐹 is applied at a
distance r from the bolt in clockwise direction
the bolt moves downward, thus the torque
acting on the bolt is in the down ward
direction.

Maximum and minimum values of torque

1. If 𝜃 = 0 the force acts in the direction of position vector, then 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 0 = 0
2. If 𝜃 = 900 Force acts perpendicular to the position vector then 𝜏 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 0 = 900 = 𝑟𝐹

Note: 𝑟 × 𝐹 is a vector product. Therefore properties of a vector product of two vectors apply to it.
If the direction of 𝐹 is reversed, the direction of torque is reversed. If direction of both 𝑟 and 𝐹 are
reversed. The direction of the torque remains same.

Angular momentum (moment of momentum): Angular momentum of a particle about an axis of

rotation is defined as the product of linear momentum of the particle and the perpendicular
distance of the particle from the axis of rotation.

Explanation:
Consider a particle at P of mass m moving with a velocity 𝑣 in a
circular path about z-axis.
The angular momentum is, 𝒍 = 𝒓 ⃗ ×𝒑⃗
The magnitude of the angular momentum vector is,
𝒍 = 𝒓 𝒑 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽
where 𝜃 is the angle between 𝑟 and 𝑝
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

The direction of angular momentum is perpendicular to the plane containing 𝑟 and 𝑃⃗.
Unit of angular momentum is kgm2s-1 and Dimensional formula is [ML2T-1]

Note: 𝑙 = 𝑟(𝑝 sin 𝜃) = 𝑝(𝑟 sin 𝜃)

where 𝑝 sin 𝜃 → The component of momentum in the direction perpendicular to 𝑟
𝑟 sin 𝜃 → Perpendicular distance of the directional line of 𝑃⃗ from the origin

Relation between Torque and Angular momentum of a particle:

We know, 𝑙 =𝑟 ×𝑝
𝑑𝑙 𝑑
Differentiating both sides with respect to 𝑡 we have = (𝑟 × 𝑝)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑟
=𝑟× + ×𝑝
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙
= 𝑟 × 𝐹 + 𝑣 × (𝑚𝑣 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙
= 𝑟 × 𝐹 + 𝑚(𝑣 × 𝑣 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑙
=𝑟×𝐹 ∵ (𝑣 × 𝑣 = 0)
𝑑𝑡
𝒅𝒍
=𝝉 ⃗
𝒅𝒕
Thus, the time rate of change of angular momentum of a particle is equal to the torque acting on it.

𝑑𝑝
Note: This is the rotational analogue of the equation 𝐹 = 𝑑𝑡
which expresses Newton’s second law
for translational motion of a particle.

Torque and angular momentum for a system of particles:

Consider a system of n-particles.
Let 𝑙1 , 𝑙2 , 𝑙3 … . . 𝑙𝑛 be the angular moments of the particles of the system respectively about the
origin O.
The angular momentum of the system of particles is given by,
𝐿⃗ = 𝑙1 + 𝑙2 + 𝑙3 + ⋯ + 𝑙𝑛
𝑛
𝐿⃗ = ∑ 𝑙𝑖
𝑖=1
𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝑑 𝑛
Differentiating with respect to 𝑡, = (∑ 𝑙𝑖 )
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑖=1
𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝑛 𝑑𝑙⃗
𝑖
=∑
𝑑𝑡 𝑖=1 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝑛
= ∑ (𝜏⃗⃗𝑖 )𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑖=1
𝑑𝐿⃗
= 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑡 + 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡
We have separated the contribution of the external and internal torques to the total (net) torque.
𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝑛 𝑛
= ∑ 𝑟𝑖 × (𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑡 )𝑖 + ∑ 𝑟𝑖 × (𝐹𝑒𝑥𝑡 )𝑖
𝑑𝑡 𝑖=1 𝑖=1

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

The contribution of internal force to the total torque on the system is zero, because the forces
between any two particles of the system are equal and opposite, and these forces are directed
along the line joining the two particles.
𝑛
∑ (𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑡 )𝑖 = 0 ⇒ 𝜏𝑖𝑛𝑡 = 0 and 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑖=1
𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝑛
= ∑ (𝜏⃗⃗𝑖 )𝑒𝑥𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑖=1
𝒅𝑳⃗
= ⃗𝝉𝒆𝒙𝒕
𝒅𝒕
Thus, the time rate of change of angular momentum of a system of particles is equal to the net
external torque acting on the system.

Conservation of angular momentum: If the total external torque on the system of particles is zero,
the total angular momentum of the system of particles does not change with time.

⃗
dL
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: We have = 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡
dt
𝑑𝐿⃗
If 𝜏𝑒𝑥𝑡 = 0, then = 0 and 𝐿⃗ = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
This is the law of conservation of angular momentum.

Equilibrium of a rigid body: A rigid body is said to be in mechanical equilibrium, if both its linear
momentum and angular momentum are not changing with time.

Conditions for equilibrium:

𝑛
𝑑𝑝
(i) We have = ∑ 𝐹𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑑𝑝
If ∑ 𝐹𝑖 = 0, then = 0 and 𝑝 is constant
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1
If the total force on the body is zero then the total linear momentum of the body does not change
with time. This is the condition for translational equilibrium.

𝑛
𝑑𝐿⃗
(ii) We have = ∑ 𝜏𝑖
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝑑𝐿⃗
If ∑ 𝜏𝑖 = 0, then = 0 and 𝐿⃗ is constant.
𝑑𝑡
𝑖=1
If the total torque on the rigid body is zero, the total angular momentum of the body does not
change with time. This is the condition for rotational equilibrium of the body.

Partial equilibrium: A body may be in translational

equilibrium and not in rotational equilibrium or it may be in
rotational equilibrium and not in translational equilibrium.
Then the body is said to be in partial equilibrium.

Ex: (i) consider a rod AB of negligible mass and length L.

Let two equal and parallel force acts on the two ends of the rod as shown.
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Since the forces are parallel, net force on the rod is ∑ 𝐹 = 𝐹 = 2𝐹 ≠ 0

Hence the rod is not in the translational equilibrium.
𝐿
But the torque at 𝐴 is, 𝜏1 = 𝐹 × which tends to rotate the rod anticlockwise.
2
𝐿
The torque at 𝐵 is, 𝜏2 = 𝐹 × which tends to rotates the rod clockwise.
2
Hence the net torque on the rod is zero. So the rod is in rotational equilibrium.

(ii) Now the force at B in the figure is reversed.

Now we have same rod with two equal and opposite force applied perpendicular to the rod.
𝐿
Now the torque at 𝐴 is, 𝜏1 = 𝐹 × in anticlockwise direction.
2
𝐿
at 𝐵, 𝜏2 = 𝐹 × in clockwise direction.
2
Net torque is 𝜏1 + 𝜏2 ≠ 0
But Force at A is exactly equal force at B and in opposite direction.
So net force is = 𝐹 + ( – 𝐹 ) = 0.
Here the rod is in translational equilibrium but not in rotational equilibrium.

Couple: Two equal and opposite forces with different lines of action is known as couple.
When a couple acts on a body, the body is in translational equilibrium but not in rotational
equilibrium. Thus a couple rotates the body.
Ex: (i) A tap is opened or closed when our figures apply a couple on it.
(ii) A lid of a bottle is also opened and closed when our fingers apply a couple on it.

Principle of moments:
Consider two forces F1 and F2 parallel each other and perpendicular to the rod.
Let these forces act on the rod at distances d1 and d2 respectively from the fulcrum.
Let 𝑅⃗ be the reaction of the support at fulcrum which is directed opposite to the forces F1 and F2.
For rotational equilibrium, 𝑑1 𝐹1 + (−𝑑2 𝐹2 ) = 0
𝑑1 𝐹1 − 𝑑2 𝐹2 = 0
𝒅𝟏 𝑭𝟏 = 𝒅𝟐 𝑭𝟐
Anticlockwise moment of force = clockwise moment of force.
This is known as the principle of moments.

Note: For translation equilibrium, 𝑅 + (−𝐹1 ) + (−𝐹2 ) = 0

𝑅 − 𝐹1 − 𝐹2 = 0
𝑅 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2

Lever: An ideal lever is a light rod pivoted at a point along its length. It works on the principle of
moments. Ex: A see- saw on the children’s playground.

Explanation: We have 𝑑1 𝐹1 = 𝑑2 𝐹2
In the case of lever Force F1 is known as load and force F2 is known as effort.
Distance from the fulcrum d1 is called load arm. Distance d2 is called as effort arm
Load 𝒂𝒓𝒎 × 𝒍𝒐𝒂𝒅 = effort 𝒂𝒓𝒎 × 𝒆𝒇𝒇𝒐𝒓𝒕
The above equation expresses the principle of moments for a lever.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

𝐹1 𝑑
Mechanical Advantage: In the equation, 𝐹2
= 𝑑2 , the ratio (𝐹1 /𝐹2 ) is called the mechanical
1

advantage (𝑀𝐴) of the lever.

𝑭𝟏 𝒅𝟐
𝑴𝑨 = =
𝑭𝟐 𝒅𝟏
We can conclude that if d2 is larger than the d1, then MA is greater than one.
That is small effort can be used to lift a large load.

Centre of gravity: Centre of gravity (G) of a body is defined as the point where the whole weight
(Gravitational force) of the body is supposed to act.
While balancing a cardboard on the tip of a pencil, the tip of the pencil provides a support. The
reaction of the tip is equal and opposite to 𝑀𝑔 (the total weight) of the cardboard and hence it is in
translational equilibrium and it is also in rotational equilibrium.
If 𝑟𝑖 is the position vector of the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ particle of the body with respect to the centre of gravity, then
the torque about centre of gravity due to force of gravity is zero.
i.e 𝜏𝑔 = ∑ 𝜏𝑖 = ∑ 𝑟𝑖 × 𝑚𝑖 𝑔 = 0
As 𝑔 is same for all particles, 𝑔 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = 0
∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 = 0
as 𝑚𝑖 ≠ 0, 𝑟𝑖 = 0
Thus centre of gravity of the body coincides with the centre of mass in
uniform gravity or gravity free space. This is true because the body being
small, 𝑔 does not very from one point of the body to the other.

Note: If the body is so extended that 𝑔 varies from part to part of the body, then the cenre of
gravity and centre of mass will not coincide. Basically centre of mass and centre of gravity are two
different concepts. Centre of mass depends only on the distribution of mass of the body.

Determination of the centre of gravity of a body:

(i) Consider a body of irregular shape suspend the body from the points
A,B,C …… respectively.
(ii) Now make lines AA1, BB1, CC1, ………..
(iii) The point where all these lines intersect is the position of the centre
of gravity of the body.

Moment of Inertia (Rotational inertia): The property of the body by virtue of which it opposes or
resists changing its state of rotational motion is called rotational inertia or moment of inertia.

Explanation: Consider a rigid body of mass M consisting of n-particles.

Let the body is rotating with angular velocity 𝜔 about the given axis of rotation O.
Each particle of a rotating body moves in circular paths of different radii with a common centre at
the axis of rotation and each particle has different linear velocity.
The total kinetic energy of the body is the sum of the kinetic
energies of the entire particle constituting the body.
1 1 1
𝐾 = 𝑚1 𝑣12 + 𝑚2 𝑣22 +. … … . + 𝑚𝑛 𝑣𝑛2
2 2 2
1 1 1
𝐾 = 𝑚1 (𝑟1 𝜔)2 + 𝑚2 (𝑟2 𝜔)2 +. … … … + 𝑚𝑛 (𝑟𝑛 𝜔)2
2 2 2

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

1 2
𝐾 = 𝜔 [𝑚1 𝑟22 + 𝑚2 𝑟22 +. … … + 𝑚𝑛 𝑟𝑛2 ]
2
𝑛
1 2
𝐾 = 𝜔 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟12
2
𝑖=1
𝑛
𝟏
𝑲 = 𝑰𝝎𝟐 where 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
𝟐
𝑖=1
I is called moment of Inertia. Its unit is SI system is kgm2. Dimensions are 𝑀𝐿2 𝑇 0

Note: Comparing the expression for kinetic energy of a rotating body with the kinetic energy of
body in linear motion, we can conclude that, the parameter moment of Inertia is the rotational
analogue of mass.

Comparison of moment of inertia with mass: In linear motion, greater in the mass of the body,
greater is the force required to produce the linear acceleration in it. Thus in linear motion mass of
the body is a measure of its inertia. In rotational motion a torque is applied to produce angular
acceleration. Moment of inertia is a measure of rotational inertia of the body. In rotation the
moment of Inertia plays a similar role as mass does in the linear motion.

Fly wheel: A fly wheel is a circular disc, whose most of the mass is
concentrated on its rim and it rotates about an axel passing through its
centre and perpendicular to its plane.
The machines such as steam engine and automobile engine that produce
rotational motion have a fly wheel.

Working of Fly wheel: Jerky motion of a vehicle can be prevented by attaching a fly wheel with its
engine. Since the most of the mass of the fly wheel is concentrated at its rim, the fly wheel has large
moment of inertia. Therefore fly wheel opposes or resists the rotational motion to a great extent.
Whenever there is a sudden increase or decrease in the speed of vehicle, the fly wheel opposes this
sudden increase or decrease in the speed of vehicle due to its large moment of Inertia.

Factors on which moment of inertia depends: Moment of inertia depends on,

(i) Position of the axis of rotation with respect to the body.
(ii) Orientation of the axis of rotation.
(iii) Mass of the rotating body.
(iv) Distance from the axis of rotation to the distribution of mass.

Radius of gyration: It the distance of a mass point from the axis of rotation, whose mass is equal to
the mass of the whole body and whose moment of inertia is equal to the moment of inertia of the
whole body about the axis.

Explanation:
𝑛

The moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation is given by, 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
𝑖=1
𝑛

If m is the mass of the each particle, then, 𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚 𝑟𝑖2

𝑖=1

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

𝐼 = 𝑚 ∑ 𝑟𝑖2
𝑖=1
𝐼 = 𝑚(𝑟12 + 𝑟22 + 𝑟32 +. … … … + 𝑟𝑛2 )
If the body contains n particles, then by multiplying and dividing RHS by n,
(𝑟12 + 𝑟22 +. … … . . +𝑟𝑛2 )
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑛
𝑛
𝑟1 + 𝑟2 + 𝑟32 . … … . . +𝑟𝑛2
2 2
𝐼 = 𝑀( )
𝑛
𝑰 = 𝑴𝒌𝟐
𝟏
𝒓𝟐𝟏 + 𝒓𝟐𝟐 +. … … . . +𝒓𝟐𝒏 𝟐
k is called radius of gyration and is given by, 𝒌=[ ]
𝒏
SI unit of radius of gyration is metre(m).

Theorems of perpendicular and parallel axis: These are two useful theorems, which are used to
find the moment of inertia of regular shaped bodies about any axis of rotation if the value of the
moment of inertia of the given body is known about a certain axis of rotation of the body.

Theorem of perpendicular axis:

It states that the moment of inertia of a planar body about an axis
perpendicular to its plane is equal to the sum of its moments of
inertia about two perpendicular axes concurrent with
perpendicular axis and lying in the plane of the body.

Explanation: Let X, Y and Z are the mutually perpendicular axes.

Consider an object in X-Y plane.
Let 𝐼𝑧 → moment of inertia of the body about 𝑍 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
𝐼𝑥 → moment of inertia of the body about X – axis
𝐼𝑦 → moment of Inertia of the body about Y-axis
Then 𝑰𝒛 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚

Proof: Consider a particle of mass m at point P (x,y) at a distance r from O.

The moment of inertia of the particle about Z-axis is 𝐼𝑧 = 𝑚𝑟 2
The moment of inertia of the whole body with respect to z-axis is 𝐼𝑧 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
Similarly, the moment of inertia of the body with respect to x-axis is 𝐼𝑥 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑥𝑖2
and with respect to 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is 𝐼𝑦 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖2
Now 𝐼𝑧 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
𝐼𝑧 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑥𝑖2 + 𝑦𝑖2 ) ∵ 𝑟2 = 𝑥2 + 𝑦2

𝐼𝑧 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖2
𝑰𝒛 = 𝑰𝒙 + 𝑰𝒚

Note: This theorem is applicable to the bodies which are planar or flat whose thickness is very
small compared to their other dimensions.

Theorem of parallel axes: It states that the moment of inertia of a body about any axis is equal to
the sum of the moment of inertia of the body about a parallel axis passing through its centre of
mass and the product of its mass and the square of the distance between the two parallel axes.
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Explanation: Let Z’ be the axis about which the moment of inertia of

the body is to be calculated.
Z is the axis passing through the centre of mass of the body and
parallel to Z’.
Let a be the distance between the two axes.
Then, 𝑰𝒁′ = 𝑰𝒛 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐

Proof:
Consider a particle at P of mass m whose distance from Z axis is y.
Moment of inertia of the particle about Z axis is = my2
The moment of Inertia of the body about 𝑍 is 𝐼𝑧 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖2
The moment of inertia of the particle about Z’ is = 𝑚(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑎)2
The moment of inertia of the body about 𝑍’ is given by, 𝐼𝑧′ = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑦𝑖 − 𝑎)2

𝐼𝑧 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 (𝑦𝑖2 + 𝑎2 − 2𝑦𝑖 𝑎)

𝐼𝑧 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖2 + ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑎2 − ∑ 𝑚𝑖 2𝑦𝑖 𝑎

𝐼𝑧 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖2 + 𝑎2 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 − 2𝑎 ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖

The centre of mass is at the origin then, 𝑅⃗𝑐𝑚 = 0

1
and 𝑅⃗𝑐𝑚 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑀
1
0 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖
𝑀
Since 𝑀 ≠ 0, ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑦𝑖 = 0
Substituting in the above equation, 𝐼𝑧′ = 𝐼𝑧 + 𝑀𝑎2 − 2𝑎(0)
𝑰𝒛′ = 𝑰𝒛 + 𝑴𝒂𝟐

Note: This theorem is applicable to a body of any shape.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Kinematics of Rotational motion about a fixed axis: The kinematical quantities in rotational
motion, angular displacement (𝜃), angular velocity (𝜔) and anglar acceleration (𝛼) respectively
correspond to kinematic quantities in linear motion displacement (x), velocity (v) and acceleration
(a). They are, 𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡
1
𝜃 − 𝜃0 = 𝜔0 𝑡 + 2 𝛼𝑡 2
𝜔2 = 𝜔02 + 2𝛼(𝜃 − 𝜃0 )

Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis: Consider a cross–section of a rigid body
rotating about a fixed axis, perpendicular the plane of the paper.
Consider a particle at P in x-y plane which describes a circular path of radius r with centre at C.
In time ∆t the particle moves to the position P’ due to application of force 𝐹 .
(i) Work done by the force is, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹 ∙ 𝑑𝑠
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 cos 𝜙
𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹(𝑟𝑑𝜃) cos 𝜙
𝑑𝑊 = (𝑟𝑑𝜃)𝐹 cos 𝜙
Now 𝜙 + 𝛽 = 900, because displacement vector is in the direction of tangent to the circular path.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

By resolving component of 𝐹 with respect to r and with respect

to displacement vector as shown in figure, we get, 𝐹 cos 𝜙 =
𝐹 sin 𝛽
∴ 𝑑𝑊 = (𝑟𝑑𝜃) 𝐹 sin 𝛽
𝑑𝑊 = ( 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝛽)𝑑𝜃
𝑑𝑊 = (𝑟 × 𝐹 )𝑑𝜃 (∵ 𝑟 × 𝐹 = 𝑟𝐹 sin 𝛽)
Total work done is, 𝒅𝑾 = 𝝉 𝒅𝜽
This equation is similar to the expression 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠

(ii) Now dividing the equation 𝑑𝑊 = 𝜏 𝑑𝜃 throughout by dt.

𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝜃
=𝜏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑷 = 𝝉𝝎
𝑑𝑊
Where = 𝑃 (rate of doing work = power)
𝑑𝑡

(iii) The rate at which the work is done on the body is equal to rate at which kinetic energy
changes.
𝑑𝑊 𝑑
= (𝐾𝐸)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑 𝐼𝜔2
𝑃= ( )
𝑑𝑡 2
2𝜔 𝑑𝜔
𝜏𝜔 = 𝐼
2 𝑑𝑡
𝜏𝜔 = 𝐼𝜔𝛼
𝝉 = 𝑰𝜶 which is similar to F = ma

Angular momentum in case of rotation about of fixed axis:

Consider a rigid body of mass M rotating with an angular
velocity 𝜔⃗ along z-axis.
The rigid body is made up of large number of elemetns.
Consider one such element of mass mi whose position vector is
𝑟𝑖 and linear momentum is 𝑝𝑖 .
The angular momentum of this element about the axis of
rotation is given by,
𝑙𝑖 = 𝑟𝑖 × 𝑝𝑖 = (𝑟𝑝 sin 900 )𝑘̂
𝑙𝑖 = (𝑟𝑖 𝑝𝑖 )𝑘̂
𝑙𝑖 = (𝑟𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑣𝑖 )𝑘̂
𝑙𝑖 = (𝑟𝑖 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖 𝜔)𝑘̂
𝑙𝑖 = (𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝜔)𝑘̂
The total angular momentum is given by,
𝐿⃗ = ∑(𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2 𝜔)𝑘̂

𝐿⃗ = (𝜔𝑘̂ ) ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2

𝐿⃗ = (𝜔𝑘̂ )𝐼
⃗𝑳 = (𝑰𝝎)𝒌 ̂ or 𝑳 = 𝑰𝝎

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Law of conservation of angular momentum: In the absence of external torque, the net angular
momentum of the system is conserved.

Explanation: We have 𝐿⃗ = 𝐼𝜔 ⃗
Differentiating both sides with respect to t
𝑑𝐿⃗ 𝑑
= (𝐼𝜔 ⃗)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝐿⃗
But = 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑
∴ (𝐼𝜔 ⃗ ) = 𝜏𝑛𝑒𝑡
𝑑𝑡
If the net external torque acting on that body is zero then,
𝑑
(𝐼𝜔) = 0
𝑑𝑡
𝑰𝝎 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 This is the law of conservation of angular momentum.

Note: If the M.I of the body changes from 𝐼1 to 𝐼2 due to the change of the distribution of mass of
the body, then angular velocity of the body changes from 𝜔⃗ 1 to 𝜔
⃗ 2 such that,
𝐼1 𝜔
⃗ 1 = 𝐼2 𝜔
⃗ 2 or 𝐼1 𝜔1 = 𝐼2 𝜔2

Illustrations for conservation of Angular momentum

1. Suppose a man is sitting on a rotating table with his arms stretched outward. When the man
with draws his arms towards his chest, the moment of inertia of the man decreases. Hence his
angular speed increases.
2. A ballet dancer varies her angular speed by stretching her legs and arms out or in. As she
stretches her legs and arms out, her moment of inertia increases and angular speed decreases.
3. When a diver Jumps from the spring board he curls his body by rolling his arms and legs in, by
doing so he decreases his moment of inertia and hence angular speed increases.
4. When a planet revolving around the sun in an elliptical orbit comes near the sun, its speed
increases. This is because as the planet comes near the sun, its moment of inertia decreases and
hence its angular velocity increases.

Comparison of translational (Linear) and rotational motion

Linear motion Rotational motion about a Fixed axis
1. Displacement, x Angular displacement, ∆𝜃
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝜃
2. Velocity, 𝑣 = 𝑑𝑡
Angular velocity, 𝜔 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜔
3. Acceleration, 𝑎 = 𝑑𝑡
Angular acceleration, 𝛼 = 𝑑𝑡
4. Mass, M Moment of Inertia, I
5. Force, F = Ma Torque, 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
6. Work, 𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑠 work, 𝑊 = 𝜏𝑑𝜃
1 𝐼𝜔2
7. Kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 2
𝑚𝑣 2 Kinetic energy, 𝐾 =
2
8. Power, 𝑃 = 𝐹𝑣 Power, 𝑃 = 𝜏𝜔
9. Linear momentum, 𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣 Angular momentum, 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Rolling Motion: The combination of Rotational motion (without slipping) and the translational
motion of a rigid body is known as rolling motion.

Consider a spherical rigid body of radius R rolling over a horizontal surface.

Let 𝜔 be the angular velocity of the rigid body about the axis of rotation.

When this rigid body rolls over a smooth horizontal surface it has two types
of motions simultaneously,
(i) The rotational motion about its centre of mass.
(ii) Translational motion of the centre of mass of the body.

The body will roll over the surface without slipping if the point of contact (say A) of the body with
the surface is at rest at any contact with respect to the centre of mass.
The magnitude of linear velocity, 𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑅𝜔 at A.
The velocity of the point B with respect to centre of mass = 𝜔𝑅 + 𝑣𝑐𝑚
= 2𝜔𝑅
or = 2𝑣𝑐𝑚
The velocity of the top most point on the body is maximum with respect to the centre of mass of
the body.

Kinetic energy of rolling motion: The kinetic energy of a system of particles (K) can be separated
2 1
into the kinetic energy of motion of the centre of mass (2 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 ) and kinetic energy of rotational
1
motion about the centre of mass of the system of particles (2 𝐼𝜔2 )
1 2
1
𝐾=
𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 + 𝐼𝜔2
2 2
Where 𝑚 ⟶ mass of the body
𝑣𝑐𝑚 ⟶ velocity of centre of mass
𝐼 ⟶ moment of Inertia of the body
𝜔 ⟶ angular velocity of the body
2
1 2
1 𝑣𝑐𝑚
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 + (𝑚𝑘 2 ) ( 2 )
2 2 𝑅
1 2
1 2
𝑘2
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 + 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚
2 2 𝑅2
2
1 2
𝑘
𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 (1 + 2 )
2 𝑅
This equation applies to any rolling body: a disc, a cylinder a ring or a sphere.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Problem (1): Find the centre of mass of three particles at the vertices of an equilateral triangle. The
masses of the particles are 100g, 150g and 200g respectively. Each side of the equilateral triangle is
0.5m long.

Co - ordinates of the mass m1 are, 𝑥1 = 0, 𝑦1 = 0

Co-ordinates of the mass m2 are, 𝑥2 = 0.5, 𝑦2 = 0
0.5 √3
Co-ordinates of the mass m3 are, 𝑥3 = = 0.25, 𝑦3 = (0.5) = 0.25√3
2 2
Let (𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 𝑌𝑐𝑚 ) be the co-ordinates of the centre of mass
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3
𝑋𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
100(0) + 150(0.5) + 200(0.25)
=
100 + 150 + 200𝑔
75 + 50 125 5
= = =
450 450 18
𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + 𝑚3 𝑦3 100(0) + 150(0) + 200(0.25√3)
𝑌𝑐𝑚 = =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3 100 + 150 + 200𝑔
50√3 √3 1
= = =
450 9 3√3
5 1 5 1
(𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 𝑌𝑐𝑚 ) = ( , ) 𝑜𝑟 𝑅⃗ = 𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂
18 3√3 18 3√3

Problem (2): Find the centre of mass of a uniform L-shaped lamina with dimensions as shown. The
mass of the lamina is 3kg.

Now we can divide the Lamina in to 3 squares of each length 1m and

the mass of each lamina is 1kg, since it is uniform.
Then C1, C2, C3 are the centre of masses of each square and the co-
1 3 1 1 3 1
ordinates are 𝐶1 ( , ) , 𝐶2 ( , ) and 𝐶3 ( , )because the geometric
2 2 2 2 2 2
centres of the square is the centre of mass of the square.
Now the centre of mass of lamina is the centre of mass of these three
masses.
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2 + 𝑚3 𝑥3
∴ 𝑋𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
1 1 3
1 (2) + 1 (2) + 1 (2) 5⁄ 5
= = 2=
1+1+1 3 6
𝑚1 𝑦1 + 𝑚2 𝑦2 + 𝑚3 𝑦3
𝑌𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 + 𝑚3
3 1 1
1( ) + 1( ) +1( ) 5
= 2 2 2 =
1+1+1 6
5 5
The co-ordinates of the centre of mass of L-shaped Lamina is, (𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 𝑌𝑐𝑚 ) = ( , ) Its position
6 6
5 5
vector is 𝑅⃗ = 6
𝑖̂ + 6 𝑗̂

Problem (3): In the HCl molecule, the separation between the nuclei of the two atoms is about
1.27Å. Find the approximate location of the CM of the molecule. Given that a chlorine atom is
about 35.5 times as massive as hydrogen atom and nearly all the mass of an atom is concentrated
in its nucleus.
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Let these two atoms lay on the x-axis. Its centre of mass lie at (𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 0)
𝑚1 = 𝑚𝐻 = 1 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑚2 = 𝑚𝐶𝑙 = 35.5 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡
𝑚1 𝑥1 + 𝑚2 𝑥2
∴ 𝑋𝑐𝑚 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2
1(0) + 35.5 (1.27 × 10−10 )
=
1 + 35.5
35.5
= × 1.27 × 10−10 = 1.235 Å
36.5
(𝑋𝑐𝑚 , 0) = (1.235 Å, 0)
𝑅⃗ = 1.235 × 10−10 𝑖̂

Problem (4): Find the scalar and vector product of two vector 𝐴 = 3𝑖̂ − 4𝑗̂ + 5𝑘̂ and 𝐵
⃗ = −2𝑖̂ + 𝑗̂ −
3𝑘̂.
⃗ = 𝐴𝑥 𝐵𝑥 + 𝐴𝑦 𝐵𝑦 + 𝐴𝑧 𝐵𝑧
1. 𝐴 ∙ 𝐵
= (3)(−2) + (−4)(1) + (5)(−3)
= −6 − 4 − 15 = −25
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
⃗
2. 𝐴 × 𝐵 = | 3 −4 5 |
−2 1 −3
= 𝑖̂ (−4)(−3) − 5] − 𝑗̂ [(3)(−3) − (−2)(5)] + 𝑘̂ [(3)(1) − (−2)(−4)]
[
= 𝑖̂[12 − 5] − 𝑗̂ [−9 + 10] + 𝑘̂ [3 − 8]
= 7𝑖̂ − 1𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂

Problem (5): Show that 𝐴 = −6𝑖̂ + 9𝑗̂ − 12𝑘̂ and 𝐵̂ = 2𝑖̂ − 3𝑗̂ + 4𝑘̂ are parallel to each other.

⃗ will be parallel to each other if 𝐴 × 𝐵

𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗ = 0.
𝑖̂ 𝑗̂ 𝑘̂
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = |−6 9 −12|
2 −3 4
⃗
𝐴 × 𝐵 = 𝑖̂ [(9)(4) − (−12)(−3)] − 𝑗̂ [(−6)(4) − (−12)(2)] + 𝑘̂ [(−6)(−3) − (9)(2)]
𝐴×𝐵 ⃗ = 𝑖̂[36 − 36] − 𝑗̂[−24 + 24] + 𝑘̂ [+18 − 18]
⃗ =0
𝐴×𝐵
⃗ = 0 therefore 𝐴 and 𝐵
Since 𝐴 × 𝐵 ⃗ are parallel to each other

⃗ represents the area of the

Problem (6): Magnitude of the cross product of two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
parallelogram. Prove it.

Consider a parallelogram OPQR whose adjacent sides are QP and OR are represented both in
⃗
magnitude and direction by two vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ | = 𝐴𝐵 sin 𝜃
|𝐴 × 𝐵
= 𝐴(𝐵 sin 𝜃)
= 𝑂𝑃. 𝑅𝑁
= 𝐵𝑎𝑠𝑒 × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
⃗
|𝐴 × 𝐵| = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑡𝑜𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

Note: Since the parallelogram has two triangles OPQ and ORQ of equal areas,
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Arankatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 23
 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

1
⃗|
Area of each triangle = 2 |𝐴 × 𝐵
⃗ is one half of the magnitude of
Thus area of a triangle contained between the vectors 𝐴 and 𝐵
⃗ is one half of the magnitude of 𝐴 × 𝐵
𝐴 and 𝐵 ⃗.

Problem (7): Find the torque of a force 7𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂ about the origin. The force acts on a particle
whose position vector is 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ .
Given 𝑟 = 𝑖̂ − 𝑗̂ + 𝑘̂ and 𝐹 = 7𝑖̂ + 3𝑗̂ − 5𝑘̂
Torque 𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹
𝑖 𝑗 𝑘
= |1 −1 1 |
7 3 −5
= 𝑖̂ [(1 − 1)(−5) − (1)(3)] − 𝑗̂[(1)(−5) − (1)(7)] + 𝑘̂ [(1)(3) − (−1)(7)]
= 𝑖̂[+5 − 3] − 𝑗̂[−5 − 7] + 𝑘̂ [3 + 7]
𝜏 = 2𝑖̂ + 12𝑗̂ + 10𝑘̂

Problem (8): A meter scale is balanced on a knife edge at its centre. When two coins each of mass
5g are put one on top of the other at the 12.0 cm mark, the stick is found to be balanced at 45.0 cm
what is the mass of the meter stick?
From the principle of moments,
𝐹1 𝑑1 = 𝐹2 𝑑2
𝑚𝑔 × (45 − 12) = 𝑀𝑔 × (5)
𝑚𝑔 × 33 = 𝑀𝑔 × 5
10 × 𝑔 × 33 = 𝑀 × 𝑔 × 5
10 ×33
𝑀= 5
= 66 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚

Problem (9): A car weights 1800 kg the distance between its front and back axel is 1.8 m its centre
of gravity is 1.05 m behind the front axle. Determine the force exerted by the level road on each
front wheel and each back wheel.

Let F1, F2 and Mg be the force exerted by the ground on front wheels, back wheels and weight of
the car respectively.
Now car is at rest.
For translational equilibrium,
𝐹1 + 𝐹2 − 𝑀𝑔 = 0
𝐹1 + 𝐹2 = 𝑀𝑔
and also car is in rotational equilibrium

Torque on front wheels = 0

𝐹2 × 1.8 − 𝑀𝑔 × 01.05 = 0
𝑀𝑔×1.05 1800×9.8×1.05
𝐹2 = 1.8
= 1.8
𝐹2 = 10290 𝑁
Force on each back wheel = 5145N
Torque on rare wheels = 0
𝐹1 × 1.8 − 𝑀𝑔 × 0.75 = 0
𝑀𝑔×1.07 1800×9.8×0.75
𝐹1 = 1.8
= 1.8
𝐹2 = 7350 𝑁
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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Force on each Front wheel = 3675 N

Problem (10): A non-uniform bar of weight w is suspended at rest by two strings of negligible
weight as shown the angles made by the strings with the vertical re 26.90 and 53.10 respectively.
The bar is 2m long calculate the distance d of the centre of gravity of the bar from its left end.

Since the bar is at rest so the net external force and net external torque on the bar is zero.
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 and ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑇1 sin 𝜃 − 𝑇2 sin 𝜃 = 0
𝑇1 sin(36.9) − 𝑇2 sin(53.1) = 0
𝑇1 × 0.6004 − 𝑇2 × 0.7996 = 0
0.6004
𝑇2 × 𝑇 = 0.7508 𝑇1 − − − −(1)
0.7996 1
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 𝑇1 cos 𝜃 + 𝑇2 cos 𝜃 − 𝑀𝑔 = 0
𝑇1 cos(36.9) + 𝑇2 × cos(53.1) − 𝑀𝑔 = 0
𝑇1 × 0.7996 + 𝑇2 × 0.6004 − 𝑀𝑔 = 0
0.7996 𝑇1 + 0.6004 𝑇2 = 𝑀𝑔 ---------(2)
Now torque acting on the left end of the bar is = 0
𝑇2 cos 𝜃 × 𝑙 − 𝑀𝑔𝑑 = 0
𝑇2 cos(53.1) × 2 − 𝑀𝑔 × 𝑑 =0
𝑇2 × 0.6004 × 2 − 𝑀𝑔𝑑 = 0
1.2008 𝑇2 = 𝑀𝑔𝑑 ---------(3)
1.2008 𝑇2 = (0.7996 𝑇1 + 0.6004 𝑇2 )𝑑 from (2)
1.2008 (0.7508𝑇1 ) = [0.7996 𝑇1 + 0.6004(0.7508)𝑇1 ]𝑑 from (1)
0.9015 𝑇1 = (0.7996 𝑇1 + 0.4507 𝑇1 )𝑑
0.9015 𝑇1 = 1.2503 𝑇1 𝑑
0.9015 𝑇1
𝑑= = 0.72 𝑚
1.2503 𝑇1

Problem (11): What is the moment of a disc about one of its diameters?
We have, moment of Inertia of inertia of the disc about an axis perpendicular to it is given by,
𝑀𝑅 2
𝐼𝑧 =
2
Where 𝑀 → mass of the disc
𝑅 → Radius of the disc
According to perpendicular axes theorem, 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦
X and Y axes are along two diameters, ∴ 𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦
𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑥
𝐼𝑧 = 2𝐼𝑥

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

𝑀𝑅 2
But 𝐼𝑧 =
2
𝑀𝑅 2
= 2𝐼𝑥
2
𝑀𝑅 2
𝐼𝑥 =
4

Problem (12): Find the moment of inertia of a sphere about a tangent to the sphere, given the
2𝑚𝑅2
moment of inertia of a sphere about any of its diameter to be 5
, where m is the mass of the
sphere and R is the radius of the sphere.
Let AB is a diameter of the given sphere.
2
M.I of the sphere about its diameter 𝐴𝐵 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 = 𝑚𝑅 2
5
According to the theorem of parallel axis
𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 + 𝑚𝑅 2
2
= 5 𝑚𝑅 2 + 𝑚𝑅 2
2
𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 𝑚𝑅 2 ( + 1)
5
7 2
𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 5 𝑚𝑅

Problem (13): What is the moment of inertia of a rod of mass M, length l about an axis
perpendicular to it through one end?
The moment of inertia of the body about an axis passing through its centre is given by,
𝑀𝑙 2
𝐼𝐴𝐵 =
12
𝑙 2
Using the parallel axis theorem, 𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 𝐼𝐴𝐵 + 𝑀 ( )
2
𝑀𝑙 2 𝑀𝑙 2 1 1
𝐼𝐶𝐷 = + = 𝑀𝑙 2 [ + ]
12 4 12 4
2
4 𝑀𝑙
𝐼𝐶𝐷 = 𝑀𝑙 2 [ ] =
12 3

Problem (14): What is the moment of inertia of a ring about a tangent to the circle of the ring?
The tangent to the ring in the plane of the ring is parallel to the diameter of the ring.

According to parallel axis theorem, 𝐼𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝐼𝑑𝑖𝑎 + 𝑀𝑅 2

Where 𝑀 → mass of the ring
𝑅 → Radius of thering
𝑀𝑅 2
𝐼𝑡𝑎𝑛 = + 𝑀𝑅 2
2
3
𝐼𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑀𝑅 2
2

Problem (15): Given the momentum of inertia of disc of mass m and radius R about any of its
𝑚𝑅2
diameter to be 4
. Find its moment of inertia about an axis normal to the disc and passing
through a point on its edge.

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

1
M. I about any diameter = 𝑚𝑅 2
4
1 2
𝐼𝑥 = 𝐼𝑦 = 𝑚𝑅
4
By perpendicular axis theorem, 𝐼𝑧 = 𝐼𝑥 + 𝐼𝑦
1 1
𝐼𝑧 = 𝑚𝑅 2 + 𝑚𝑅 2
4 4
1
𝐼𝑧 = 𝑚𝑅 2
2
Now Z and Z1 are parallel, according parallel axis theorem, 𝐼𝑧1 = 𝐼𝑧 + 𝑚𝑅 2
1
𝐼𝑧1 = 𝑚𝑅 2 + 𝑚𝑅 2
2
3
𝐼𝑧1 = 𝑚𝑅 2
2

Problem (16): A solid cylinder of mass 20kg rotates about its axis with angular speed 100 rad/s the
radius of the cylinder is 0.25 m. What is the kinetic energy associated with the rotation of the
cylinder? What is the magnitude of angular momentum of the cylinder about its axis?

m = 20 kg, R = 0.25 m, 𝜔 = 100 rad/s, I=?, K = ?, L=?

M.I of the solid cylinder about its axis 1
𝐾 = 𝐼𝜔2
of symmetry, 2
1 1
𝐼 = 2 𝑚𝑅 2 𝐾 = × 20 × 0.25 × 0.25
2
1 𝐾 = 3125𝐽
𝐼 = × 0.625 × 100 × 100
2 𝐿 = 𝐼𝜔
𝐼 = 0.625 kgm2 𝐿 = 0.625 × 100 = 62.5 𝐽𝑠

Problem (17): A child stands at the centre of a turn table with his two arms out stretched. The turn
table is set rotating with an angular speed of 4 over / min how much is the angular speed of the
child if he folds his hands back and there by reduces his moment of inertia to 2/5 times the initial
value? Assume that the turn table rotates without friction.
Show that the child’s new kinetic energy of rotation is more than the initial kinetic energy
of rotation how do you account for this increase in kinetic energy?

According to the law of conservation of 𝑘𝑖 𝐼1 × (40)2

=
angular momentum, 𝑘𝑓 (2) 𝐼 × (100)2
5 1
𝐼1 𝜔1 = 𝐼2 𝜔2
𝑘𝑖 5 1600 5 4
𝐼1 𝜔1 = × = ×
𝜔2 = 𝑘𝑓 2 10000 2 255
𝐼2
𝑘𝑖 2
𝐼1 × 40 =
𝜔2 = 𝑘𝑓 5
2
( ) 𝐼1 2 5
5
5 × 40 𝐾𝑖 = 𝑘𝑓 𝑜𝑟 𝐾𝑓 = 𝑘𝑖
5 2
= = 100 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑚𝑖𝑛
2 This increase in kinetic energy is obtained
1 2
𝑘𝑖 2 𝐼1 𝜔1 from the muscular energy of the child when
=
𝑘𝑓 1 𝐼 𝜔2 he folds back his arms.
2 2 2

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Problem (18): A rope of negligible mass is wound round a hollow cylinder of mass 3 kg and radius
40 cm. What is the angular acceleration of the cylinder if the rope is pulled with a force of 30N?
What is the linear acceleration of the rope? Assume that there is no slipping.
m = 3 kg 𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒, 𝜏 = 𝑟 × 𝐹
R =40 cm = 0.4 m 𝜏 = 0.4 × 30 = 12𝑁𝑚
F=30N 𝜏 12
𝛼= = = 25 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2
𝐼 0.48
M.I of the hollow cylinder 𝐼 = 𝑚𝑅 2 We have 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
𝑑𝑣 𝑑 𝑑𝜔
𝐼 = 3 × 0.4 × 0.4 = 0.48 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 = (𝑟𝜔) = 𝑟
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 = 𝑟𝛼 = 0.4 × 25 = 10 𝑚𝑠 −2

Problem (19): To maintain a rotor at a uniform angular speed of 200 rad/s, an engine needs to
transmit a torque of 180Nm. What is the power required by the engine? Assume that the engine is
100% efficient.

𝜔 = 200 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 Power required, P = 𝜏𝜔

𝜏 = 180 𝑁𝑚 𝑃 = 180 × 200
𝑃 = 36000𝑤
𝑃 = 36 𝑘𝑊

Problem (20): A hoop of radius 2m, weights 100 kg. It rolls along a horizontal floor so that its
centre of mass has a speed of 20 cm/s. How much work has to be done to stop it?

Work done to stop the hoop = Kinetic energy of the hoop.

1 2
1
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 + 𝐼𝜔2
2 2
1 2
1 𝑣𝑐𝑚 2
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 + (𝑚𝑅 2 ) ( )
2 2 𝑅
1 2
1 2 2
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 + 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚 = 𝑚𝑣𝑐𝑚
2 2
𝑊 = 100 × 0.2 × 0.2 = 4 𝐽

Problem (21): The oxygen molecule has a mass of 5.36 × 10−26 𝑘𝑔 and a moment of inertia of
1.94 × 10−46 𝑘𝑔𝑚2 about an axis through its center perpendicular to the lines joining the two
atoms. Suppose the mean speed of such a molecule in a gas is 500 m/s and that is K.E of rotation is
2/3 of its K.E of translation find the average angular velocity of the molecule.

𝑚 = 5.36 × 10−26 𝑘𝑔
𝐼 = 1.94 × 10−46 𝑘𝑔 𝑚2
𝑣 = 500 𝑚/𝑠
2
Given, K.E of rotation = 3 × 𝐾. 𝐸 of translation
1 2 1
𝐼𝜔2 = × 𝑚𝑣 2
2 3 2
2
2 𝑚𝑣
𝜔2 =
3𝐼
2 × 5.30 × 10−26 × 500 × 500
𝜔=√ = 6.7478 × 102 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
3 × 1.94 × 10−46
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Arankatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 28
 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

Problem (22): Obtain the equations motion in rotational motion from first principle.
(i) The angular acceleration is uniform, hence
𝑑𝜔
= 𝛼 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔 = 𝛼𝑑𝑡
𝜔 𝑡
Integrating both sides, ∫ 𝑑𝜔 = ∫ 𝛼𝑑𝑡
𝜔0 0
𝜔 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝜔 = 𝛼 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
𝜔0 0
𝑡
𝜔]𝜔
𝜔0 = 𝛼[𝑡]0
𝜔 − 𝜔0 = 𝛼𝑡
𝝎 = 𝝎𝟎 + 𝜶𝒕 -------(1)

𝑑𝜃
(ii) Further 𝜔 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜃 = 𝜔𝑑𝑡
𝜃 𝑡
Integrating both sides, ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝜔 𝑑𝑡
𝜃0 0
𝜃 𝑡
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ (𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡)𝑑𝑡
𝜃0 0
𝑡
𝛼𝑡 2
𝜃]𝜃𝜃0 = [𝜔0 𝑡 + ]
2 0
𝟏
𝜽 − 𝜽𝟎 = 𝝎𝟎 𝒕 + 𝟐 𝜶𝒕𝟐 --------(2)

𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜔 𝑑𝜃
(iii) Now we can write, 𝛼= = .
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝜔
𝛼 = .𝜔
𝑑𝜃
𝛼𝑑𝜃 = 𝜔𝑑𝜔
𝜃 𝜔
Integrating both sides, ∫ 𝛼𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝜔 𝑑𝜔
𝜃0 𝜔0
𝜃 𝜔
𝛼 ∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝜔 𝑑𝜔
𝜃0 𝜔0
2 𝜔
𝜔
𝛼 [𝜃]𝜃𝜃0 = ]
2 𝜔
0
1
𝛼(𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) = (𝜔2 − 𝜔02 )
2
2𝛼(𝜃 − 𝜃0 ) = 𝜔2 − 𝜔02
𝝎𝟐 = 𝝎𝟐𝟎 + 𝟐𝜶(𝜽 − 𝜽𝟎 ) --------(3)
The equations (1) (2) and (3) are the equations motion in rotational motion, which are obtained
from first principle.

Suggested Questions.
One mark
1. What is a rigid body?
⃗ and 𝑄
2. What is the angle between 𝑃⃗ × 𝑄 ⃗ × 𝑃⃗?

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 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION

3. ⃗ =𝑄
Is 𝑃⃗ × 𝑄 ⃗ × 𝑃⃗?
4. Define angular displacement.
5. Mention the SI unit of angular velocity.
6. Define Torque.
7. Write the dimensional formula for torque.
8. Define angular momentum of a rigid body.
9. State the law of conservation of angular momentum.

Two marks.
1. Define Angular velocity and angular acceleration.
2. Give two general conditions of equilibrium of a rigid body.
or
Write the conditions for equilibrium of a rigid body.
3. What is couple? Mention effect of couple acting on a body.
4. Define moment of inertia and mention its SI unit.
5. Mention the formula for moment of inertia of a solid cylinder about its axis and explain the
symbols.
6. Define radius of gyration. Is it constant for a body?

Three Marks.
1. What is the value of (a) 𝑖̂ × 𝑖̂ (b) 𝑗̂ × 𝑗̂ (c) 𝑘̂ × 𝑘̂
2. What is the value of (a) 𝑖̂ × 𝑗̂ (b) 𝑗̂ × 𝑘̂ (c) 𝑘̂ × 𝑖̂
3. What is the value of (a) 𝑗̂ × 𝑖̂ (b) 𝑘̂ × 𝑗̂ (c) 𝑖̂ × 𝑘̂
4. What is centre of mass? Write the expression for its position in a two body system using a
diagram and explain each term.
5. Distinguish between scalar product and vector product.
6. Define vector product of two vectors. Write an expression for it explaining each them.
7. Derive the relation between linear velocity and angular velocity.
8. Explain the principle of lever.
9. Write the expression for moment of inertia of a circular disc about an axis perpendicular to it
at the centre and give the expression for its radius of gyration.
10. Compare the translation motion and rotational motion.
or
Compare the equations of linear and rotational motions.

Five marks.
1. State and explain theorems of perpendicular and parallel axis.
or
State and explain theorems of moment of inertia.
2. Define torque. Show that the rate of change of angular momentum is equal to torque acting on
the system. or
𝑑𝑙 𝑑𝑙
Deduce an expression for torque, 𝜏 = 𝐨𝐫 Derive the relation = 𝜏 with usual notation
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
or
Derive the relation between torque and angular momentum.
3. Define torque. State and explain perpendicular and parallel axis theorem.
4. Derive an expression for Kinetic energy of a rolling body.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Arankatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 30
 GRAVITATION
CHAPTER – 8 GRAVITATION

Observation of stars, planets and their motion has been the subject of attention in many
countries since the earliest of times.
The earliest recorded model for planetary motions proposed by Ptolemy about 2000 years
ago was a geocentric model. According to this theory, the sun, the moon and all planets, were in a
uniform motion in circles called epicycles with the motionless earth at the centre. However a more
elegant model in which the sun was the centre around which the planet revolved was mentioned
by Aryabhatta in 5 century AD in his treatise.
In 15 century Nicolas Copernicus proposed a definitive model, the helio-centric theory,
according to which the earth and all other planets move in a circular orbit around the sun. In 16
century Johannes Kepler analyzed the data collected by Tycho Brahe and put forth his discoveries
in the form of three laws known as Kepler’s laws.

Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.

1. Law of orbits: All planets move in elliptical orbits with the sun situated
at one of the foci of the ellipse.

Explanation: 𝑆 ′ and 𝑆 are the foci, 𝑎 is semi major axis and 𝑏 is the semi
minor axis.

2. Law of areas: The line that joins any planet to the sun sweeps equal areas in equal intervals of
time.

Explanation: Let the sun be at one of the foci of the ellipse.

Let the position and momentum of the planet be 𝑟⃗ and 𝑝⃗ respectively.
Then the area sweep out by the planet of mass m in time ∆t is,
1
∆𝐴 = (𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗∆𝑡)
2
∆𝐴 1
= (𝑟⃗ × 𝑣⃗)
∆𝑡 2
∆𝐴 1 𝑃⃗⃗
= (𝑟⃗ × )
∆𝑡 2 𝑚
∆𝐴 1
= (𝑟⃗ × 𝑝⃗)
∆𝑡 2𝑚
∆𝐴 1
= 𝐿⃗⃗ − − − − (1)
∆𝑡 2𝑚
𝑑𝐿⃗⃗
Now we have, = 𝜏⃗
𝑑𝑡
But 𝜏⃗ = 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ where 𝐹⃗ is Gravitation Force
But the force 𝐹⃗ is central force, i e. 𝐹⃗ is along 𝑟⃗
∴ 𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ = 𝑟𝐹 sin 0 = 0
𝑑𝐿⃗⃗
Then =0
𝑑𝑡
𝐿⃗⃗ = constant
Using the above statement in equation (1)
∆𝑨
= 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐬𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐭
∆𝒕
Note: The law of areas is the consequence of conservation of angular momentum.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk. Page | 1
 GRAVITATION
3. Law of periods: The Square of the time period of revolution of a planet is proportional to the
cube of the semi major axis of the ellipse traced out by the planet.

Explanation: If 𝑇 is the time period and 𝑎 is semei major axis, then 𝑇 2 ∝ 𝑎3 .

Gravitational force: Gravitational force is the force of attraction between the two bodies due to
their masses. It is one of the basic forces of nature and is always attractive.

Gravitation: The tendency of bodies to move toward each other is called gravitation.

Gravity: The attractive force between earth and any other body is called gravity.

Newton’s Universal law of Gravitation: Everybody in the universe attracts every other body with
a force which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to
the square of the distance between them.

Explanation: If 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the masses of two bodies respectively and are separated by a
distance 𝑟 then,
𝑚1 𝑚2
|𝐹⃗ | ∝
𝑟2
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
⃗⃗| = 𝑮
|𝑭
𝒓𝟐
where 𝐺 is universal gravitational constant.

Vector form: The force 𝐹⃗ is acting on a point mass m2 due to another point
mass m1, and the force is directed towards point mass m1. This is given by,
𝐺 𝑚1 𝑚2
𝐹⃗21 = (−𝑟̂ )
|𝑟⃗|2
𝑮 𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
⃗⃗𝟐𝟏 = −
𝑭 (𝒓̂)
⃗⃗|𝟐
|𝒓
where 𝑟̂ is the unit vector from 𝑚1 to 𝑚2 and 𝑟⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟2 − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑟1

Note: The gravitational force on point mass m1 due to point mass m2 has the same magnitude as
the force on point mass m2 but the opposite direction.
i.e 𝐹⃗12 = −𝐹⃗21

Gravitational force due to multiple point masses:

If we have a collection of point masses the force on any one of
them is the vector sum of the gravitational force exerted by the
other point masses.
𝐺 𝑚2 𝑚1 𝐺 𝑚3 𝑚1 𝐺 𝑚4 𝑚1
The total force on m1 is, 𝐹1 2 𝑟̂21 + 2 𝑟̂31 + 2 𝑟̂41
𝑟21 𝑟31 𝑟41
In case of gravitational force on a particle from a real (extended) object, we will divide the
extended object in to deferential parts each of mass dm and each producing deferential force 𝑑𝐹⃗ on

the particle, in this limit sum becomes integral and 𝐹⃗1 = ∫ 𝑑𝐹⃗ .

Note: If the extended object is a uniform sphere or a spherical shell we can avoid the integration by
assuming that the objects mass in concentrated at the objects centre.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk. Page | 2
 GRAVITATION
Determination of Gravitational constant:

In 1798 Henry Cavendish determined the value of G. The experimental arrangement is as shown.

The Bar AB has two small lead sphere attached at it ends. The bar is suspended from a rigid
support by a fine wire. Two large lead spheres S1 and S2 are brought close to the small ones but on
opposite sides. The big sphere attracts the nearby small ones by equal and opposite forces. There is
no net force on the bar but only torque which is equal to the F times the length of the bar and F is
the force of attraction between a big and its neighboring small sphere. Due to this torque the
suspended wire gets twisted such that the restoring torque of the wire equals to the gravitational
torque.

If 𝜃 is the angle of twist, then restoring torque is equal to 𝜏𝜃.

𝐺𝑀𝑚
∴ 𝐿 = 𝜏𝜃
𝑑2
where 𝑀 → mass of big sphere, 𝑚 → mass of small spheres, 𝐿 → length of the bar AB.
𝜏𝜃𝑑2
𝐺=
𝑀𝑚𝐿
The measurement of G has been refined and the currently accepted value is,
𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝐾𝑔−2

Acceleration due to gravity: The acceleration experienced by a body due to gravitational force of
the earth is known as acceleration due to gravity.

Expression for Acceleration due to Gravity:

Let us assume that the earth is uniform sphere of mass ME.
Consider a body of mass m lying on the surface of the earth.
The magnitude of gravitational force acting on the body is given by,
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝐹=
𝑅𝐸2
The acceleration experienced by the body of mass m due to gravity is given by
𝐹 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝑔= = 2
𝑚 𝑅𝐸 𝑚
𝑮𝑴𝑬
𝒈= 𝟐
𝑹𝑬

Dependence of Acceleration due to gravity: The above equation suggests that g depends on
(i) mass of the earth and (ii) Radius of the earth

Note: The value of g is independent of mass of the body

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 GRAVITATION
Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth
(i) Acceleration due to gravity above the surface of earth:
𝐺𝑀𝐸
The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth is given by, 𝑔 =
𝑅𝐸2
Now consider a body at a height h above the surface of earth.
The acceleration due to gravity at height h is given by,
𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑔ℎ =
(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)2
𝑔ℎ 𝑔ℎ 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑅𝐸2
by taking , we have, = ×
𝑔 𝑔 (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)2 𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑔ℎ 𝑅𝐸2
=
𝑔 (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)2
𝑔ℎ 𝑅𝐸2
=
𝑔 ℎ 2
𝑅𝐸2 (1 + 𝑅 )
𝐸
𝑔ℎ 1
=
𝑔 ℎ 2
(1 + 𝑅 )
𝐸
𝒈
𝒈𝒉 =
𝒉 𝟐
(𝟏 + 𝑹 )
𝑬
This shows that the acceleration due to gravity decreases as we go away from the surface of earth.
ℎ −2
𝐅𝐮𝐫𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫: 𝑔ℎ = 𝑔 (1 + )
𝑅𝐸
−2
ℎ 2ℎ
Using binomial theorem, (1 + ) ≈ (1 − )
𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸
ℎ
As ℎ ≪ 𝑅, higher powers of can be neglected.
𝑅
𝟐𝒉
𝒈𝒉 = 𝒈 (𝟏 − )
𝑹𝑬

(ii) Acceleration due to gravity below the surface of the earth:

𝐺𝑀𝐸
The value of 𝑔 on the surface of the earth is given by, 𝑔 = 2
𝑅𝐸
Now 𝑀𝐸 = volume × density
4
𝑀𝐸 = 𝜋𝑅𝐸3 𝜌
3
4
𝐺 (3 𝜋𝑅𝐸3 𝜌)
Now, 𝑔=
𝑅𝐸3
4
𝑔 = 𝜋𝐺𝑅𝐸 𝜌
3
When the body of mass 𝑚 is taken to a depth d, the mass of the earth
of radius (𝑅𝐸 − 𝑑) will only be effective for the gravitational pull.
The outward shell will have no resultant effect on the mass of the body.
The acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the earth of radius (𝑅𝐸 − 𝑑) is given by,
4
𝑔𝑑 = 𝜋𝐺(𝑅𝐸 − 𝑑)𝜌
3
4
𝑔𝑑 3 𝜋𝐺(𝑅𝐸 − 𝑑)𝜌
By taking =
𝑔 4
3 𝜋𝐺 𝑅𝐸 𝜌
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 GRAVITATION
𝑔𝑑 𝑅𝐸 − 𝑑
=
𝑔 𝑅𝐸
𝑑
𝑔𝑑 𝑅𝐸 (1 − ) 𝑑
𝑅𝐸
= = (1 − )
𝑔 𝑅𝐸 𝑅𝐸
𝒅
𝒈𝒅 = 𝒈 (𝟏 − )
𝑹𝑬

𝑑
As we go down below earth’s surface the value of g decreases by a factor (1 − 𝑅 )
𝐸

𝑅
Note: When 𝑑 = 𝑅, 𝑔𝑑 = 𝑔 (1 − ) = 0, At the centre of the earth the value of g is zero. The value
𝑅
of g is more on the surface of the earth.

Gravitational potential energy: Gravitational potential energy of a body at a point is defined as

the work done in displacing the body from infinity to that point in the gravitational field.
Potential energy of the body arising due to gravitational force is called gravitational potential
energy.

Expression for Gravitational potential energy:

Consider a body of mass m placed at a distance x
from the earth of mass ME.
The gravitational force of attraction between the
body and earth is given by ,
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝐹=
𝑥2
Now let the body of mass m be displaced from point C to B through a distance dx towards the
earth, then Work done, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑥
𝑥2
The total work done in displacing the body of mass m from infinity to a distance r towards the
earth can be calculated by integrating the above equation between the limits 𝑥 = ∞ to 𝑥 = 𝑟.
𝑥=𝑟
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥
𝑥=∞ 𝑥2
𝑟
1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 ∫ 2 𝑑𝑥
∞𝑥
𝑟 𝑟
−2
𝑥 −1
𝑊 = 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 ∫ 𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 [ ]
∞ −1 ∞
1 1
𝑊 = − 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 ( − )
𝑟 ∞
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝑊=−
𝑟
The work done is equal to the gravitation potential energy of the body and it is represented by V.
𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝒎
𝑽=−
𝒓

Gravitation potential: The gravitational potential due to the gravitational force of the earth is
defined as the potential energy of a particle of unit mass at that point.
𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑉=− ×1 (∵ 𝑚 = 1𝑘𝑔)
𝑟
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 GRAVITATION
𝑮𝑴𝑬
𝑽=−
𝒓
The unit of gravitational potential is J kg-1 and dimensional formula is [M0L2T-2]

Escape speed: The minimum initial speed required for an object to escape from the earth’s
gravitational field (to reach infinity) is called escape speed.

Expression for Escape speed: Consider an object of mass m is thrown upward so that it can reach
infinity, then the speed there was vf.
The energy of an object is the sum of Potential Energy and Kinetic energy.
1
At infinity, 𝐸∞ = 𝑚𝑣𝑓2 . . . . . … … … … … . . . . (1) (Potential energy = 0 at infinity)
2
Initially if the object was thrown with a speed vi from point at a distance (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ) from the centre
of the earth, the energy is given by,
1 𝐺𝑚𝑀𝐸
𝐸𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑖2 − . . . . . . . . . . (2)
2 (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)
By the principle of conservation of energy, equation (1) and (2) are equal.
1 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 1
𝑚𝑣𝑖2 − = 𝑚𝑣𝑓2
2 (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ) 2
The RHS of the above equation is positive quantity with a minimum value zero, hence so must be
the LHS.
1 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝑚𝑣𝑖2 − ≥0
2 (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)
1 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝑚(𝑣𝑖2 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 − =0
2 (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)
1 𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚
𝑚(𝑣𝑖2 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
2 (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)
1 2 𝐺𝑀𝐸
(𝑣 ) =
2 𝑖 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑅𝐸 + ℎ
2𝐺𝑀𝐸
(𝑣𝑖2 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑅𝐸 + ℎ
2𝐺𝑀𝐸
(𝑣𝑖 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝑅𝐸 + ℎ
If the object is thrown from the surface of the earth then ℎ = 0
2𝐺𝑀𝐸
(𝑣𝑖 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = √
𝑅𝐸
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝐺𝑀𝐸
But = 𝑔, then = 𝑔𝑅𝐸
𝑅𝐸2 𝑅𝐸
(𝒗𝒊 )𝒎𝒊𝒏 = √𝟐𝒈𝑹𝑬

Note: (1) Using the value of g and 𝑅𝐸 , (𝑣𝑖 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 11.2 𝑘𝑚/𝑠 for the earth.
(2) (𝑣𝑖 )𝑚𝑖𝑛 for moon is 2.3 km/s, This is why moon has no atmosphere.

Satellite: Satellites are the celestial objects revolving around the planet.

Earth’s satellites: Earth satellite is an object which revolves around earth.

Earth has only one natural satellite - moon with a time period 27.3 days and its rotational period
about it axis is also same as that of the time period. But earth has so many artificial satellites which
have practical use in fields like telecommunication, geophysics, meteorology, cartography etc.
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 GRAVITATION
Orbital velocity: The velocity required to put a satellite into its orbit around the earth is called
orbital velocity.

Expression for Orbital speed: Consider a satellite of mass m and speed 𝑣0 in a circular orbit at a
distance (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ) from the centre of the earth.
𝑚𝑣02
The centripetal force required for this obit is, 𝐹𝑐 =
(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)
𝐺𝑚𝑀𝐸
The centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force, 𝐹=
(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)2
𝑚𝑣02 𝐺𝑚𝑀𝐸
Equating the equations, we get =
(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ) (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)2
𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝑣02 =
𝑅𝐸 + ℎ
𝑮𝑴𝑬
𝒗𝟎 = √
𝑹𝑬 + 𝒉

𝐺𝑀𝐸
For ℎ = 0 (since ℎ << 𝑅𝐸 ), we have 𝑣0 = √
𝑅𝐸
𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝒗𝟎 = √𝒈𝑹𝑬 (∵ 𝑔 = )
𝑅𝐸2

Time period of a satellite: In every orbit the satellite travels a distance 2𝜋(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ) with speed 𝑣0 ,
then its time period is,
2𝜋(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ) 2𝜋(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)
𝑇= =
𝑣0 𝐺𝑀𝐸
(√ )
(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)
1
2𝜋(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)2
𝑇=
√𝐺𝑀𝐸
3
2𝜋(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)2
𝑇=
√𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝟑
𝟐𝝅(𝑹𝑬 + 𝒉)𝟐
𝑻=
√𝑮𝑴𝑬
This is the expression for time period of a satellite.

Note: Further, squaring on both sides

2
4𝜋 2 (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)3
𝑇 =
𝐺𝑀𝐸
2
4𝜋
𝑇2 = ( ) (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)3
𝐺𝑀𝐸
4𝜋 2
𝑻𝟐 = 𝑲(𝑹𝑬 + 𝒉)𝟑 where 𝐾 = , Which is the Kepler’s law of periods
𝐺𝑀𝐸

Total energy of an orbiting satellite: The energy of a satellite in its orbit is the sum of the potential
energy due to the gravitational force of attraction and kinetic energy due to the orbital motion.

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 GRAVITATION
Expression for total energy of the satellite:
We have, 𝐸 = 𝑉 + 𝐾𝐸
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 1
𝐸=− + 𝑚𝑣02
(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ) 2
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 1 𝐺𝑀𝐸
𝐸=− + 𝑚
(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ) 2 (𝑅𝐸 + ℎ)
𝐺𝑀𝐸 𝑚 1
𝐸= (−1 + )
(𝑅𝐸 + ℎ) 2
𝑮𝑴𝑬 𝒎
𝑬=− The total energy of an orbiting satellite is negative.
𝟐(𝑹𝑬 + 𝒉)

Note: If total energy of an orbiting satellite is equal or greater than zero then the satellite does not
remain in the orbit, it escapes from the earths pull. Negative energy implies that the satellite is
bound to the earth.

Geostationary satellites: Satellites in a circular orbits around the earth in the equatorial plane with
time period T = 24 hours are called Geostationary satellites and the orbit is called Geo-synchronous
orbit.
For geostationary orbit,
1. The time period of the satellite is equal to the rotational period of the earth.
2. The height form the equatorial plane must be about 35800km (nearly equal to 36000 km)
3. Direction of rotation of the satellite must be same as that of the earth.

Use of Geostationary Satellites: They are used for telecommunication purpose.

Note: The INSAT groups of satellites are Geo-stationary satellites.

Polar satellites: The low altitude satellites which go around the poles of the earth in a north south
direction are called polar satellites and the orbit in called polar orbits. The time period of a polar
satellite is about 100 minutes and hence it crosses any altitude many times a day.

Uses of polar satellites:

1. They are used for remote sensing. The IRS group of satellites are Remote sensing Satellites.
2. They are used for environmental studies, and also in the field of meterology.
3. They are used for natural resource survey
4. They are used for forest, waste land, drought assessment etc.

Weightlessness: When there is no normal reaction or upward force on the object from any surface,
then the weight of the object will become zero, this particular situation of the object is termed as
weight less ness.
When an object is in free fall, it is weightless.
While a man or an object accelerating downwards, if the lift is cutoff, feels weightless.
In a satellite revolving round the earth, gravitational force of the earth provides necessary
centripetal force to the satellite and this force is opposite to the force exerted by satellite on the
man, thus the person inside a satellite feels weightlessness.

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 GRAVITATION
Suggested Questions.
One mark.
1. How does acceleration due to gravity vary with altitude?
2. What is escape velocity?
3. How does the escape speed of a particle depend on the mass of the earth?
4. What is the time period of revolution of geostationary satellite? or
What is the period of geostationary satellite?
5. What is geo-stationary satellite?
6. How does the speed of the earth changes when it is nearer to the sun?
7. Write the SI unit of 𝐺.

Two marks.
1. Write the relation between 𝑔 and 𝐺 and explain the terms.
2. State and explain Newton’s law of gravitation.
or
State Newton’s law of gravitation and write its mathematical form.
3. Mention any two applications of satellite.

Three marks.
1. State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion.
2. Derive an expression for orbital velocity of a satellite.
𝐺𝑀𝐸
3. Derive the relation between 𝑔 and 𝐺. or Arrive at the relation 𝑔 = 2
𝑅𝐸
4. State and explain Newton’s universal law of gravitation and express its equation in vector
form.
5. What are geo-stationary satellites? Mention its time period of revolution.

Five marks.
1. Derive an expression for acceleration due to gravity above the surface of earth.
2. State Kepler’s laws of planetary motion. Draw diagram to explain any two of them.
or
State and explain Kepler’s law of planetary motion.
3. Define orbital velocity and escape velocity. Write the expression for them. How are they
related?
4. State and explain Newton’s universal law of gravitation.
5. Obtain the expression for acceleration due to gravity with depth of the earth.
or
Derive the expression for the variation of gravity 𝑔 with depth.

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 GRAVITATION
Problem (1) Suppose there existed a planet that went around the sun twice as fast as the earth.
What would its orbital size be as composed to that of the earth?

From the law of periods, Where

𝑇2 𝑅2 → Radius of the orbit of planet around the
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑅3 sun.
𝑇12 𝑇22 𝑅1 → Radius of the orbit of the earth
=
𝑅13 𝑅23 𝜔1 → angular speed of earth
𝑇22 × 𝑅13 𝜔2 → angular speed of planet
𝑅23 =
𝑇12
2𝜋 2 2
(𝜔 ) × 𝑅13 2𝜋 𝜔1 3
𝑅23 = 2 (𝑇 = ) 𝑅2 = ( ) 𝑅1
2𝜋 2 𝜔 2𝜔2
( ) 2
𝜔1 1 3
2𝜋 2 𝑅2 = ( ) 𝑅1
(𝜔 ) × 𝑅13 × 𝜔12 2
𝑅23 = 2 1
(2𝜋)2 𝑅2 = 𝑅 = 0.63𝑅1
1.49 1
2
𝜔1 Orbital size of the planet is smaller than the
𝑅23 = 2 . 𝑅13
𝜔2 earth.
2
𝜔1 3
𝑅2 = ( ) 𝑅1
𝜔2

Problem (2) A Saturn year is 29.5 times the earth’s years. How far is the Saturn from the sun if the
earth is 1.50 × 108 km away from the sun?

Earth year 𝑇𝑒 = 1 year 𝑇𝑠2 × 𝑅𝑒3

𝑅𝑠3 =
Saturn year 𝑇𝑠 = 29.5 year 𝑇𝑒2
Radius of the orbit of earth = 𝑅𝑒 = 1.50 × 108 (29.5)2 × (1.50 × 108 )3
𝑅𝑠3 =
km 12
𝑇𝑒2 𝑇𝑠2 𝑅𝑠 = 2.947 × 1027 km
3

From Kepler’s III law, = 𝑅𝑠 = 1.43 × 109 𝑘𝑚 = 1.43 × 1012 𝑚

𝑅𝑒3 𝑅𝑠3

Problem (3) Assuming earth to be a sphere of uniform mass density, how much would a body
weighs half way down to the Centre of earth, if it weighed 250N on the surface?
Problem (4) An aircraft executes horizontal loop of radius of 1km with a steady speed of 900kmph.
Compare the centripetal acceleration with acceleration due to gravity.
Problem (5) A satellite orbits the earth at a height of 400km above the surface. How much energy
must be expended to rocket the satellite out of the earth’s gravitational influence? Mass of the
satellite = 200kg; mass of the earth = 6.0 × 1024kg; radius of the earth = 6.4 × 106 m; G = 6.67 ×
10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2.
Problem (6) A body weighs 63N on the surface of the earth. What is the gravitational force on it
due to the earth at a height equal to half the radius of the earth?
Problem (7) Calculate g at the bottom of a mine 10km deep and at an height 20km above the
earth’s surface. Radius of the earth=6.4 × 106 m and g on the earth’s surface =9.8ms-2.
Problem (8) The size of a planet is same as that of the earth and its mass is four times that of the
earth. Find the potential energy of the mass 2kg at a height of 2m from the planet. (g on the earth’s
surface =10ms-2)

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 GRAVITATION
Problem (9) The escape speed of a projectile on the earth’s surface is 11.2kms-1.
A body is projected
out with thrice this speed. What is the speed of the body far away from the earth? Ignore the
presence of sun and other planets.
Problem (10) You are given the following data: g = 9.81 ms–2, RE = 6.37×106 m, the distance to the
moon R = 3.84×108 m and the time period of the moon’s revolution is 27.3 days. Obtain the mass of
the Earth ME in two different ways.
Problem (11) The mass of the planet is 90 times that of the moon and its radius 3 times that of
moon. Compare the weight of a body on the surface of the moon with its weight on the surface of
the planet.
Problem (12) The mass and diameter of a planet are 3 times those of the earth. what is the
acceleration due to gravity on the surface of the planet? Given 𝑔 = 9.8 𝑚 𝑠 −2
Problem (13) The planet mars take 1.88 years to complete one revolution around the sun. The
mean distance of the earth from the sun is 1.5×108km. Calculate that of planet Mars.
Problem (14) Calculate the orbital velocity and period of revolution of an artificial satellite of earth
moving at an altitude of 2000 𝑘𝑚 if radius of the earth is 6000 𝑘𝑚, mass of the earth is 6 ×
1024 𝑘𝑔, 𝐺 = 6.67 × 10−11 𝑁𝑚2 𝑘𝑔−2 .

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
CHAPTER 9 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

Elasticity: The property of a body, due to which it tends to regain its original size and shape when
deforming force is removed, is called elasticity. The deformation caused is called as elastic
deformation.

Model of Spring-ball system: Elastic behaviour of the solids can be explained by the model of
Spring-ball system. The ball represents atoms and springs represent interatomic forces. When the
solid is deformed, the atoms are displaced from their mean position causing change in inter atomic
distances. When the deforming force is removed the inter-atomic forces tend to drive them back to
their original positions and the body gains the original shape.

Plasticity: The property of a body due to which it does not regain its original size and shape when
the deforming force is removed is called plasticity. The substances are called as plastics.

Stress: When a deforming force is applied on a body, the restoring force is developed inside a
body.
The restoring force per unit area is known as stress. Stress can also be defined as deforming force
per unit area, because magnitude of deforming force and restoring force are equal.
𝑭
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 =
𝑨
Stress is a scalar quantity. Its SI unit is 𝑁𝑚−2 or 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 (𝑃𝑎). Its dimensional formula is [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 ]

Strain: The ratio of Change in configuration to the original configuration of the body is called
strain.
𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝐒𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 =
𝒐𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒍 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒇𝒊𝒈𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Strain has no unit. It is dimensionless quantity. It is a ratio.

Types of Stress and strain: There are three types in each.

Stress Strain
(1) Normal stress (𝜎) (1) Longitudinal strain (𝜀)
(2) Tangential stress / Shearing stress (𝜎𝑆 ) (2) Shearing strain (𝜃)
(3) Hydraulic stress / Volume stress / Bulk stress (𝑃) (3) Volume strain

Normal stress(𝝈): It is defined as the restoring force per unit area perpendicular to the surface of
the body. Normal stress is of two types.
(i) Tensile stress (ii) Compressive stress

Tensile stress: When two equal and opposite forces are applied at the
ends of a circular rod to increase its length, a restoring force normal to the
cross-sectional area of the rod is developed. This restoring force per unit
area of cross-section is known as tensile stress.

Compressive stress: When two equal and opposite forces are applied at
the ends of a circular rod to decrease its length, a restoring force normal to
the cross-sectional area of the rod is developed. This restoring force per
unit area of cross-section is known as compressive stress.
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Longitudinal strain: This type of strain is produced when the body is under the tensile or
compressive stress.
It is defined as the ratio of the change in length to the original length of the body.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
𝚫𝑳
𝜺=
𝑳

Tangential stress / Shearing stress(𝝈𝑺 ): The restoring force per

unit area developed due to the applied tangential force is
known as tangential stress or Shearing stress.
When two equal and opposite forces act along the
tangent to the surfaces of the opposite faces of an object then
one face of the object is displaced with respect to the other face.

Shearing strain(𝜽): This type strain is produced when the body is under tangential of shearing
stress.
It is defined as the angle through which the face of the body originally perpendicular to the fixed
face is turned when it is under shearing stress.
Δ𝑥
Shearing strain =
𝐿
Δ𝑥
tan 𝜃 =
𝐿
𝚫𝒙
If 𝜃 is small, 𝑡𝑎𝑛 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 then, 𝜽 =
𝑳

Hydraulic stress / Volume stress / Bulk stress(𝒑): When an object is

immersed in a fluid, the fluid exerts force on the surfaces of the object as a
result the volume of the object decreases and the object is under stress
known as hydraulic stress.
During hydraulic stress there is no change in the geometrical shape of the
object.
Volume strain: This type of strain is produced when the body is under the hydraulic stress.
It is defined as the ratio of change in volume to the original volume.
∆𝑽
𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 = −
𝑽
Negative sign indicates that volume decreases when the body is under bulk stress.

Hooke’s law: For small deformations, the stress and strain

are proportional to each other.
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 ∝ 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = 𝑘 (𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)
The constant 𝑘 is known as modulus of elasticity.
Its unit is 𝑁𝑚−2 and dimensions are [𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2 ]

Stress-Strain Curve: The stress-strain curve changes from

material to material. This curve helps us to understand how
given materials deform with increasing loads.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Explanation: In the region between 𝑂 and 𝐴, the curve is linear and Hooke’s law is obeyed. The
body regains its original dimensions and the body behaves as an elastic body.

In the region from 𝐴 to 𝐵, stress and strain are not proportional, but the body still regains its
original dimensions after the removal of load. The point 𝐵 is called Yield point (elastic limit) and
the corresponding stress is called Yield strength (𝜎𝑦 ).

If the stress is increased beyond 𝐵, the strain increases rapidly. This is represented by the region
between 𝐵 and 𝐷. When the load is removed, say at 𝐶, the body does not regain its original
dimensions. The material is said to have a permanent set. The deformation is said to be plastic
deformation.

The point 𝐷 on graph is the ultimate tensile strength(𝜎𝑢 ) of the material. Beyond this point,
additional strain is produced even by a reduced applied force and fracture occurs at 𝐸.
If the ultimate strength and fracture points are close, the material is said to be brittle. If they are far
apart, the material is said to be ductile.

Elastomers: The materials having large elastic region, but does not obey Hooke’s law and have no
well-defined plastic region are called elastomers.
Ex: Rubber, tissue of aorta etc.

Elastic moduli: The ratio of stress and strain is called modulus of elasticity.
Types of modulus of elasticity: There are three types
(i) Young’s modulus (𝑌)
(ii) Shear modulus / Rigidity modulus (𝐺)
(iii) Bulk modulus (𝐵)

Young’s modulus(𝒀): The ratio of Normal (tensile or compressive) stress to the longitudinal strain
is defined as young’s modulus.
𝑁𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝑌=
𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎
𝑌=
𝜀
(𝑭⁄𝑨) 𝑭𝑳
𝒀= =
(∆𝑳⁄𝑳) 𝑨∆𝑳
The unit of young’s modulus is 𝑁𝑚−2.
Generally for metals Young’s moduli are large;
Hence they are more elastic in nature.

Determination of Young’s modulus of material of a wire:

The arrangement consists of two long straight wires of same length
and equal radius suspended side by side from a fixed rigid support.
The wire 𝐴 is called Reference wire carries a main scale and
a pan to place a weight. The wire 𝐵 is called experimental wire also
carries a pan in which known weights can be placed. A vernier
scale 𝑉 is attached to a pointer at the bottom of the wire 𝐵 and main
scale is fixed to wire 𝐴.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Both the wires are given an initial small load to keep them straight. The vernier reading is noted
now. The experimental wire is gradually loaded with more weights to bring it under tensile stress
and the vernier reading is noted again. The difference between two vernier readings gives the
elongation produced in the wire.

Expression for Young’s modulus of material of a wire:

If 𝑟 and 𝐿 are the initial radius and length of the wire 𝐵 respectively.
The area of cross-section is 𝜋𝑟 2 .
Let ∆𝐿 be the elongation produced by the mass 𝑀,
𝜎 𝐹𝐿
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔’𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠, 𝑌 = =
𝜀 𝐴∆𝐿
(𝑀𝑔)𝐿
𝑌=
(𝜋𝑟 2 )∆𝐿

Shearing modulus/Rigidity modulus(𝑮): The ratio of shearing stress to the corresponding

shearing strain is called shear modulus.
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
𝐺=
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝜎𝑠
𝐺=
𝜃
(𝑭⁄𝑨) 𝑭𝑳
𝑮= =
(∆𝒙⁄𝑳) 𝑨∆𝒙
Its SI unit is 𝑁𝑚−2 . It can be seen that Shear modulus is generally less than Young’s modulus for
𝑌
most materials and ≈ 3 .

Bulk modulus(𝑩): The ratio of hydraulic stress to the corresponding hydraulic strain (Volume
strain) is called bulk modulus.
𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒑 𝒑𝑽
𝑩= =− =−
𝑯𝒚𝒅𝒓𝒂𝒖𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒄 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏 (∆𝑽⁄𝑽) ∆𝑽
Negative sign shows that increase in pressure (p) causes decrease in volume (𝑉).
Its SI unit is 𝑁𝑚−2 .

Note: Bulk modulus for a perfect rigid body and ideal gas is infinite. A solid has all types of
moduli of elasticity but fluids have only bulk modulus of elasticity.

Compressibility(𝒌): The reciprocal of the bulk modulus is called Compressibility.

1 1
𝑘= =
𝐵 − 𝑝
(∆𝑉⁄𝑉 )
∆𝑽
𝒌=−
𝒑𝑽
𝑘 is also defined as the fractional change in volume per unit increase in pressure. Solids are least
compressible than liquids. Gases are more compressible than liquids and solids.

Lateral strain: The ratio of change in diameter to the original diameter is called lateral strain.
Within elastic limit this lateral strain is directly proportional to the longitudinal strain.
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 ∝ 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
Poisons ratio(𝝈): The ratio of the lateral strain to the longitudinal strain is called Poison’s ratio.
𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑠𝑜𝑛’𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜 =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
(∆𝒅⁄𝒅) 𝑳 ∆𝒅
𝑷𝒐𝒊𝒔𝒐𝒏’𝒔 𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐 = =
(∆𝑳⁄𝑳) 𝒅 ∆𝑳
Poison’s ratio is a ratio of two strains. It is a pure number and has no dimensions and unit. The
practical value of Poison’s ratio lies between 0 and 0.5.

Elastic Potential energy: When a wire is put under a tensile stress, work is done against the inter-
atomic forces. This work is stored in the wire in the form of Elastic potential energy.

Expression for Elastic Potential energy:

Consider a wire of length 𝐿 and area of cross-section 𝐴.
Let a force 𝐹 be applied to stretch the wire.
If 𝑙 be the length through which the wire is stretched. Then,
(𝐹⁄𝐴) 𝐹𝐿
𝑌= =
(𝑙⁄𝐿) 𝐴𝑙
𝑌𝐴𝑙
𝐹=
𝐿
If the wire is stretched through a length 𝑑𝑙, work done is given by, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑙
𝑌𝐴𝑙
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑑𝑙
𝐿
𝑙 𝑌𝐴𝑙
Total work done to stretch the wire from 0 to 𝑙 is, 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫0 𝐿 𝑑𝑙
𝑌𝐴𝑙 2
𝑊=
2𝐿
1 𝑙 2
𝑊 = 𝑌 ( ) 𝐴𝐿
2 𝐿
1𝜎
𝑊= (𝜀)2 𝐴𝐿
2𝜀
1
𝑊 = 𝜎𝜀 (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑟𝑒)
2
𝟏
𝑼 = 𝝈𝜺 (𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒘𝒊𝒓𝒆)
𝟐
𝟏
The elastic potential energy per unit volume of the wire (𝑢) is given by, 𝒖= 𝝈𝜺
𝟐

Applications of Elastic behaviour of materials:

1) A Crane is used for lifting and moving heavy loads from one place to another. The crane makes
use of a thick metallic rope. The maximum load lifted should be such that, the elastic limit of the
material of the rope is not exceeded.

𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑀𝑔
𝐄𝐱𝐩𝐥𝐚𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧: 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 = = where 𝑟 → radius of the rope required
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝜋𝑟 2
Let us take the lifted mass 𝑀 = 105 𝑘𝑔 and 𝑔 = 10𝑚𝑠 −2 . The elastic limit of the steel is 30 ×
107 𝑁𝑚2 , Then the maximum stress on the rope is 30 × 107 𝑁𝑚2 .
1
105 × 10 2
Radius, 𝑟 = ( ) = 0.0325𝑚 = 3.25𝑐𝑚
3.14 × 30 × 107

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
The radius of the steel rope to lift 105 𝑘𝑔 should be about 3𝑐𝑚. Practically it will be a rigid rod but
the rope is made up of a large number of thin wires braided together to make it flexible.

2) Bending of beam: A bridge has to design such that it can withstand the load of the flowing
traffic, the force of wind and its own weight.

Explanation: When a beam of length (𝑙), breadth (𝑏) and depth (𝑑)
loaded weight is as shown.
𝑀𝑔𝑙 3
The depression of the beam is, 𝛿 =
4𝑏𝑑3 𝑌
1
𝛿∝
𝑑3
The depression in the loaded beam can be decreased effectively by increasing 𝑑.
3) In building and bridge construction, Iron girders used are not rectangular
shape but in the shape of letter I. The I Shaped girder is much stronger than the
rectangular shaped girder.

4) To estimate the maximum height of the mountain.

Explanation: The stress due to all the material on the top of the mountain should be less than the
critical shearing stress at which the rocks flow.
If ℎ is the height of the mountain and 𝜌 be the density of the rocks of the mountain, then the
pressure at the base of the mountain=𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠.
The elastic limit of a typical rock=3 × 108 𝑁𝑚−2
The stress must be less than the elastic limit; otherwise the rock begins to sink under its own
weight.
𝜌𝑔ℎ < 3 × 108
3 × 108 3 × 108
ℎ< =
𝜌𝑔 3 × 103 × 10
4
ℎ < 10 𝑚
ℎ ≈ 10𝑘𝑚
It may be noted that the height of the Mount Everest is nearly 9𝑘𝑚.

Suggested Questions.
One Mark.
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS
1. What is mean by elasticity?
2. Is stress a scalar or a vector?
3. Mention the SI unit of stress.
4. Among steel and rubber which one is more elastic?
5. Define lateral strain.
6. Define Poison’s ratio.

Two Marks.
1. State and explain Hooke’s law of elasticity.
2. What are elastomers? Give example.
3. Determine the volume contraction of the solid copper tube, 10 𝑐𝑚 on its edge, when subjected
to hydraulic pressure of 7.0 × 106 𝑃𝑎. (Given bulk modulus of copper = 140 × 10 𝑁𝑚−2 ).

Three Marks.
1. Define three types of stress.
2. Define three types of strains.
3. Define stress, strain and elastic limit.
4. Define Young’s modulus of the material of a wire. Give an expression for it. Mention its SI
unit.
5. Arrive at an expression for Young’s modulus in case of stretched string.
6. A steel rod of radius 0.01 𝑚 and length 2 𝑚. A 100 𝑁 of force stretches it along its length.
Calculate the (a) stress (b) elongation.
7. Mention three types of moduli of elasticity. or
Define different types of stress and strain modulus.
8. What is mean by plasticity? Define Young’s modulus of a material wire.
9. Draw a typical stress-strain curve and label yield point, fracture point.

Five Marks.
1. State and explain Hooke’s law. Draw stress-strain curve and label the parts.
2. What is elastic potential energy? Obtain the expression for elastic potential energy.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Chapter 10 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

Fluids: The materials that can flow are called fluids. Liquid and gases are collectively known as
fluids. Unlike a solid a fluid has no definite shape of its own.

Hydrostatics (Fluids statics): The study of fluids at rest is known as hydrostatics.

Hydrodynamics (Fluids dynamics): The study of fluids in motion is termed as hydrodynamics.

Density: Density of a substance is defined as the mass per unit volume of the substance.
𝑴
𝝆=
𝑽
SI unit of density is 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 and dimensions are 𝑀𝐿−3

Relative density: It is defined as the ratio of the density of the substance to the density of water.
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Relative density has no unit. It is a pure number.

Note: Density of water at 40 𝐶 is maximum and is equal to 1000𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

Pressure: The pressure is defined as the magnitude of the force acting perpendicular to the surface
of an object per unit area of the object.
𝑭
𝑷=
𝑨
SI unit of pressure is 𝑁𝑚−2 or 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙(𝑃𝑎). Dimensions of pressure is 𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −2

Note: Pressure is a scalar quantity, because hydrostatic pressure is transmitted equally in all
directions, when force is applied, which shows that a definite direction is not associated with
pressure.

Measurement of pressure: The normal force exerted by the fluid at a point may be measured and
the arrangement is as shown.

It consists of an evacuated chamber with a spring that is calibrated to measure

the force acting on the piston. This device is placed at a point inside the fluid.
The inward force exerted by the fluid on the piston is balanced by the outward
spring force and is thereby measured.

Pascal’s Law: The pressure in a fluid at rest is same at all points if they are at the same height.

Pascal’s Explanation:
Consider an element 𝐴𝐵𝐶-𝐷𝐸𝐻 in the form of a right-angled prism in the fluid.
As the element is very small, every part of it is located at the same height from the liquid surface.
Then the effect of gravity is same at all these points.
Let 𝐹𝑎 , 𝐹𝑏 and 𝐹𝑐 be the normal forces exerted by the fluid on the faces 𝐵𝐸𝐻𝐶, 𝐴𝐷𝐻𝐶 and 𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐵
respectively.
Let 𝐴𝑎 , 𝐴𝑏 and 𝐴𝑐 be the area of the faces 𝐵𝐸𝐻𝐶, 𝐴𝐷𝐻𝐶 and 𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐵 respectively.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Since the element 𝐴𝐵𝐶-𝐷𝐸𝐻 is in equilibrium, net force acting on that element should be zero.
𝐹𝑐 = 𝐹𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝐹𝑎 = 𝐹𝑏 cos 𝜃
By geometry, 𝐴𝑐 = 𝐴𝑏 sin 𝜃
𝐴𝑎 = 𝐴𝑏 cos 𝜃
𝐹𝑐 𝐹𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝐹𝑏
Pressure on 𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐵 = = = − − − (1)
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑏 sin 𝜃 𝐴𝑏
𝐹𝑎 𝐹𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐹𝑏
Pressure on 𝐵𝐸𝐻𝐶 = = = − − − (2)
𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑏 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 𝐴𝑏
𝐹𝑏
Pressure on 𝐴𝐷𝐻𝐶 = − − − (3)
𝐴𝑏
𝐹𝑐 𝐹𝑎 𝐹𝑏
The above equations says, = = implies that 𝑃𝑎 = 𝑃𝑏 = 𝑃𝑐
𝐴𝑐 𝐴𝑎 𝐴𝑏
Hence, pressure exerted is same in all directions in a fluid at rest.

Expression for pressure:

Consider a vessel containing a liquid of density 𝜌, which is in equilibrium.
Consider a cylindrical element of fluid having area of base 𝐴 and height ℎ.
As the fluid is in equilibrium, the net force acting on it is zero.
𝐹1 + 𝑚𝑔 − 𝐹2 = 0
𝐹
But 𝑃 = therefore 𝐹1 = 𝑃1 𝐴 and 𝐹2 = 𝑃2 𝐴
𝐴
𝑃1 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑃2 𝐴 = 0
𝑃2 𝐴 − 𝑃1 𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )𝐴 = 𝑚𝑔
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 )𝐴 = (𝐴ℎ𝜌)𝑔
(𝑃2 − 𝑃1 ) = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
If the 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 1 is in the figure is shifted to the top of the fluid, which is open to atmosphere, 𝑃1 may
be replaced by atmospheric pressure 𝑃𝑎 and 𝑃2 by 𝑃 then,
𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑷 = 𝑷𝒂 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉
The above equation tells us that pressure depends on height, so that the pressure in a fluid at rest
is same at all points, if they are at same height.

Gauge Pressure: The pressure 𝑃 at depth ℎ from the surface of the fluid is greater than the
atmospheric pressure by an amount 𝜌𝑔ℎ. The excess pressure at depth ℎ is called Gauge pressure.
Gauge pressure is the difference of the actual pressure and the atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric pressure: The pressure of the atmosphere at any point is equal to the weight of a
column of air of unit cross-sectional area extending from that point to the top of the atmosphere.
At sea level it is 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎 and 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 1.013 × 105 𝑃𝑎

Hydrostatic paradox: Consider three vessels 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶 of different

shapes. They are connected at the bottom by a horizontal pipe. On
filling with water, the level in the vessel is same. Though they hold
different amount of water, any how the pressure of the water at the
bottom is same. This result is known as hydrostatic paradox.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Measurement of atmospheric pressure:
(i) Mercury Barometer:
Torricelli invented a mercury barometer to measure the atmospheric pressure.
It consists of a long glass tube closed at one end and filled with
mercury and inverted in to a trough of mercury as shown. The space in the
tube above the mercury column is almost empty and can be neglected. This
space is called Torricelli space.
Now the pressure at 𝐴 = pressure at 𝐵, which are at same level.
But pressure at 𝐴 = atmosphere pressure, 𝑃𝑎
𝑃𝑎 = pressure at 𝐵
𝑷𝒂 = 𝝆𝒈𝒉 where 𝜌 is density of mercury.

Note:
(1) At sea level, the mercury column in the barometer is found to have a height of 76𝑐𝑚.
The pressure equivalent to this column is 1 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 (1 𝑎𝑡𝑚).
(2) A common way of stating pressure is in terms of 𝑐𝑚 or 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔.
(3) A pressure equivalent to 1𝑚𝑚 is called a 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟. 1𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 = 1 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 = 133𝑃𝑎
(4) 𝑚𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑔 and 𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑟 are used in medicine and physiology.
In meteorology a common unit is the 𝑏𝑎𝑟 and 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖 𝑏𝑎𝑟. (1𝑏𝑎𝑟 = 105 𝑃𝑎)

(ii) Open tube monometer:

It is useful instrument for measuring pressure difference.
It consists of a U-tube containing a low density liquid for measuring small
pressure differences or a high density liquid for large pressure differences.
One end of the tube is open to the atmosphere and the other end is
connected to the system whose pressure is to be measured.
The pressure 𝑃 at 𝐴 is equal to pressure at point 𝐵.
The gauge pressure is 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ which is proportional to the height of the liquid.

Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure: Whenever external pressure is applied on any
part of the fluid contained in a vessel, it is transmitted undiminished and equally in all directions.

Applications of the law: Hydraulic machines work based on the Pascal’s law for transmission of
fluid pressure. In these devices fluids are used for transmitting pressure.

Hydraulic machines: The devices which work on the Pascal’s law are known as hydraulic
machines. Ex: Hydraulic lift, hydraulic brakes etc.

Hydraulic lift: It consists of a horizontal fluid filled container.

Both the ends of the container are fitted with two cylinders
having pistons of different area of cross-section as shown in
the figure.

Explanation: Let the force of magnitude 𝐹1 be applied to a

small piston of surface area 𝐴1
𝐹1
This generates a pressure, 𝑃 =
𝐴1
This pressure is transmitted undiminished through the fluid to a larger piston of surface area 𝐴2
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
𝐹1 𝐹2
Hence, 𝑃 = =
𝐴1 𝐴2
𝑨𝟐
𝑭𝟐 = 𝑭𝟏 ( )
𝑨𝟏
As 𝐴2 > 𝐴1 , 𝐹2 > 𝐹1
This shows that a small force applied on the smaller piston appears as a large force on the larger
piston.

Hydraulic brakes: When we apply a little force

on the pedal with our foot, the master piston 𝑃
moves inside the master cylinder and the
pressure caused is transmitted through the
brake oil to act on a piston of large area (𝑃1 and
𝑃2 ). A large force acts on the piston and is
pushed down expanding the brake shoes (𝑆1
and 𝑆2 ) against the brake lining and retard the
motion of the wheel.

Archimedes’ principle: When a body is immersed completely or partially in a liquid it appears to

lose a part of its weight and this apparent loss of weight is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced by the body.

Fluid dynamics: Fluid dynamics deals with fluid flow – the science of flow of fluids.
Types of flow: The flow of fluids is divided into two types, namely
(i) Streamline (Steady) flow (ii) Turbulent flow

Streamline (Steady) flow: If a fluid flows such that the velocity of its particles at a given point
remains constant with time, then the fluid is said to have streamline flow.

Explanation: Consider a liquid passing through a tube as shown. If the

velocity of the flow is small, all the particles which come to 𝐴 will have
the same speed and will move in same direction. As the particle goes from
𝐴 and 𝐵 its speed and direction may change, but all the particle at 𝐵 will
have the same speed, also if one particle through 𝐴 has gone through 𝐵
then all the particles passing through 𝐴 go through 𝐵.

Streamline: The path followed by the particle of a fluid in a streamline flow or steady flow is
called streamline.

Properties of streamlines:
(i) The tangent at any point on the line of flow gives the direction of flow.
(ii) The streamline may curve and bend, but they cannot cross each other.

Equation of continuity:
Consider streamline flow of a fluid of density 𝜌, through a pipe 𝐴𝐵 of non-uniform cross-section.
Let 𝑣1 be the velocity of the liquid entering at 𝐴 of the cross-sectional area 𝑎1 normal to the surface.
Let 𝑣2 be the velocity with which it flows out at 𝐵 where the area of cross-section 𝑎2 normal to the
surface.
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Mass of fluid entering at 𝐴 per second = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜌(𝑎1 𝑣1 )
Mass of fluid entering at 𝐵 per second = 𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝜌(𝑎2 𝑣2 )
Since the flow is steady,
The mass of the fluid entering per second is equal to the mass of the fluid
flowing out per second.
𝜌𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝜌𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
This equation is called equation of continuity and it is the statement of law of conservation of mass
in flow of incompressible fluids.
In general, 𝒂𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Note: The product 𝑎𝑣 gives the volume flux or flow rate and remains constant throughout the
pipe of flow. Thus, at narrower portions where the streamlines are closely packed, velocity
increases and vice versa.

Turbulent flow: When the speed of flow exceeds a limiting value called critical velocity, the
orderly motion of the fluid is lost and it acquires an unsteady motion called turbulent motion.
Ex: Floods, hurricanes, whirlpools etc.

Differences between streamline flow and turbulent flow

Streamline flow Turbulent flow
1 It is a regular and orderly flow 1 It is irregular and disorderly flow
The lines of flow are parallel to each other The lines of flow are not parallel to each
2 2
other
The velocity of the flow is less than the The velocity of the flow is greater than the
3 3
critical velocity critical velocity
Different particles cross a given point with Different particles cross a given point with
4 4
same velocity different velocity

Bernoulli’s principle: For streamline flow of an ideal (non-viscous, incompressible) fluid, the sum
of pressure, the kinetic energy per unit volume and potential energy per unit volume remains a
constant.
𝟏
𝑷 + 𝝆𝒗𝟐 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐

Proof: Consider an incompressible and non-viscous fluid

flowing through a pipe 𝐵𝐸 of varying cross-sectional area.
Let the flow is streamline.
Let 𝑃1 and 𝑃2 be the pressure and 𝑎1 and 𝑎2 be the area of cross-
section at 𝐵 and 𝐷 respectively.
Let 𝑣1 is the speed of fluid at 𝐵 and 𝑣2 at 𝐷.
In a small interval of time ∆𝑡, the fluid at 𝐵 moves through a
distance 𝑣1 ∆𝑡 to 𝐶.
At the same time the fluid, initially at 𝐷 moves through a distance 𝑣2 ∆𝑡 to 𝐸.
The work done on the fluid in the region 𝐵𝐶 is,
𝑊1 = 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑊1 = 𝑃1 𝑎1 × 𝑣1 ∆𝑡
𝑊1 = 𝑃1 𝑎1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
𝑊1 = 𝑃1 ∆𝑉
Work done on the fluid in the region 𝐷𝐸 against the pressure is 𝑊2 = 𝑃2 𝑎2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡
Since the flow is streamline, 𝑎1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡 = 𝑎2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡
𝑊2 = 𝑃2 ∆𝑉
The net work done on the fluid is, 𝑊 = 𝑊1 − 𝑊2
𝑊 = (𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )∆𝑉
A part of this work done is utilised to change the kinetic energy ane remaining is utilised in
changing the gravitational potential energy.
If 𝜌 is the density of the fluid, then the mass of the fluid passing through the pipe in time ∆𝑡 is,
∆𝑚 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 × 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
∆𝑚 = 𝜌 × 𝑎1 𝑣1 ∆𝑡 = 𝜌 × 𝑎2 𝑣2 ∆𝑡
∆𝑚 = 𝜌∆𝑉
1
Change in kinetic energy is, ∆𝐾 = (∆𝑚)(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
1
∆𝐾 = 𝜌∆𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
Change in potential energy is, ∆𝑈 = ∆𝑚𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
∆𝑈 = 𝜌∆𝑉𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 )
Applying work-energy theorem for this volume of fluid, we get,
𝑊 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝐾
1
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 )∆𝑉 = 𝜌∆𝑉𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + 𝜌∆𝑉(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
Dividing each term by ∆𝑉,
1
(𝑃1 − 𝑃2 ) = 𝜌𝑔(ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) + 𝜌(𝑣22 − 𝑣12 )
2
On rearranging,
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
𝟏 𝟐
In general, 𝑷 + 𝝆𝒈𝒉 + 𝝆𝒗 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝟐

Limitations of Bernoulli’s theorem:

1) While proving Bernoulli’s theorem, we have assumed that no energy is lost due to friction, but
in practice due to viscosity of the fluid some energy is lost. The kinetic energy lost gets converted
to heat. Thus, Bernoulli’s equation applies only to non-viscous fluids.

2) Bernoulli’s theorem cannot be applied to compressible fluids, as the elastic energy of the fluid is
not taken into consideration.

3) Bernoulli’s equation does not hold good for non-steady or turbulent flow, as the velocity and
pressure may vary with time and position.

Speed of Efflux: Torricelli’s law: The word efflux means fluid out
flow. Torricelli discovered that, the expression for speed of efflux from
an open tank is similar to that of a freely falling body.

Proof: Consider a tank containing a liquid of density 𝜌 with a small

hole in its side at a height 𝑦1 from the bottom of the tank.
Let 𝑦2 be the height of the free surface of the liquid from the bottom of
the tank.
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Let 𝑃 be the pressure of air above the free surface of the liquid.
From the equation of continuity, 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
𝒂𝟏
𝒗𝟐 = 𝒗
𝒂𝟐 𝟏
Where 𝑎1 → Cross-sectional area of the hole
𝑎2 → Cross-sectional area of the tank
𝑣1 →Velocity of fluid coming out of the hole
𝑣2 →Velocity of fluid at the top surface of the liquid
Since 𝑎2 ≫ 𝑎1 , top layer of the liquid is approximately at rest. i.e. 𝑣2 = 0
Also the pressure of the fluid at the hole 𝑃1 is same as that of the atmospheric pressure 𝑃𝑎 .
Applying Bernoulli’s equation to point 1 and 2,
1
𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2
2
1 2
𝜌𝑣 = 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔𝑦2 − 𝜌𝑔𝑦1
2 1
1 2
𝜌𝑣 = 𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔(𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )
2 1
2
𝑣12 = 𝜌 (𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ) (since 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 = ℎ)
2(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎 )
𝑣12 = + 2𝑔ℎ
𝜌
2(𝑃 − 𝑃𝑎 )
𝑣1 = √ + 2𝑔ℎ
𝜌
If the tank is open to atmosphere then, 𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎
𝒗𝟏 = √𝟐𝒈𝒉
This is same as the speed of a freely falling body. This equation is known as Torricelli’s law.

Applications of Bernoulli’s principle:

1) Venturimeter: Venturimeter is used to measure the speed of an
incompressible fluid in a pipe. It consists of a tube with normal cross-
sectional area 𝑎1 with a constriction of 𝑎2 at the middle of the tube. One
arm of 𝑈-tube monometer is connected to the point where the area of cross-
section is 𝑎1 and the other arm is connected at the constriction.

Measurement of speed: Let 𝜌 be the density of the fluid flowing in the pipe
and 𝜌𝑚 be the density of the monometer liquid.
Let 𝑣1 and 𝑣2 be the velocities of the fluid at broader region and constriction respectively.
Then from equation of continuity, 𝑎1 𝑣1 = 𝑎2 𝑣2
𝑎1
Speed at the constriction, 𝑣2 = 𝑣1
𝑎2
Using Bernoulli’s equation, assuming the flow is horizontal,
1 1
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣12 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣22
2 2
1 2 1 𝑎1 2
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌 [ 𝑣1 ]
2 2 𝑎2
1 2 1 𝑎1 2
𝑃1 + 𝜌𝑣1 = 𝑃2 + 𝜌𝑣12 [ ]
2 2 𝑎2
1 𝑎1 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑣12 [( ) − 1]
2 𝑎2

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Due to this pressure difference the fluid level in the 𝑈-tube connected at the constriction, rise
above that in the other arm. The difference in the heights ℎ is the direct measure of pressure
difference.
1 𝑎1 2
𝑃1 − 𝑃2 = 𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ = 𝜌𝑣12 [( ) − 1]
2 𝑎2
2𝜌𝑚 𝑔ℎ
Speed of the fluid at wide neck is, 𝑣1 = √ 2
𝑎
𝜌 [(𝑎1 ) − 1]
2

−𝟏⁄
𝟐𝝆𝒎 𝒈𝒉 𝒂𝟏 𝟐
𝒗𝟏 = √ [( ) − 𝟏]
𝝆 𝒂𝟐
By measuring the value of ℎ speed of the fluid can be calculated.

2) Filter pumps (Aspirators): When a fluid passes through a region at a large speed, the pressure
in that region decreases. This fact is used in this device.
The air in the tube 𝐴 is pushed using a piston. As the air passes
through the constriction 𝐵 its speed is considerably increases
and consequently pressure drops. Thus the liquid rises from the
vessel and is sprayed with the expelled air. Bunsen burner,
atomiser and sprayers work on the same principle.

3) Carburettor: The function of the carburettor is to deliver the rightly proportioned mixture of
petrol vapour and air to the cylinder of a petrol engine. This also works based on Bernoulli’s
principle.

4) Uplift of an aircraft:
The shape of the wings of aircraft is
specially designed so that the velocity of
the layers of air on its upper surface is more
than that on the lower surface.

According to Bernoulli’s principle where velocity of the fluid is high, the pressure is low and vice-
versa. So the pressure 𝑃1 is low at the upper surface of the wing and pressure 𝑃2 is high at the
lower surface of the wing. This difference in pressure causes an upwards thrust called dynamic lift
on the wings of the air-craft.

5) Swing bowling: When swing bowlers in cricket deliver the ball, the ball changes its plane of
motion in air. This kind of deflection from the plane of projection can be explained on the basis of
Bernoulli’s principle.

6) Blood flow and heart attack: Bernoulli’s principle helps in explaining blood flow in artery. The
artery may get constricted due to the accumulation of plaque on its inner walls. In order to drive
the blood through this artery a greater demand is placed on the activity of the heart. The speed of
the flow of the blood in this region is which lowers the pressure. The heart exerts further to open
this artery and forces the blood through. As the blood rushes through the opening, the internal
pressure once again drops due to same reasons leading to a repeat collapse. This may result in
heart attack.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Viscosity: The property of a liquid by virtue of which it opposes relative motion between its
different layers is called viscosity.

Explanation: When the liquid flows on a horizontal surface, the velocities of different layers of the
liquid will be different and there is a relative motion between successive layers of the liquid. In the
absence of an external force, the faster layer tends to accelerate the slower one and slower one
tends to retard the faster one.

Viscous force: In case of a liquid having relative motion between the layers internal forces are
developed, which retard the relative motion. These retarding forces are called viscous force.

Note: (1) The viscous force does not operate as long as the liquid is at rest. They come to play only
when there is a relative motion between its layers.
(2) Greater viscosity favours streamline flow whereas lower viscosity causes turbulent motion.

Co-efficient of viscosity (𝜼): The coefficient of viscosity of a fluid is defined as the ratio of shearing
stress to the strain rate.

Explanation: Consider a liquid enclosed between two glass plates

as shown. The bottom plate is fixed and top plate is moved with a
constant velocity, 𝑣 with respect to the fixed plate.

The fluid in contact with the surface has same velocity as the surface. Therefore, the layer of the
liquid in contact with the top surface moves with a velocity, 𝑣 and the layer in contact with the
fixed surface remain at rest. The velocities of the layers increase uniformly from bottom to the top.
Due to this motion, a portion of liquid initially having the shape ABCD takes the shape
AEFD after a short interval of time Δ𝑡. If the distance between the plates is 𝑙 and plate at the top
moves through a distance Δ𝑥 in time Δ𝑡 then,
Δ𝑥
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 =
𝑙
The strain in a flowing liquid increases continuously with time. Therefore in case of liquids the
stress is directly proportional to the rate of change of strain.
Δ𝑥 𝑣
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = =
𝑙 Δ𝑡 𝑙
𝑭⁄ 𝑭𝒍
The co − efficient of viscosity, 𝜼= 𝒗𝑨=
⁄𝒍 𝒗𝑨
The SI unit of viscosity is 𝑁𝑠𝑚−2 . It can be expressed also in 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑. The dimensions are
𝑀𝐿−1 𝑇 −1.

Temperature dependence of viscosity:

1) As the temperature of the liquid increases, the distance between the molecule increases. Hence
the magnitude of cohesion force decreases and the viscosity decreases.
2) When the temperature of the gas increases, the change of momentum and number of collisions
also increases and hence the co-efficient of viscosity increases.

Viscous drag or drag force: When an object moves relative to a fluid, the fluid exerts a friction like
retarding force on the object. This force is called viscous drag or drag force.
Viscous drag is due to the viscosity of the fluid.
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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Stokes’ law: Stokes proved that the viscous drag(𝐹) acting on a spherical body of radius 𝑎 moving
with velocity 𝑣 in a fluid of co-efficient of viscosity 𝜂 is given by,
𝑭 = 𝟔𝝅𝜼𝒂𝒗
The viscous drag increases with increases velocity of the body, but it is found that the body after
attaining certain velocity starts moving with a constant velocity called terminal velocity.

Terminal velocity (𝒗𝒕 ): When a body is dropped in a viscous fluid, it is first accelerated and then
its acceleration becomes zero and it attains a constant velocity. This constant velocity is called
terminal velocity.

Expression for Terminal velocity:

Consider a spherical body of radius 𝑎 falling through a viscous fluid having
density 𝜎 and co-efficient of viscosity 𝜂.
Let 𝜌 be the density of the material of the body.

The viscous forces acting on that spherical body are,

(i) its weight (𝑚𝑔) in downward direction.
(ii) upward thrust 𝑇 equal to the weight of the displaced fluid.
(iii) viscous drag 𝐹 in a direction opposite to the direction of motion of the body.

Net downward force acting on that body = 𝑚𝑔 − 𝑇 − 𝐹

When the body attains terminal velocity, acceleration, 𝑎 = 0
From Newton’s I law, Net force acting on the body is zero.
𝑚𝑔 − 𝑇 − 𝐹 = 0

4
Now, (i) 𝑚𝑔 = (𝑉 × 𝜌)𝑔 = 𝜋𝑎3 𝜌𝑔
3
4
(ii) 𝑇 = 𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑 = (𝑉 × 𝜎)𝑔 = 𝜋𝑎3 𝜎𝑔
3
(iii) According to Stocke’s law, 𝐹 = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣𝑡
4 3 4
Therefore, 𝜋𝑎 𝜌𝑔 − 𝜋𝑎3 𝜎𝑔 − 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣𝑡 = 0
3 3
4 3
𝜋𝑎 𝑔(𝜌 − 𝜎) = 6𝜋𝜂𝑎𝑣𝑡
3
4 3
𝜋𝑎 𝑔(𝜌 − 𝜎)
𝑣𝑡 = 3
6𝜋𝜂𝑎
𝟐
𝟐 𝒂 𝒈(𝝆 − 𝝈)
𝒗𝒕 =
𝟗 𝜼

Note: (i) 𝑣𝑡 ∝ 𝑎2 , Terminal velocity depends on square of the radius of the sphere.
1
(ii) 𝑣𝑡 ∝ , Terminal velocity depends inversely on viscosity of the medium.
𝜂
(iii) Falling of rain drops through air and the descent of a parachute can be explained using
Stocke’s law.

Reynolds number: When the rate of flow of a fluid becomes very large, the flow loses its
orderliness and becomes turbulent. In turbulent flow, the velocity of particles of the fluid at any
point varies randomly with time.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Example: (i) An obstacle placed in the path of the fast moving fluid causes turbulence.
(ii) The smoke rising from burning wood.
(iii) Air left by cars, aeroplanes boat etc.

Osborne Reynolds defined a dimension less number which gives an approximate idea about
whether the flow would be turbulent or not. This number is called Reynolds number denoted by
𝑅𝑒 .
If 𝜂 is the viscosity and 𝜌 is the density of fluid flowing with a speed 𝑣 in a pipe of diameter 𝑑, the
value of 𝑅𝑒 is given by,
𝝆𝒗𝒅
𝑹𝒆 =
𝜼

Classification of flow based on Reynolds number:

(i) For laminar or streamline flow, 𝑅𝑒 < 1000
(ii) For the turbulent flow, 𝑅𝑒 > 2000
(iii) For 1000 < 𝑅𝑒 < 2000, the flow becomes unsteady.

Variation of Reynolds number: For a given fluid, the density and co-efficient of viscosity and
constant and for a given pipe its diameter is constant.
Then, 𝑅𝑒 ∝ 𝑣
As the velocity increases 𝑅𝑒 also increases. If the velocity of the fluid increases beyond a limiting
value the flow becomes turbulent.

Critical Reynolds number: The value of Reynolds number at which the turbulence just occurs is
called critical Reynolds number.

Critical velocity: The maximum velocity of a fluid in a tube for which the flow remains streamline
is called Critical velocity.

Importance of Reynolds number: The value of Reynolds number is very much useful in designing
of ships, submarines, race cars, aeroplanes etc.

Note: Turbulence promotes mixing and increases the rates of transfer of mass, momentum and
energy.

Surface Tension: The property of a liquid at rest by virtue of which its free surface behaves like a
stretched membrane under tension and tries to minimise the surface area is called surface tension.

Explanation: Consider three spheres indicating the spheres of influence

of the molecule at 𝐴 , 𝐵 and 𝐶. The surface 𝑋𝑌 is the free surface of the
liquid.
The molecule 𝐴 is well inside the liquid surface is attracted equally in all
directions by the neighbouring molecules. Hence the resultant force on
𝐴 is zero.
The molecule 𝐵 has a part of its sphere of influence above the liquid surface. Hence 𝐵 experiences
a net force vertically downwards in the liquid.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
The molecule 𝐶 is just on the surface of the liquid, hence it experiences maximum force pulling into
the liquid as a result the surface of a liquid behaves as a stretched membrane and the attractive
inter molecular forces on the surface of the liquid tend to compress the liquid surface, so that the
liquid tries to minimise its surface area.

Surface energy: The potential energy of the surface molecules per unit area of the surface is called
surface energy.
𝒑𝒐𝒕𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚
𝑺𝒖𝒓𝒇𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝒆𝒏𝒆𝒓𝒈𝒚 =
𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒂
Unit of surface energy is 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑒 2 and dimensions are 𝑀𝐿0 𝑇 −2

Surface energy and surface tension:

Consider a thin horizontal film of liquid ending in bar, free
to slide over parallel guide as shown. Let the bar be moved
along horizontal through a small distance 𝑑 in order to
increase the surface area. Some work has to be done
against the internal force. If the internal force is 𝐹, then
work done by the internal force is 𝐹𝑑. This work done is stored as additional energy(potential
energy) in the film.
The increase in the area of the film is 𝑙𝑑, since the film has two surfaces, the increase in the
area of the film should be 2𝑙𝑑. If 𝑆 is the surface energy of the film per unit area, the extra energy
supplied to the film is,
𝑆(2𝑙𝑑) = 𝐹𝑑
𝑭𝒅 𝑭
𝑺= =
𝟐𝒍𝒅 𝟐𝒍
The quantity 𝑆 is the magnitude of surface tension and it is equal to the surface energy per unit
area of the liquid surface.

Note: Surface tension can also be defined as, force per unit length acting on the surface of the liquid.
Unit of surface tension is 𝑁𝑚−1 and dimensions are 𝑀𝐿0 𝑇 −2.

Measurement of surface tension: A flat vertical glass plate, below which

a vessel of some liquid is kept, forms one arm of the balance. The plate is
balanced by weights on the other side. The vessel is raised slowly till the
liquid just touches the glass plate and pulls it down a little because of
surface tension.

Weights are added till the plate just clears water. If the additional weight required is 𝑊 then the
surface tension of the liquid air interface is,
𝑊 𝑚𝑔
𝑆𝑙𝑎 = =
2𝑙 2𝑙
where 𝑙 →length of the plate.

Angle of contact: The angle between tangent to the liquid surface at the point of contact and solid
surface inside the liquid is called as angle of contact. It is denoted by 𝜃.

The value of 𝜃 determines whether a liquid will spread on the surface of a solid (Wetting liquid) or
it will form droplet on it (Non-wetting liquid).

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Now let us consider three interfacial tensions at all the three interfaces, liquid-air, solid-air and
solid-liquid denoted by 𝑆𝑙𝑎 , 𝑆𝑠𝑎 and 𝑆𝑠𝑙 respectively.
Since the surface is at rest, at the line of contact the surface forces between the three media must in
equilibrium.
Then, 𝑆𝑙𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 + 𝑆𝑠𝑙 = 𝑆𝑠𝑎

If 𝑆𝑠𝑙 > 𝑆𝑙𝑎 , the angle of contact is obtuse. When 𝜃 is obtuse

angle, the molecules of the liquid are attracted strongly to
themselves and weakly to those of solids and the liquid will not
wet the surface.
Ex: (i) water-leaf interface.
(ii) water in waxy or oily surface.
(iii) Mercury on any surface. etc.

If 𝑆𝑠𝑙 < 𝑆𝑙𝑎 , the angle of contact is acute. When 𝜃 is acute angle,
the molecules of the liquid are attracted strongly to those of solids
and the liquid will wet the surface
Ex: (i) Water on glass.
(ii) Water on plastic sheet.

Drops and Bubbles: Due to surface tension, surface of liquid always has a tendency to have least
surface area. For a given volume a sphere has the minimum surface. Therefore a small volume of
liquid take the shape of a sphere, that is why drop of a liquid and bubbles assumes the shape of a
sphere.

Pressure difference across a liquid surface:

(i) For concave surface of liquid: If the surface of the liquid is concave the
resultant force 𝑅 due to surface tension on a molecule on the surface act
vertically upwards. To balance this, there should be an excess of pressure
acting downward on the concave side.

(ii) For convex surface of liquid: If the surface of the liquid is convex, the
resultant force 𝑅 acts downwards and there must be an excess of pressure on
the concave side acting upwards.
Thus there is always an excess pressure on the concave side of a curved
liquid surface over the pressure on its convex side due to surface tension.

Excess pressure inside a liquid drop and Bubble

(i) For a liquid drop: Consider a liquid drop of radius 𝑟 having surface tension 𝑆.
Let 𝑃𝑖 be the pressure inside the drop and 𝑃𝑜 be pressure outside the drop.

The excess pressure inside the drop = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 )

Outward force acting on the drop = pressure × surface area of the drop
Outward force = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 ) × 4𝜋𝑟 2
Due to this force, the drop expends. Let its radius increases by 𝑑𝑟.
Hence work done = force × change in radius

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
work done = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 ) × 4𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝑑𝑟
The work done against the force of surface tension is stored inside the drop in the form of its
potential energy.
Increase in potential energy = surface tension × increase in surface area
= 𝑆 × [4𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)2 − 4𝜋𝑟 2 ]
= 𝑆 × [4𝜋(𝑟 2 + 𝑑𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑑𝑟) − 4𝜋𝑟 2 ]
= 𝑆 × [4𝜋𝑟 2 + 4𝜋𝑑𝑟 2 + 8𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑟 2 ]
= 𝑆[4𝜋𝑑𝑟 2 + 8𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟]
Since 𝑑𝑟 is very small 𝑑𝑟 2 can be neglected.
Increase in potential energy = 8𝜋𝑆𝑟𝑑𝑟
Therefore work done = 8𝜋𝑆𝑟𝑑𝑟
(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 ) × 4𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝑑𝑟 = 8𝜋𝑆𝑟𝑑𝑟
8𝜋𝑆𝑟𝑑𝑟
(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 ) =
4𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝑑𝑟
𝟐𝑺
(𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐 ) =
𝒓

(ii) For a bubble: In case of a liquid bubble, there are two surfaces-inner and outer.
Consider a liquid bubble of radius 𝑟 having surface tension 𝑆.
Let 𝑃𝑖 be the pressure inside the bubble and 𝑃𝑜 be pressure outside the bubble.
The excess pressure inside the bubble = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 )
Outward force acting on the bubble = pressure × surface area of the bubble
Outward force = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 ) × 4𝜋𝑟 2
Due to this force, the bubble expends. Let its radius increases by 𝑑𝑟.
Hence work done = force × change in radius
work done = (𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 ) × 4𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝑑𝑟
The work done against the force of surface tension is stored inside the bubble in the form of its
potential energy.
Increase in potential energy = surface tension × increase in surface area
= 𝑆 × 2[4𝜋(𝑟 + 𝑑𝑟)2 − 4𝜋𝑟 2 ]
= 𝑆 × 2[4𝜋(𝑟 2 + 𝑑𝑟 2 + 2𝑟𝑑𝑟) − 4𝜋𝑟 2 ]
= 𝑆 × 2[4𝜋𝑟 2 + 4𝜋𝑑𝑟 2 + 8𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟 − 4𝜋𝑟 2 ]
= 2𝑆[4𝜋𝑑𝑟 2 + 8𝜋𝑟𝑑𝑟]
Since 𝑑𝑟 is very small 𝑑𝑟 2 can be neglected.
Increase in potential energy = 16𝜋𝑆𝑟𝑑𝑟
Therefore work done = 16𝜋𝑆𝑟𝑑𝑟
(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 ) × 4𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝑑𝑟 = 16𝜋𝑆𝑟𝑑𝑟
16𝜋𝑆𝑟𝑑𝑟
(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 ) =
4𝜋𝑟 2 × 𝑑𝑟
𝟒𝑺
(𝑷𝒊 − 𝑷𝒐 ) =
𝒓

Note: Thus excess pressure in a bubble is two times the excess pressure in a liquid drop.

Capillarity: When a capillary tube is dipped in water, the water rises up in the
tube. This rise of liquid in a capillary tube is known as capillarity.

Capillary rise: The surface of water in the capillary is concave. Then there is a
pressure difference between the two sides of the top surface, which is given by,

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
2𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
(𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 ) =
𝑟
where 𝑆 cos 𝜃 → vertical component of 𝑆
Thus the pressure of the water inside the tube, just at the meniscus is less than
the atmospheric pressure.
Consider the two points 𝐴 and 𝐵(as in figure). They must be at same height.
Then,
𝑃𝑜 + 𝜌𝑔ℎ = 𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑜 = 𝜌𝑔ℎ
where 𝜌 is the density of water and ℎ is called capillary rise
2𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃
= 𝜌𝑔ℎ
𝑟
𝟐𝑺 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽
𝒉=
𝝆𝒈𝒓

Practical applications of capillarity:

(i) The oil in the lamp rises in the wick to its top by capillary action.
(ii) Sap and water rise up to the top of the leaves of the tree by capillary action.
(iii) Ink is absorbed by the blotting paper due to capillarity.
(iv) The moisture rises in the capillaries of the soil to the surface, where it evaporates. To prevent
this and preserve moisture in the soil, capillaries must be destroyed by ploughing and levelling
fields.

Detergents and Surface tension: We clean dirty clothes containing grease and oil stains by adding
detergents or soap to water. Washing only with water does not remove grease stains. This is
because water does not wet grease dirt, because there is very little area of contact between them. If
the water wet the grease, the flow of water could carry some grease away. This is achieved by
adding detergents.
The molecules of detergents are hairpin shaped, with one end attached to water and the
other to molecules of grease, oil or wax. Thus they tend to form water-oil interfaces. In other
words, the addition of detergent reduces drastically the surface tension of water. This kind of
process using surface active detergent or surfactants is important not only in cleaning but also in
recovering oil, mineral ores etc.

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 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS
Suggested Questions.
One mark
1. Define Pressure at a point inside a liquid.
2. Write equation of continuity.
3. State Pascal’s law.
4. What is principle behind the uplift of an aeroplane?
5. State Stokes law.
6. Give one example for turbulent flow.
7. What is streamline flow?
8. Define surface energy.
9. Define angle of contact.
10. What is value of angle of contact for water-leaf interface?
11. What is capillarity?

Two marks.
1. State and explain Bernoulli’s theorem.
2. State Bernoulli’s theorem and mention any two applications.
3. What is the order of Reynold’s number for streamline flow and turbulent flow?
4. What is venture-meter? On which principle it works.
5. State and explain Pascal’s law for transmission of fluid pressure.
6. What is terminal velocity? Mention the expression for it.
7. Mention the factors on which terminal velocity depends.
8. How the viscosity of liquids and gases does varies with temperature.
9. Mention three applications of capillarity.

Three Marks.
1. State Bernoulli’s theorem with an example.
2. Derive an expression for liquid pressure at a point inside the liquid.
or
Arrive at an expression for pressure at a point due to liquid.
3. Mention the applications of Pascal’s law.
4. Mention the limitations of Bernoulli’s Principle.
5. Distinguish between Streamline motion and turbulent motion.
6. What is surface tension? Mention its SI unit. Mention expression for it.

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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Chapter 11 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Temperature: Temperature is relative measure or indication of hotness or coldness of a body.

Temperature of a body determines the direction of flow of energy. The S I unit of temperature is
kelvin (K). 0C is a commonly used unit of temperature.

Heat: Heat is the form of energy transferred between two systems or a system and its
surroundings by virtue of temperature difference.
Heat energy flows from body of higher temperature to a body of lower temperature. Heat
gained by a body is taken as positive while heat lost by a body is taken as negative. S I Unit of heat
energy is joule (J).

Thermometry: The branch of science which deals with the measurement of temperature of a
substance is known as thermometry.

Thermometer: A device used to measure the temperature of a body is called thermometer.

Commonly used thermometers are liquid-in-glass type. Mercury and Alcohol are the liquids in
most of this type of thermometer.

Principle of Thermometer: The principle of thermometer is, when a substance is heated, some of
its physical properties change.
The commonly used property is variation of the volume of a liquid with temperature.

Temperature scales: To measure temperature of a body different temperature scales are defined.
Each has two fixed points. The ice (freezing) point and steam (boiling) point of water are the two
convenient fixed points.

(i) Celsius scale (0C): Celsius scale of temperature was invented by Andres Celsius. In this scale,
the melting point of pure ice at standard atmospheric pressure is 00C and marked as lower fixed
point. The boiling point of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure is 1000C and marked as
upper fixed point. The interval between these two points is divided into 100 equal parts. Each part
is taken as “One degree Celsius”.

(ii) Fahrenheit scale (0F): Fahrenheit scale was invented by Gabriel Fahrenheit. In this scale, the
melting point of pure ice at standard atmospheric pressure is 320F and marked as lower fixed
point. The boiling point of pure water at standard atmospheric pressure is 2120F and marked as the
upper fixed point. The interval between these two points is divided into 180 equal parts and each
part is known as “One degree Fahrenheit”.

Relation between Celsius and Fahrenheit scale:

A plot of Fahrenheit temperature (𝑡𝐹 ) versus Celsius
temperature (𝑡𝐶 ) is as shown.
The equation of the straight line is given by,
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥 + 𝐶
180
or 𝑡𝐹 = 𝑡 + 32
100 𝑐
180
𝑡𝐹 − 32 = 𝑡
100 𝑐
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, Govt P U College Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk. Page | 1
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
𝒕𝑭 − 𝟑𝟐 𝒕𝒄
=
𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Drawbacks of liquid-in-glass thermometers: Liquid in glass thermometers shows different

readings for the temperatures other than the fixed points. This is because of different expansion
properties of liquids.
This problem can be removed, if a thermometer uses a gas. They give same reading
regardless of which gas is used and experiments show that that all gases at low densities exhibit
same expansion behaviour.

Gas laws: The laws which describe the behaviour of a gas at different conditions are called gas
laws and the behaviour of a given quantity of gas is explained using the variables such as pressure,
volume and temperature.

Boyle’s law: When temperature is held constant, the volume of a given mass of gas is inversely
proportional to its pressure.
1
𝑉∝
𝑃
𝑷𝑽 = 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕

Charles law: At constant pressure, the volume of a given mass of an ideal gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature.
𝑉∝𝑇
𝑽
= 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
𝑻

Ideal Gas equation: For low density gases, we can combine Boyle’s law and Charles law into a
single relationship as,
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
𝑃𝑉
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
𝑃𝑉
=𝑅 where 𝑅 → 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑛𝑡
𝑇
𝑃𝑉
For 𝜇 moles of gas, = 𝜇𝑅
𝑇
𝑷𝑽 = 𝝁𝑹𝑻
This equation is called Ideal gas equation. Where R is a constant called universal gas constant and
𝑅 = 8.31 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1

Absolute Temperature: From the Ideal gas

equation, we have 𝑃𝑉 ∝ 𝑇. This relationship allows
a gas to be used to measure temperature in constant
volume gas thermometer.
At constant volume, P versus T graph is as
shown. The relationship is linear over a large
temperature range. It looks as pressure might reach zero, with decreasing temperature and gas
remains to be a gas. Thus, pressure of a gas becomes zero at −273.15 0 𝐶.

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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Absolute zero: The temperature at which the pressure of an ideal gas becomes zero is termed as
absolute zero.

Kelvin’s scale of temperature: This scale was suggested by Kelvin. Absolute zero is foundation of
the Kelvin temperature scale. The zero of the absolute scale of temperature is denoted by 0 𝐾 and
known as absolute zero.
Hence, 𝑡𝐾 = 𝑡𝐶 + 273.15

Ice point in Kelvin scale is 273.15 K

Boiling point in Kelvin scale is 100+273.15=373.15 K
Practically, 𝒕𝑲 = 𝒕𝑪 + 𝟐𝟕𝟑

Effects of Heat: The common effects of Heat are,

 Thermal expansion
 Rise in temperature
 Change in state

Thermal expansion: The increase in dimensions of a body due to increase in its temperature is
called thermal expansion.
There are three types of thermal expansion.
 Linear expansion
 Area expansion
 Volume expansion

Linear expansion: The expansion in length is called linear expansion.

When a rod like solid is heated its length increases.
The increase in length (∆𝑙) is directly proportional to, (i) its original length (𝑙0 )
(ii) the change in temperature (∆𝑇)
Mathematically, ∆𝑙 ∝ 𝑙0 ∆𝑇
∆𝑙
∝ ∆𝑇
𝑙0
∆𝑙
= 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝑙0
Where 𝛼𝑙 → constant and called co-efficient of linear expansion.

Co-efficient of linear expansion: It is defined as the increase in length per unit length per degree
increase in temperature.
S I unit of Co-efficient of linear expansion is 𝐾 −1 . It is also expressed in 0𝐶 −1 .

Note: (i) The increase in length (∆𝑙) is also depends on the material of the solid.
(ii) Normally metals expand more and have relatively high values of 𝛼𝑙

Thermal stress: Consider a metallic rod whose ends are fixed rigidly. When the temperature of the
rod increases, its length increases. Since there is no space left to increase its length, so it bends. If
the rod is not allowed to bend, then it will be under a great stress. This is known as thermal stress.

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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Expression for thermal stress:
Let 𝑙 be the length of the rod and 𝐴 be its cross-sectional area.
𝛼𝑙 be the co-efficient of linear expansion of the material of the rod.
Let ∆𝑇 be the increase in temperature and ∆𝑙 be the increase in its length.
∆𝑙
Then, = 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝑙
∆𝑙
But = 𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
𝑙
𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 = 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Young’s modulus, 𝑌 = =
𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝑻𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒂𝒍 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔 = 𝒀 𝜶𝒍 ∆𝑻
This is the expression for thermal stress developed in the rod.

Force developed in the rod due to Thermal stress:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
We have, 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Force, 𝐹 = 𝑇ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 × 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝐹 = 𝑌 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇 × 𝐴
𝐹 = 𝑌𝐴 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝒀𝑨 ∆𝒍
𝑭=
𝒍
This is the expression for force developed in the rod.

Area (Superficial) expansion: The expansion in the area is called area expansion.
When a planar body like solid is heated its area increases.
The increases in area (∆𝐴) is directly proportional to, (i) its original area (𝐴0 )
(ii) its change in temperature (∆𝑇)
Mathematically, ∆𝐴 ∝ 𝐴0 ∆𝑇
∆𝐴
∝ ∆𝑇
𝐴0
∆𝐴
= 𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇
𝐴0
Where 𝛼𝐴 → constant and called co-efficient of area expansion.

Co-efficient of area expansion: It is defined as the increase in area per unit area per degree
increase in temperature.
S I unit of Co-efficient of area expansion is 𝐾 −1 . It is also expressed in 0𝐶 −1 .

Volume (Cubical) expansion: The expansion in the volume is called volume expansion.
When a substance is heated its volume increases.
The increases in volume (∆𝑉) is directly proportional to, (i) its original volume (𝑉0 )
(ii) its change in temperature (∆𝑇)
Mathematically, ∆𝑉 ∝ 𝑉0 ∆𝑇
∆𝑉
∝ ∆𝑇
𝑉0
∆𝑉
= 𝛼𝑉 ∆𝑇
𝑉0
Where 𝛼𝑉 → constant and called co-efficient of volume expansion.
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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Co-efficient of volume expansion: It is defined as the increase in volume per unit volume per
degree increase in temperature.
S I unit of Co-efficient of volume expansion is 𝐾 −1 .
It is also expressed in 0𝐶 −1 .

Note: Co-efficient of volume expansion is not strictly a

constant. It depends on temperature. It is initially small and
rises sharply and becomes a constant at high temperature.

Variation of Co-efficient of volume expansion (𝜶𝑽 ) with temperature – For SOLIDS and
LIQUIDS: At ordinary temperature Solids and Liquids expand less compared to the gases. For
liquids, the co-efficient of volume expansion is relatively independent of the temperature.

Variation of Co-efficient of volume expansion (𝜶𝑽 ) with temperature – For GASES

For gases 𝛼𝑉 is depend on temperature, which can be obtained as follows,
The ideal gas equation is given by, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇
At constant pressure, the equation becomes, 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅 ∆𝑇
𝑃∆𝑉 𝜇𝑅 ∆𝑇
Taking, =
𝑃𝑉 𝜇𝑅𝑇
∆𝑉 ∆𝑇
we have, =
𝑉 𝑇
∆𝑉 1 1
=
𝑉 ∆𝑇 𝑇
𝟏
𝜶𝑽 =
𝑻
It shows that 𝛼𝑉 decreases with increase in temperature.

Anomalous expansion of water: Water contracts on heating from 00C to 40C. This is known as
anomalous expansion of water.

In the temperature range of 00C to 40C, volume of water decreases as temperature increases.
Hence, Co-efficient of cubical expansion of water is negative. Hence water has greatest density at
40C. The graph below shows the variation of volume and density of water with temperature.

Relation between 𝜶𝒍 , 𝜶𝑨 and 𝜶𝑽 :

∆𝑙
(i)We have, = 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝑙0
∆𝑙 = 𝑙0 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝑙 − 𝑙0 = 𝑙0 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝑙 = 𝑙0 + 𝑙0 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
𝑙 = 𝑙0 (1 + 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇)
Squaring on both sides, 𝑙 2 = 𝑙0 2 (1 + 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇)2
𝐴 = 𝐴0 (1 + 2𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇 + 𝛼𝑙2 ∆𝑇 2 )
Since 𝛼𝑙 is very small, 𝛼𝑙2 ∆𝑇 2 can be neglected.
𝐴 = 𝐴0 (1 + 2𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇)
Comparing with the equation, 𝐴 = 𝐴0 (1 + 𝛼𝐴 ∆𝑇)
We have, 𝜶𝑨 = 𝟐𝜶𝒍

(ii) We have, 𝑙 = 𝑙0 (1 + 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇)

Cubing on both sides, 𝑙 3 = 𝑙0 3 (1 + 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇)3
𝑉 = 𝑉0 (1 + 3𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇 + 3𝛼𝑙2 ∆𝑇 2 + 𝛼𝑙3 ∆𝑇 3 )
Since 𝛼𝑙 is very small, 𝛼𝑙2 ∆𝑇 2 and 𝛼𝑙3 ∆𝑇 3 can be neglected.
𝑉 = 𝑉0 (1 + 3𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇)
Comparing with the equation, 𝑉 = 𝑉0 (1 + 𝛼𝑉 ∆𝑇)
We have, 𝜶𝑽 = 𝟑𝜶𝒍

Further, 𝜶𝒍 : 𝜶𝑨 : 𝜶𝑽 = 𝜶𝒍 : 𝟐𝜶𝒍 : 𝟑𝜶𝒍 = 𝟏: 𝟐: 𝟑

Heat Capacity (S): Heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat required to raise
the temperature of the substance through 10 𝐶.
The S I unit is 𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒/ 0 𝐶 (𝐽−0 𝐶 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝐽 − 𝐾 −1 )
The Quantity of heat required to warm a given substance depends upon its change in temperature
That is, ∆𝑄 ∝ ∆𝑇
∆𝑄
= 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
∆𝑇
∆𝑸
𝑺= where 𝑆 is called Heat capacity
∆𝑻

Note: The Quantity of heat required to warm a given substance also depends upon (i) its mass (𝑚)
and (ii) nature of the material of the substance

Specific heat capacity (s): Specific heat capacity of a substance is defined as the amount of heat
required to raise the temperature of unit mass of substance through 10 𝐶.
Specific heat capacity is also defined as heat capacity per unit mass.
The S I unit is 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 0 𝐶 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝐽 𝑘𝑔−1 𝐾 −1
𝑆 ∆𝑄
𝑠= =
𝑚 ∆𝑇
∆𝑸 𝟏
𝒔= where 𝑠 is called Specific heat capacity
∆𝑻 𝒎

Note: Specific heat capacity of a substance depends on, (i) nature of the material
(ii) raise or fall in temperature (∆𝑇)

Molar specific heat capacity: It is defined as the amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of one mole of substance through 10 𝐶.
∆𝑸 𝟏
𝑪=
∆𝑻 𝝁
The S I unit is 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 0 𝐶 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1
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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Specific heat of a gas: Solids and liquids have very small co-efficient of expansion. Therefore,
amount of heat spent in their expansion is negligible and heat supplied is assumed to increase only
the temperature.
Gases have very large co-efficient of expansion. Therefore, amount of heat supplied to a gas
is used in two parts, (i) to raise the temperature of gas and
(ii) to do mechanical work by the gas

When heat is supplied to a gas, the increase in temperature of the gas is accompanied either by
increase in pressure or volume or both.
Thus a gas can be heated under two conditions: (i) at constant volume and
(ii) at constant pressure
Therefore, we consider the specific heat of a gas at constant volume (𝐶𝑉 ) or the specific heat of a
gas at constant pressure (𝐶𝑃 ).

Specific heat capacity at constant volume (𝑪𝑽 ): It is defined as, the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of unit mass of gas through 10 𝐶 at constant volume.

Specific heat capacity at constant pressure (𝑪𝑷 ): It is defined as, the amount of heat required to
raise the temperature of unit mass of gas through 10 𝐶 at constant pressure.

Note: (i) 𝐶𝑃 is greater than 𝐶𝑉

(ii) 𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 This relation is called Mayer’s relation.

Change of state: Matter normally exists in three states: solid, liquid and gas. A transition from one
state to another is called change of state.

Melting: The change of state from solid to liquid is called melting.

During this change of state temperature remains constant. That is both the solid and liquid states
of the substance co-exist in thermal equilibrium during this change of state.

Melting point: The temperature at which the solid and liquid co-exist in thermal equilibrium
during change of state from solid to liquid is called melting point.

Fusion: The change of state from liquid to solid is called fusion or freezing.

Effect of pressure on melting point; Regelation: When a metallic wire carrying two masses on
either ends is hung from an ice cube, the wire passes through the ice cube without splitting it. This
phenomenon is called regelation.
This is because ice melts at lower temperature due to increase in pressure. That is melting
point decreases with increase in pressure on ice.

Note: Skating on ice is possible due to increase of pressure on it.

Vaporisation: The change of state from liquid to vapour (gas) is called vaporisation.
During vaporisation temperature remains constant and liquid and vapour state co-exist in thermal
equilibrium.

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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Boiling point: The temperature at which the liquid and the vapour states of the substance co-exist
is called boiling point.

Effect of pressure on boiling point: Boiling point of the substance increases with increase in
pressure. This effect is used in the construction of pressure cooker.

Note: At high altitudes, atmospheric pressure is lower and reduces the boiling point of water. This
is why cooking is difficult on hills.

Sublimation: The change from solid state to vapour state without passing through the liquid state
is called sublimation. Ex: Dry ice (solid 𝐶𝑜2 ), camphor etc.

Triple point: The temperature at which the solid, liquid and vapour co-exist in thermal
equilibrium is called triple point.

Latent heat: The amount of heat transferred per unit mass during the change of state of the
substance is called latent heat.
If 𝑚 is the mass of the substance that undergoes a change from one state to the other, then
the quantity of heat required is given by,
𝑸 = 𝒎𝑳 where 𝐿 → latent heat
−1
S I unit of latent heat is 𝐽 𝑘𝑔 (𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑔)

Types of latent heat:

(i) Latent heat of fusion (𝑳𝒇 ): The amount of heat required to melt unit mass of solid completely at
its melting point is called latent heat of fusion.

(ii) Latent heat of vaporisation (𝑳𝒗 ): The amount of heat required to vaporise unit mass of liquid
completely at its boiling point is called latent heat of vaporisation.
The graph between temperature and amount of heat supplied for water is as shown.

Calorimetry: The branch of science which deals with the measurement of heat is called
Calorimetry.

Principle Calorimetry: Heat lost by the hot body is equal to the heat gained by the colder body,
when they are kept in contact with each other, provided no heat is allowed to escape to the
surroundings.

Calorimeter: A device in which heat measurement can be made is called Calorimeter.

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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Calorimeter is a hollow cylinder made of copper with a lid and a stirrer placed in it. The
calorimeter is placed in an insulated enclosure so that there is no loss of heat by radiation.

Transfer of heat: Heat transfers from a body at higher temperature to a body at lower
temperature. There are three modes of heat transfer, (i) Conduction
(ii) Convection
(iii) Radiation

Conduction: It is the mechanism of transfer of heat between two adjacent parts of a body because
of their temperature difference. In this mode of heat transfer, transfer of heat takes place without
any actual movement of the particles of the medium.

Law of Thermal conductivity: The amount of heat that flows from hotter part to colder part is,
 directly proportional to area of cross-section (𝐴) of the body.
 directly proportional to the temperature difference (∆𝑇 = 𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) between the hotter part and
colder part.
 directly proportional to the time (𝑡) for which heat flows.
 inversely proportional to the distance (𝑥) between the parts.
𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑡
Thus we can write, 𝑄∝
𝑥
𝑄 𝐴 (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 )
=𝐾
𝑡 𝑥
𝑨 (𝑻𝟏 − 𝑻𝟐 )
𝑯=𝑲
𝒙
where 𝐾 → constant, called Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity: It is defined as the rate of flow of heat per unit area of its surface normal to
the direction of heat flow under unit temperature gradient.
S I unit of thermal conductivity is 𝐽 𝑠 −1 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 𝑜𝑟 𝑊 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1. Dimensions are 𝑀𝐿𝑇 −3 𝐾 −1

Classification of substance based on thermal conductivity:

(a) Good conductors of heat: These substances have large values of thermal conductivity.
Ex: Most metals.
For Ideal conductor thermal conductivity, 𝐾 = ∞

(b) Bad conductors of heat: These substances have small values of thermal conductivity.
Ex: wood, air, wool, etc.
For ideal bad conductor thermal conductivity, 𝐾 = 0

Applications of thermal conduction:

 In winter, the iron chairs appear to be colder than the wooden chairs.
 Cooking utensils are made of aluminium and brass whereas their handles are made of wood.
 We feel warm in woollen cloths.
 Houses made of concrete roofs get very hot during summer days.
 Steel utensils with copper bottom are good for uniform hearting of food.

Convection: It is the process in which heat is transferred by the actual movement of the particles of
the medium.
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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Convection is possible only in fluids. Convection can be natural or forced. Natural convection is
responsible for many familiar phenomena such as sea breeze, land breeze, trade wind.

Winds: In day time, earth is heated by the sun and hence air in contact with the earth gets heated
up. This heated air, being lighter, rises up and is replaced by the cold and heavier air from large
reservoir of water creating a sea breeze. At night this cycle is reversed forming land breeze.

Trade winds: The equatorial and polar regions of the earth receive unequal solar heat. Air at the
earth surface near the equator is hot while the air in the upper atmosphere of the poles is cool. The
cold air from the poles rushes towards the equator whose pressure is low. Thus, convection
current of air starts between the equator and the poles. Due to rotation of earth from west to east,
the convection current drifts towards the east. Convection current blows from North-east towards
the equator, which is called Trade wind.

Radiation: Radiation is the process in which heat is transferred from one region to another without
the necessity of any intervening medium.
Radiation also refers to the energy emitted by a body and energy is emitted in the form of
electromagnetic waves. Energy so radiated/emitted is called Radiant energy.

Thermal radiation: Everybody emits energy in the form of waves due to its temperature. These
waves are known as thermal radiations.

Properties of thermal radiations:

 They travel along straight line at the seed of light.
 They can travel in vacuum.
 They do not heat intervening medium.
 They can be reflected and refracted.
 They exhibit the phenomenon of interference, diffraction and polarisation.
 They obey inverse square law that is their intensity varies inversely as the square of the
distance from the source.

Note: Thermal radiations can be detected by thermopile, radiometer and bolometer.

Black body: A body that absorbs all the radiations falling on it is called a black body.

Black body radiation: Radiations emitted by a black body are called black body radiations.
A black body at a given temperature emits all possible wavelengths at that temperature. The
intensity and wavelength emitted are independent of the material of the black body but depend
only on the temperature of the body.
At low temperature, the wavelengths of the radiation emitted are in the infrared region. As the
temperature of the black body is increased to about 1100𝐾, the emitted wavelength corresponds to
the red region. At sufficiently high temperatures (3000𝐾), the emitted radiations contain shorter
wavelengths.
The black body radiation consists of a continuous distribution of wavelengths covering
infrared, visible and ultraviolet portions of the electromagnetic waves.

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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Wien’s displacement law: According to this law, the wavelength (𝜆𝑚 ), corresponding to
maximum intensity of emission of black body radiation is inversely proportional to absolute
temperature of the black body.
1
𝜆𝑚 ∝
𝑇
𝝀𝒎 𝑻 = 𝒃
Where 𝑏 is constant, called Wien’s constant and 𝑏 = 2.898 × 10−3 𝑚 𝐾

Note:
(i) The colour of a piece of iron heated first becomes dull red, then reddish yellow and finally
white hot. This can be explained using Wien’s displacement law.
(ii) Wien’s displacement law is used to find the temperature of Sun and stars.

Stefan’s Law (Stefan-Boltzmann law): Energy emitted by a black body per unit time per unit area
is directly proportional to the fourth power of the temperature.
Mathematically, 𝑯 = 𝑨 𝝈 𝑻𝟒
Where 𝜎 is called Stefan-Boltzmann constant and 𝜎 = 5067 × 10−8 𝑊𝑚−2 𝐾 −4
This law is obtained experimentally by Stefan and later proved theoretically by Boltzmann.
Therefore it is also called as Stefan-Boltzmann law.

Note:
(i) For a body other than black body, the energy radiated per unit time is given by, 𝐻 = 𝑒 𝐴 𝜎 𝑇 4
(ii) A body at temperature 𝑇, with surroundings at temperature 𝑇𝑆 , emits as well as receives
energy, the net rate of loss of radiant energy is, 𝐻 = 𝐴 𝜎( 𝑇 4 − 𝑇𝑆4 )
Where 𝑒 → emissivity of black body

Emissivity: Emissivity of a body is defined as the ratio of the heat energy radiated per second per
unit area by the body to the amount of heat energy radiated per second per unit area by a perfect
black body at the same temperature.
Emissivity of black body is one.

Greenhouse effect: The earth surface is a source of thermal radiation. Large portion of this
radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases, namely carbon di oxide (𝐶𝑂2 ), methane (𝐶𝐻4), nitrous
oxide (𝑁2 𝑂), chlorofluorocarbon (𝐶𝐹𝑥 𝐶𝑙𝑥 ) and atmospheric ozone (𝑂3 ). This heats up the
atmosphere which in turn, gives more energy to earth resulting in warmer surface. This heating up
of earth’s surface and atmosphere is known as greenhouse effect.

Consequences of Greenhouse effect: Greenhouse effect heats up the earth’s surface and
atmosphere. Human activities have increased the greenhouse gases, resulting in increase in the
average temperature of earth by 0.30 𝐶 to 0.60 𝐶. Without greenhouse effect, the temperature of the
earth would have been −180 𝐶. It has been estimated that, if such activities continue, then the
temperature of the earth will increase by 10 𝐶 to 30 𝐶 after 50 to 60 years.
This global warming may cause problem for human life, plants and animals. Because of
global warming, ice caps are melting faster, sea level is rising and weather pattern is changing.
Many coastal cities are at the risk of getting submerged. The enhanced Greenhouse effect may also
result in expansion of deserts.

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 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Newton’s law of cooling: The rate of loss of heat by a body is directly proportional to the
temperature difference between the body and the surrounding.

Explanation:
Consider a body of mass 𝑚 and specific heat capacity 𝑠 at temperature 𝑇2 .
Let 𝑇1 be the temperature of the surroundings of the body.
𝑑𝑄
According to Newton’s law, − ∝ (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
− = 𝑘(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑄
= −𝑘(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) − − − (1)
𝑑𝑡
Let the temperature of the body decreases by 𝑑𝑇2 in time 𝑑𝑡.
Heat lost by the body is, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑚 𝑠 𝑑𝑇2
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑇2
=𝑚𝑠 − − − (2)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇2
From equation (1)and (2), 𝑚 𝑠 = −𝑘(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑇2 𝑘
=− 𝑑𝑡
(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑇2 𝑘
= −𝐾 𝑑𝑡 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐾 =
(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) 𝑚𝑠
𝑑𝑇2
Integrating, ∫ = −𝐾 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
(𝑇2 − 𝑇1 )
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = −𝐾 𝑡 + 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 = 𝒆−𝑲 𝒕 + 𝒄′ where 𝑐 ′ = 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
This equation shows a straight line having a negative slope.

The graph between 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑒 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) and time 𝑡 is as shown.

Suggested Questions.
One Mark.
1. State Charles law.
2. Mention the principle of calorimetry.
3. What is greenhouse effect?
4. What is anomalous expansion of water?
5. What is regelation?
6. What is Ideal gas?
7. Give an example for greenhouse gas.

Two Marks.
1. State and explain Newton’s law of cooling.
2. Show that 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇 for an ideal gas.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, Govt P U College Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk. Page | 12
 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER
Three Marks.
1. Plot a graph of temperature versus time showing the changes in the states of ice on heating at
one atmospheric pressure. Indicate how much energy is absorbed in the two changes of states.
2. Mention the modes of heat transfer.
3. Define three types of thermal expansions.
4. Write any three properties of heat radiation.
5. Explain greenhouse effect.
1
6. Derive 𝛼 = 𝑇 for an ideal gas, where the symbols have their usual meaning.
7. Explain the thermal conduction and hence define co-efficient of thermal conductivity.
8. State Stefan’s law and Draw the intensity distribution graph of black body radiation.

Five Marks.
1. Define specific heat of a gas at constant pressure and at constant volume. Give the relation
between them. Define latent heat of fusion and vaporisation.
2. State and explain law of thermal conductivity. Define coefficient of thermal conductivity.
Mention its unit and dimension.
3. State and explain Newton’s law of cooling.
4. Write a note on Kelvin scale of temperature.

Numerical Problems.
1. A brass boiler has a base of area 0.15 𝑚2 and thickness1 𝑐𝑚. It boils water at the rate of
6 𝑘𝑔 𝑚𝑖𝑛−1 , when placed on a gas stove. Estimate the temperature of the part of the flame in
contact with the boiler. Given that thermal conductivity of brass = 109 𝐽𝑠 −1 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 and latent
heat of vaporisation of water= 2256 × 103 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1.
2. What is the temperature of steel-copper junction in steady state? Length of steel rod= 0.15 𝑚,
length of copper rod= 0.1 𝑚, temperature of free end of steel rod is 3000 𝐶, temperature of free
and of copper rod is 300 . Area of cross-section of steel rod is twice that of copper rod. K of
steel= 50.2 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 . K of copper= 385 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1.
3. A cubical ice box of thermocol has each side 30 𝑐𝑚 and thickness of 5 𝑐𝑚, 4 𝑘𝑔 of ice is put in
the box. If outside temperature is 450 𝐶 and co-efficient of thermal conductivity is
0.01 𝐽𝑠 −1 𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 . Calculate the mass of ice left after 6 ℎ𝑟𝑠. Take latent heat of fusion of ice is
335 × 103 𝐽𝑘𝑔−1.
4. A 10 𝑘𝑊 drilling mechine is used to drill a boar in a small aluminium block of mass 8 𝑘𝑔.
How much is the raise in temperature of the block in 2.5 𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑢𝑡𝑒 assuming 50% of power is
used up in heating. The machine itself or lost to the surroundings. Specific heat of aluminium
is 0.91 𝐽𝑔−1 𝐶 −1 .
5. Two pieces of copper and aluminium of equal thickness and cross sectional area are soldered
together. The other end of copper is kept at 1000 𝐶 and aluminium at 00 𝐶. Find athe
temperature of the interface if the thermal conductivities of copper and aluminium are
385 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 and 180 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1 respectively.
6. Two identical iron and brass bars are soldered end to end. The free ends of iron bar and brass
bar are maintained at ends of iron bar and brass bar are maintained at 373 𝐾 respectively.
Calculate the temperature of the junction. (Given that 𝐾𝑖 = 79 𝑊𝑚−1 𝐾 −1).
7. How much heat is required to convert 10 𝑔 of ice at −50 𝐶 into steam at 1000 𝐶. Given specific
heat of ice 2.1 𝐽𝑔−1 𝐶 −1 . Latent heat of steam = 2268 𝐽𝑔−1 and latent heat of fusion of ice is
336 𝐽𝑔−1 . Specific heat of water = 4.2 𝐽𝑔−1 0𝐶 −1 .

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 THERMODYNAMICS
Chapter 12 THERMODYNAMICS

Thermodynamics: It is the branch of physics that deals with the concepts of heat and temperature
and the inter conversion of heat and other forms of energy.
In thermodynamics, the main focus is on the macroscopic quantities of the system such as
pressure, volume, temperature, internal energy, entropy, enthalpy etc. Thus, thermodynamics
provide macroscopic description of the system.

Thermodynamic system: A collection of an extremely large number of atoms or molecules

confined within certain boundaries such that it has certain values of pressure, volume and
temperature is called thermodynamic system.
The system may be in the form of a solid, liquid, gas or a combination of two or more.

Surroundings: Anything outside the thermodynamic system to which energy or matter is

exchanged is called its surroundings.
A system may be divided into three groups (types);
 Open system: It can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.
 Closed system: It can exchange only energy with its surroundings.
 Isolated system: It will not exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings.

Adiabatic wall: A wall which does not allow any exchange of energy between the systems is
known as adiabatic wall.

Diathermic wall: A wall which allows any exchange of energy between the systems is known as
adiabatic wall.

Thermodynamic state variables (State variables): Variables which are required to specify the state
of thermodynamic system are called thermodynamic state variables.
Ex: Pressure, Temperature, Volume, Mass, Composition, Internal energy etc.

Equation of state: The equation which relates the state variables is called equation of state.
The equation of state for an ideal gas is, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇

Types of thermodynamic state variables: State variables are of two types,

(i) Extensive thermodynamic state variable, (ii) Intensive thermodynamic state variable

Extensive thermodynamic state variables: The variables whose value changes for each part of the
system are called Extensive thermodynamic state variables.
Ex: Internal energy, volume and mass.

Intensive thermodynamic state variables: The variables whose value remains unchanged for each
part of the system are called intensive thermodynamic state variables.
Ex: Temperature, pressure and density.

Note: Extensive state variables depend on the size of the system but intensive state variables do
not.

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 THERMODYNAMICS
Thermal equilibrium: Two systems in contact are said to be in thermal equilibrium, if both are at
the same temperature.
In thermal equilibrium, thermodynamic variables such as pressure, volume, temperature,
mass and composition will not change with time, for a closed system. That is the system has
mechanical, thermal and chemical equilibrium.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: When two systems 𝐴 and 𝐵 are separately in thermal equilibrium
with a third system 𝐶, then the two systems 𝐴 and 𝐵 are also in thermal equilibrium with each
other.
Zeroth law was formulated by R H Flower.

Significance of Zeroth law: Significance of this law is, all the systems in thermal equilibrium with
one another must have a common physical quantity that has the same value for both, called
temperature.

Heat: Energy that is transferred between a system and its surroundings whenever there is a
temperature difference between the system and surroundings is called heat.
When energy is transferred to the system from its surroundings, then heat is taken as
positive. When energy is transferred to the surroundings from the system, then heat is taken as
negative.

Work done: Work is said to be done, if a system moves through a certain distance in the direction
of the applied force.

Expression for work done by the system:

Let a gas taken in the cylinder.
Let the cylinder is fitted with a frictionless piston of area of cross-section 𝐴.
Let 𝑃 be the pressure of the gas on the cylinder.
The force on the piston, 𝐹 = 𝑃𝐴
Let the piston be displaced through a distance 𝑑𝑥 during the expansion of the gas.
Work done by the gas, 𝑑𝑊 = 𝐹𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝐴𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑊 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉𝑓

Total work done in which the volume changes from 𝑉𝑖 to 𝑉𝑓 is, 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝑉𝑖
𝑾 = 𝑷(𝑽𝒇 − 𝑽𝒊 )

Sign convention:
(i) When a system expands against the external pressure, 𝑑𝑉 = (𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ) is positive. Hence work
done by the system and is taken as positive.
(ii) When a system is compressed, 𝑑𝑉 is negative. Hence work done on the system and is taken as
negative.

Internal energy: The sum of kinetic and potential energy of the constituent particles of the system
is known as internal energy. It is denoted by 𝑈.
𝑈 = 𝑈𝐾 + 𝑈𝑃

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 THERMODYNAMICS
Note: In the case of an ideal gas we assume that intermolecular forces are zero. Thus 𝑈𝑃 = 0.
Hence the internal energy is purely kinetic energy and depends only on temperature. In real gases,
intermolecular forces are not zero, 𝑈𝑃 ≠ 0.

Sign Convention: (i) Increase in internal energy is taken as positive and

(ii) Decrease in internal energy is taken as negative.

Note: Heat and work are not state variables. They are modes of energy transfer to a system
resulting in change in its internal energy.

First law of thermodynamics: When some quantity of heat (𝑑𝑄) is supplied to a system, then the
quantity of heat absorbed by the system is equal to the sum of the increases in the internal energy
of the system (𝑑𝑈) and the external work done by the system (𝑑𝑊) against the expansion.
Mathematically, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
or 𝒅𝑸 = 𝒅𝑼 + 𝑷𝒅𝑽

Significance of first law: First law of thermodynamics is law of conservation of energy.

Specific heat capacities (Mayer’s relation):

From first law of thermodynamics, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉
For one mole of gas, If 𝑑𝑄 is the heat absorbed at constant volume, then 𝑑𝑉 = 0
That is, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑄
or 𝐶𝑉 =
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑈
𝐶𝑉 = ( ) = ( )
𝑑𝑇 𝑉 𝑑𝑇 𝑉
𝑑𝑈
or 𝐶𝑉 = − − − (1)
𝑑𝑇
Where the subscript V is dropped in the last step, since U of an ideal gas depends only on
temperature.
If 𝑑𝑄 is the heat absorbed at constant pressure, then
𝑑𝑄 = 𝐶𝑃 𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑄
or 𝐶𝑃 =
𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑄 𝑑𝑈 𝑃𝑑𝑉
𝐶𝑃 = ( ) = ( ) + ( )
𝑑𝑇 𝑃 𝑑𝑇 𝑃 𝑑𝑇 𝑃
𝑑𝑈 𝑃𝑑𝑉
or 𝐶𝑃 = +( ) − − − (2)
𝑑𝑇 𝑑𝑇 𝑃
The subscript P is dropped in the first tem, since U of an ideal gas depends only on temperature.
Now, for a mole of an ideal gas, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
or 𝑃𝑑𝑉 = 𝑅𝑑𝑇
𝑑𝑉
(𝑃 ) = 𝑅 − − − (3)
𝑑𝑇 𝑃
Using the equations (1) and (3) in (2),
We have, 𝐶𝑃 = 𝐶𝑉 + 𝑅
𝑪𝑷 − 𝑪𝑽 = 𝑹

Thermodynamic process: Any process in which the thermodynamic variables of a system change
is known as thermodynamic process.

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 THERMODYNAMICS
Quasi-static process: A process in which the system departs only infinitesimally from the
equilibrium state is known as quasi-static process.
In this process, the change in pressure or change in volume or change in temperature of the
system is very, very small.

Note: Non-equilibrium states of a system are difficult to deal with. It is, therefore, convenient to
imagine an ideal process in which at every stage the system is an equilibrium state. Such a process
is infinitesimally slow, hence the name quasi-static.

Isothermal process: A process in which the temperature of the system is kept constant throughout
is called an isothermal process.
In this case 𝑃 and 𝑉 change, but 𝑇 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡. As the temperature is constant, no change in
internal energy, 𝑑𝑈 = 0.
From first law of thermodynamics, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑊
or 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑃𝑑𝑉
Heat supplied in an isothermal process is used to do work against the surrounding.
Ex: Boiling of a liquid, melting of wax or ice etc.

Expression for Work done during an Isothermal process:

Consider an ideal gas which changes its state from 𝑃𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 to 𝑃𝑓 , 𝑉𝑓 at constant temperature.
𝑉𝑓

The work done is given by, 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉

𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑓
𝜇𝑅𝑇
𝑊= ∫ 𝑑𝑉 (since 𝑃𝑉 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇)
𝑉
𝑉𝑖
𝑉𝑓
1
𝑊 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇 ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉
𝑉𝑖
𝑉
𝑊 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇[ln 𝑉]𝑉𝑓
𝑖
𝑽𝒇
𝑾 = 𝝁𝑹𝑻 𝐥𝐧 [ ]
𝑽𝒊

Note: (i) If 𝑉𝑓 > 𝑉𝑖 then 𝑊 = 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒. (ii) If 𝑉𝑖 > 𝑉𝑓 then 𝑊 = 𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒.

Isotherm: The pressure-volume curve for a fixed temperature is called an isotherm.

Adiabatic process: The process in which heat energy neither enters nor leaves the system is called
adiabatic process.
In this case, 𝑃, 𝑉 and 𝑇 change, but 𝑑𝑄 = 0.
From first law of thermodynamics, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑊 = −𝑑𝑈
When gas expands adiabatically, 𝑊 is positive. Therefore 𝑑𝑈 must be negative. That is internal
energy of the system decreases.

Ex: Bursting of an automobile tube inflated with air, propagation of sound waves in a gas.

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 THERMODYNAMICS
Expression for work done during an adiabatic process:
Let a gas in state 𝑃𝑖 , 𝑉𝑖 , 𝑇𝑖 be adiabatically expand to the state 𝑃𝑓 , 𝑉𝑓 , 𝑇𝑓
𝑉𝑓

Work done in the process is, 𝑊 = ∫ 𝑃𝑑𝑉

𝑉𝑖
𝛾
For an adiabatic process, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑉𝑓
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑊 = ∫ 𝑑𝑉
𝑉𝛾
𝑉𝑖
𝑉
𝑉 −𝛾+1 𝑓
𝑊 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 [ ]
1−𝛾 𝑉
𝑖
𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 1−𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑊= [𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 ]
1−𝛾
1 1−𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑊= [𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 × 𝑉𝑖 ]
1−𝛾
1 𝛾 1−𝛾 𝛾 1−𝛾
𝑊= [𝑃 𝑉 𝑉 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ]
1−𝛾 𝑓 𝑓 𝑓
1
𝑊= [𝑃 𝑉 − 𝑃𝑖 𝑉𝑖 ]
1−𝛾 𝑓 𝑓
1
𝑊= [𝜇𝑅𝑇𝑓 − 𝜇𝑅𝑇𝑖 ]
1−𝛾
1
𝑊= 𝜇𝑅(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
1−𝛾
𝝁𝑹(𝑻𝒊 − 𝑻𝒇 )
𝑾=
𝜸−𝟏

Note: (i) If 𝑇𝑓 < 𝑇𝑖 , 𝑊 > 0 (𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒), Temperature decreases when the gas expands.
(ii) If 𝑇𝑓 > 𝑇𝑖 , 𝑊 < 0 (𝑛𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒), Temperature increases when the gas compressed.

Isochoric process: A thermodynamic process that takes place at constant volume is called isochoric
process.
As the volume is kept constant, 𝑑𝑊 = 0
From first law of thermodynamics, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈
If heat is absorbed by a system at constant volume, its internal energy increases.
Ex: Melting of a solid into liquid.

Isobaric process: A thermodynamic process that takes place at constant pressure is called isobaric
process.
Work done by the gas is, 𝑊 = 𝑃(𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖 )
𝑊 = 𝜇𝑅(𝑇𝑓 − 𝑇𝑖 )
Ex: Heating any liquid at atmospheric pressure, heating a gas at constant pressure.

Cyclic process: It is the process in which the system returns to its initial state after a number of
changes.
In cyclic process, change in internal energy is zero.
From the first law of thermodynamics, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑑𝑊
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑊
Net work done during a cyclic process must be equal to the amount of heat energy transferred.
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 THERMODYNAMICS
Reversible process: It is a process which can be made to proceed in the opposite direction with
same ease so that the system and the surroundings pass through exactly the same intermediate
state as in the direct process.
Ex: Conversion of ice to water and vice versa, under ideal conditions.

Irreversible process: A process in which the system cannot be retraced to its original state is called
an irreversible process.
Ex: A body moving on a rough surface from one point to another.

Heat engine: Heat engine is a device which converts heat energy into mechanical energy.

Parts of heat engine:

 Source: source is an agency which can provide any amount of heat. It is maintained at
constant, high temperature.
 Working substance: It is an enclosed thermodynamic system which can do work. A mixture
of fuel vapour and air is used as working substance in gasoline or diesel engine.
 Sink: It can absorb any amount of heat. It is maintained at constant temperature. Temperature
of the sink is less than the temperature of the source.

Principle: Working substance absorbs heat from the source and converts a part of it into work and
rejects the rest to the sink.
Working:

Let 𝑄1 amount of heat is absorbed by the working substance from the source at temperature 𝑇1 .
Let 𝑊 is the total work done by the working substance.
𝑄2 is the amount of heat rejected to the sink at temperature 𝑇2 .
Net amount of heat absorbed, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
As the working substance returns to the original state, 𝑑𝑈 = 0
From the first law of thermodynamics, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑊
𝑑𝑄 = 𝑊
𝑊 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2

Efficiency of heat engine: It is defined as the ratio of mechanical work done to the heat absorbed.
It is denoted by 𝜂.
𝑊 𝑄1 − 𝑄2
𝜂= =
𝑄1 𝑄1
𝑸𝟐
𝜼=𝟏−
𝑸𝟏
From the above equation, it is clear that efficiency of heat engine is less than one or 100%.

Refrigeration: The process of removing heat from bodies colder than their surroundings is called
refrigeration.

Refrigerator: The device which does the process of refrigeration is called refrigerator.
In refrigerator heat is absorbed at low temperature and rejected at higher temperature. The
working substances are ammonia and Freon.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, Govt P U College, Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 6
 THERMODYNAMICS
Heat pump: Refrigerator is a heat engine working backward and it is also called Heat pump.

Working steps:
 Sudden expansion of gas from high to low pressure which cools the working substance.
 Absorption of heat from the region to be cooled by the working substance.
 Heating up of the working substance.
 Release of heat by the working substance to surroundings and returns to the initial state.

Co-efficient of performance: Co-efficient of performance is given by,

𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑒𝑥𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑑 𝑏𝑜𝑑𝑦
𝛼=
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑠𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑸𝟐 𝑸𝟐
𝜶= = 𝛼 can be greater than 𝑜𝑛𝑒 and cannot be 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑒.
𝑾 𝑸𝟏 − 𝑸𝟐

Second law of thermodynamics: This law specifies the condition of transformation of heat into
work.

Kelvin-Planck statement: No process is possible whose only result is the absorption of heat from a
reservoir and the complete conversion of heat into work.

Clausius statement: No process is possible whose only result is the transfer of heat from a colder
object into a hotter object.

Carnot engine: Sadi Carnot introduced the concept of an ideal heat engine called Carnot engine.

Construction: Parts of the Carnot engine are,

 Source: It is maintained at a fixed higher temperature 𝑇1
 Sink: It is maintained at fixed low temperature 𝑇2 than the source.
 Working substance: A perfect gas acts as working substance. The container is fitted with a
piston which can slide without friction and it is also non-conducting. Container has
conducting base and non-conducting side wall.
 Insulated stand: It is used to provide complete thermal isolation for working substance that
can undergo adiabatic operation.

Carnot cycle: The working substance of the Carnot engine is

taken through a cycle of isothermal and adiabatic process
known as Carnot cycle.
Carnot cycle for a heat engine with an ideal gas as the
working substance is as shown.

Steps of Carnot cycle:

Step1- Isothermal expansion: The cylinder with gas having pressure 𝑃1 , volume 𝑉1 and
temperature 𝑇1 is kept on the source at temperature 𝑇1 .
The gas is allowed to expand isothermally slowly.
The temperature tends to decrease, but it is maintained at constant temperature 𝑇1 by absorbing
heat from source.
Let the pressure and volume change to 𝑃2 and 𝑉2 respectively.
For an isothermal process, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑊

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 THERMODYNAMICS
𝑉2
𝑄1 = 𝑊1 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln ( )
𝑉1

Step2-Adiabatic expansion: The cylinder is placed on the non-conducting stand and the gas is
allowed to expand adiabatically until the temperature falls to 𝑇2 .
𝜇𝑅
Work done during the expansion is, 𝑊2 = (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
𝛾−1 1

To make the gas recover its capacity for doing work, it should be brought to the original condition.
This is done in next steps.

Step3-Isothermal compression:
The cylinder is kept on sink at temperature 𝑇2 .
The gas is compressed isothermally.
Let 𝑄2 amount of heat is rejected to the sink.
Let the pressure 𝑃3 and volume 𝑉3 change to 𝑃4 and 𝑉4 respectively.
For an isothermal process, 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑊
𝑉4
𝑄2 = 𝑊3 = −𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln ( )
𝑉3
−𝑣𝑒 sign indicates work is done on the system.
𝑉3
𝑄2 = 𝑊3 = 𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln ( )
𝑉4
Step4-Adiabatic Compression: The cylinder is placed on the non-conducting stand and the gas is
compressed adiabatically till the pressure 𝑃4 , volume 𝑉4 changes to 𝑃1 and 𝑉1 and temperature 𝑇1 .
𝜇𝑅
Work done, 𝑊4 = (𝑇 − 𝑇2 )
𝛾−1 1
Total work done during the complete cycle is, 𝑊 = 𝑊1 + 𝑊2 − 𝑊3 − 𝑊4
Since 𝑊2 = 𝑊4 , 𝑊 = 𝑊1 − 𝑊3 = 𝑄1 − 𝑄2

Note: Work done, 𝑊 = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑝ℎ

Efficiency of Carnot engine:

𝑄1 − 𝑄2 𝑄2
𝜂= =1−
𝑄1 𝑄1
𝑉3
𝜇𝑅𝑇2 ln ( )
𝑉4
𝜂 =1−
𝑉2
𝜇𝑅𝑇1 ln ( )
𝑉1
𝑉
𝑇2 ln (𝑉3 )
4
𝜂 =1− − − − (1)
𝑉2
𝑇1 ln (𝑉 )
1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
For the step2, we have adiabatic equation, 𝑇1 𝑉2 = 𝑇2 𝑉3
𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑉2
= − − − (2)
𝑇1 𝑉3𝛾−1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
For Step4, we have adiabatic equation, 𝑇2 𝑉4 = 𝑇1 𝑉1
𝛾−1
𝑇2 𝑉1
= − − − (3)
𝑇1 𝑉4𝛾−1
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑉2 𝑉1
From equation (1) and (2), 𝛾−1 = 𝛾−1
𝑉3 𝑉4
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, Govt P U College, Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 8
 THERMODYNAMICS
𝛾−1 𝛾−1
𝑉2 𝑉1
( ) =( )
𝑉3 𝑉4
𝑉2 𝑉1
=
𝑉3 𝑉4
𝑉2 𝑉3
or =
𝑉1 𝑉4
𝑉2 𝑉3
ln ( ) = ln ( )
𝑉1 𝑉4
𝑻𝟐
Equation (1) becomes, 𝜼=𝟏−
𝑻𝟏

Note:
 Efficiency of Carnot engine depends upon the temperature of the source and sink.
 Efficiency is independent of the nature of the working substance.
 Since we cannot have a sink at absolute zero, so a heat engine with 100% efficiency is not
possible to realise in practice.

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 THERMODYNAMICS
Suggested Questions.
One Mark.
1. Which physical quantity is conserved for an iso-thermal process?
2. State the Zeroth law of thermodynamics.
3. What is the significance of zeroth law of thermodynamics?
4. State the first law of thermodynamics.
5. Mention the significance of I law of thermodynamics.
6. What is Quasi-static process?
7. What is equation of state for adiabatic process?
8. Define efficiency of heat engine.

Two Marks.
1. Mention the quantities remaining constant during isobaric and isochoric processes.
2. Mention the an example for isothermal and adiabatic process each.
3. What are Diathermic and adiabatic wall?
4. What are state variables? Give two examples.

Three Marks.
1. Explain the parts of Heat engine.
2. What is the principle of heat engine? Sketch the diagrammatic representation of working of
heat engine.
3. Draw schematic diagram of the refrigerator. Define its coefficient of performance.

Five Marks.
1. Draw a schematic diagram of pressure versus volume for a Carnot cycle with an ideal gas as
working substance. Write an expression for efficiency of a Carnot engine.
2. What is isothermal process? Derive the expression for work done in isothermal process.
3. Explain different stages of Carnot’s cycle with P-V diagram.
or
Explain Carnot’s Cycle
4. Discuss the applications of first law of Thermodynamics.

Numerical Problems.
1. A steam engine delivers 5.4 × 108 𝐽 of work per minute and services 3.6 × 109 𝐽 of heat per
minute from its boiler. What is (i) efficiency of the engine. (ii) Work done per cycle. (iii) Heat
rejected to sink per cycle. (iv) How much heat is wasted per minute?
2. A Carnot engine has an efficiency of 0.3, when the temperature of the sink is 350K. Find the
change in temperature of the source when the efficiency becomes 0.5.
3. A steam engine delivers 7.5×108 J of work per minute and services 3.6 × 109 J of heat per
minute from its boiler. What is the efficiency of the engine? How much heat is wasted per
minute? Also find the ratio of temperature of sink to the source.

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 KINETIC THEORY
Chapter-13 KINETIC THEORY

Kinetic Theory: Kinetic theory was developed by Maxwell, Boltzmann and Gibbs.
It explains the behaviour of gases, based on the idea that, gases consists of a large number of atoms
or molecules, which are in the state of continuous random motion and the interatomic forces
binding the atoms are negligible.

Success of Kinetic theory: Kinetic theory was successful due to,

 It gives a molecular interpretation of pressure and temperature of a gas.
 It is consistent with gas laws and Avogadro’s hypothesis.
 It is correctly explains specific heat capacities of many gases.
 It relates measurable properties of gases such as viscosity, conduction and diffusion with
molecular parameters such as molecular size and mass.

Molecular nature of matter:

Molecular nature of matter can be established by considering the following.

 Atomic Hypothesis: All the things are made of atoms – which are tiny particles that move
around in perpetual motion, attracting each other when they are little distance apart but
repelling upon being squeezed into one another.
Kanada in India and Democritus’ in Greece has suggested the Atomic hypothesis.
 Atomic Theory: John Dalton proposed atomic theory and suggested that,
(i) The smallest constituents of an element are atoms.
(ii) Atoms of one element are identical but differ from those of other element.
(iii) A small number of atoms of each element combine to form a molecule of the compound.
 Avogadro’s Hypothesis and Gay Lussac’s Law were well explained based on the molecular
nature of matter.

Note: Gay Lussac’s Law: When gases combine chemically to yield another gas, their volumes are
in the ratio of small integers.

Behaviour of Gas: Gases at low densities, low pressures and high temperatures obey the
experimental result,
𝑃𝑉
=𝐾
𝑇
Where 𝐾 is a constant and depends on mass of the gas, hence 𝐾 ∝ 𝑁
or 𝐾 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑁 where 𝑁 → Number of molecules
𝑘𝐵 →Boltzman constant = 1.38 × 10−23 𝐽 𝐾 −1
𝑷𝑽
Implies that, = 𝒌𝑩 𝑵
𝑻

Avogadro Hypothesis: The number of molecule per unit volume is same for all gases at a fixed
temperature and pressure.

Explanation: We have,
𝑃1 𝑉1 𝑃2 𝑉2
= = 𝑘𝐵
𝑇1 𝑁1 𝑇2 𝑁2

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 KINETIC THEORY
If 𝑃, 𝑉 and 𝑇 are same, then 𝑁 is also same for all gases and this number is denoted as 𝑁𝐴 , called
Avogadro Number. In 22.4 litres of any gas, 𝑁𝐴 = 6.02 × 1023 .
Hence the equation becomes, 𝑷𝑽 = 𝒌𝑩 𝑵𝑨 𝑻

Note: The mass of 22.4 litres any gas is equal to its molecular weight in grams at 𝑆𝑇𝑃. This amount
is called as 1 mole of substance.

Gas Law: The relationship between any two physical quantities is used to specify the state of a gas
keeping the third physical quantity constant is known as Gas law.

(i) Boyle’s Law: At constant temperature, pressure of a given mass of gas varies inversely with its
volume.
If 𝑇 is constant, 𝑃 ∝ 1⁄𝑉 or 𝑃𝑉 = constant

(ii) Charles’ Law: At constant pressure, the volume of the gas is proportional to its absolute
temperature.
If 𝑃 is constant, 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇 or 𝑉⁄𝑇 = constant

The variation of 𝑉 with 𝑃 is as shown. Variation of 𝑇 with 𝑉 is shown above.

Ideal Gas: A gas in which the molecules do not exert any attractive or repulsive force on each
other is called an Ideal gas or Perfect gas. or
A gas which obeys Boyle’s law and Charles’ law is called Ideal gas or Perfect gas.

Ideal gas equation: For one mole of gas, we have

𝑃𝑉 = constant (Boyle’s law)
𝑉⁄ = constant (Charles’ law)
𝑇
𝑃𝑉
Combining these, we get = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑇
The constant is equal to 𝑅 and known as Universal gas
constant, its value is 8.31 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1.
So, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
For 𝜇 moles, 𝑷𝑽 = 𝝁𝑹𝑻 this is ideal gas equation.
𝑃𝑉
A graph of ( ) versus 𝑃 is as shown.
𝜇𝑇
From graph, it can be concluded that, a real gas behaves as an ideal gas at high temperatures.

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 KINETIC THEORY
Note: (i) An ideal gas is a simple theoretical model of a gas, no real gas is truly Ideal.
(ii) We have 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑅𝑇
and 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑁𝐴 𝑇
On comparison we get, 𝑅 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑁𝐴

(iii) We have 𝜇𝑁𝐴 = 𝑁 and 𝜇𝑀0 = 𝑀

Where 𝑁 → Total number of molecules
𝑀 → Mass of the gas
𝑀0 →Molar mass
𝑴 𝑵
𝝁= =
𝑴𝟎 𝑵 𝑨

Assumptions of Kinetic Theory:

1) Any gas consists of a very large number of identical particles called molecules, each having
identical mass.
2) The molecules are considered to be rigid, perfectly elastic solid spheres of negligible size.
3) The molecules are in a state of random motion, moving in all directions with all possible
velocities.
4) All the collisions between the molecules or between a molecule and the wall of the container
are perfectly elastic.
5) The molecules exert no force of attraction or repulsion on each other and with the walls of the
container, except during the collision.
6) The molecules during motion collide with one another and with the walls of the container.
Between collisions, the molecules move in a straight line with uniform velocity. At each
collision their velocity gets altered.
7) In steady state, the collisions do not affect the molecular density of the gas.
8) The molecules obey Newton’s laws of motion.

Pressure of an Ideal gas:

Consider a gas enclosed in a cube of side 𝑙.
Let 𝑛 be the number of molecules per unit volume.
Let a molecule of mass 𝑚 moving with velocity (𝑣𝑥 , 𝑣𝑦 , 𝑣𝑧 ) along
𝑥 −axis hits the face 𝐹1 .
Since the collision is elastic, the 𝑥 − component of velocity of the
molecule is reversed whereas the 𝑦 and 𝑧 components remain
unchanged.

Initial momentum of the molecule along 𝑥 −axis = 𝑚𝑣𝑥

Final momentum of the molecule along 𝑥 −axis = −𝑚𝑣𝑥
Change in momentum = −𝑚𝑣𝑥 − 𝑚𝑣𝑥 = −2𝑚𝑣𝑥
Momentum transferred to the wall = 2𝑚𝑣𝑥

To calculate pressure on the face 𝐹1 , we have to calculate momentum transferred in time 𝑑𝑡.
In time 𝑑𝑡, a molecule with 𝑥 −component of velocity 𝑣𝑥 will hit the face 𝐹1 , if it is within a
distance of 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑡 from face 𝐹1 .
Then all the molecules within this distance will hit the face 𝐹1 .
Number of molecules within this volume = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑡

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 KINETIC THEORY
On the average half of these molecules are moving towards face 𝐹1 and half away from the face 𝐹1
1
Number of molecules hitting the face 𝐹1 = 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑡
2
1
Momentum transferred to the wall by these molecules 𝑑𝑝 = 2𝑚𝑣𝑥 ( 𝑛 𝐴 𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑡)
2
𝑑𝑝 = 𝑛 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝑥2 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑝
Force, 𝐹= = 𝑛 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝑥2
𝑑𝑡
𝐹 𝑛 𝑚𝐴 𝑣𝑥2
Pressure, 𝑃 = = = 𝑛 𝑚 𝑣𝑥2
𝐴 𝐴
Actually all the molecules in the gas do not have the same velocity.
Therefore Pressure exerted by these molecules on face 𝐹 is, 𝑃 = 𝑛 𝑚 𝑣̅̅̅2 where ̅̅̅
𝑣 2 → average of 𝑣 2
1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
But Inside the container the molecules are in random motion.
By symmetry ̅̅̅ 𝑣𝑥2 = ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦2 = ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧2
̅̅̅
𝑣𝑥2 + ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑦2 + ̅̅̅
𝑣𝑧2 1 2
Average of = ̅̅̅
𝑣
3 3
𝟏
Pressure, 𝑷 = 𝒏 𝒎 ̅̅̅ 𝒗𝟐 ̅̅̅2 → mean of the square speed.
where 𝑣
𝟑

Kinetic interpretation of Temperature (Relation between Kinetic energy and temperature):

1 ̅̅̅2
We have 𝑃 = 𝑛 𝑚 𝑣
3
1 ̅̅̅2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑉 𝑚 𝑣
3
1 ̅̅̅2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁 𝑚 𝑣
3
2 1 ̅̅̅2
𝑃𝑉 = 𝑁 ( 𝑚 𝑣 ) → (i)
3 2
1
Here 𝑚 ̅̅̅𝑣 2 is the average translational kinetic energy of the molecules of the gas.
2
1
The internal energy of the gas is purely kinetic and is given by, 𝐸 = 𝑁 𝑚 ̅̅̅ 𝑣2
2
2
Equation (i)becomes, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝐸
3
But we have, 𝑃𝑉 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑁𝑇
3
Therefor𝑒 𝐸 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑁𝑇
2
𝑬 𝟑
= 𝒌 𝑻
𝑵 𝟐 𝑩
𝐸
Where → average kinetic energy of a molecule.
𝑁
𝑬
Implies that, ∝ 𝑻 or 〈𝑬𝒕 〉 ∝ 𝑻
𝑵
The average kinetic energy is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.

Definition for Temperature: Temperature is defined as the average kinetic energy of a molecule.

RMS speed of a gas molecule: It is the square root of the mean of the square of the velocities of
individual molecules of the gas.

Expression for RMS speed:

1 ̅̅̅2 3
We have 𝑚 𝑣 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2
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 KINETIC THEORY

̅̅̅ 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑣2 = 3
𝑚
𝟑 𝒌𝑩 𝑻 ̅̅̅2
𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 = √ Where 𝑣𝑟𝑚𝑠 = √𝑣
𝒎

Degrees of freedom: The number of co-ordinates required to specify the configuration and
position of a gas molecule is called Degrees of freedom.
or
It is the total number of independent ways in which the gas molecule can absorb the energy.

Degrees of freedom of a gas molecule: A gas molecule can possess translational kinetic energy,
rotational kinetic energy and vibrational energy.

(i) A mono atomic gas: A monoatomic gas molecule consists of a single atom. It can have
translational motion in any direction in 3-dimensional space. Therefore it has 3 translational
degrees of freedom (n=3).
1 1 1
∴ 𝐸𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑚 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑚 𝑣𝑧2
2 2 2

(ii) Diatomic Gas: The molecule consists of two atoms bound to each other. Assuming that the
diatomic molecule is rigid, it has,
a) 3 translational degrees of freedom. (Each along 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 −axis)
b) 2 rotational degrees of freedom. (One along 𝑦 and other 𝑧 −axis)
c) No vibrational energy. (because molecule is rigid)
Therefore 𝑛 =3+2=5
1 1 1 1 1
∴ 𝐸𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑚 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑚 𝑣𝑧2 + 𝐼𝑦 𝜔𝑦 + 𝐼𝑧 𝜔𝑧
2 2 2 2 2

Generally, number of degrees of freedom of a molecule is equal to total number of co-ordinates

required to specify the positions of the molecule minus the number of independent relations
between the atoms or molecules.
𝒏 = 𝟑𝑵 − 𝒓

(iii) Triatomic molecule (non-linear structure), 𝑛 = 3𝑁 − 𝑟

𝑁 = 3 and 𝑟 = 2 implies that, 𝑛 = 3(3) − 3 = 6
A non-linear rigid triatomic molecule has 3 translational degrees of freedom, 3 rotational degrees
of freedom and no vibrational degrees of freedom.

Internal energy of an Ideal gas: Internal energy of an ideal gas is sum of potential and kinetic
energies of all the gas molecules. Denoted by 𝑈.
𝑈 =𝐾+𝑉
For an ideal gas, potential energy is zero, since no intermolecular forces between the molecules
and kinetic energy may be translational, rotational and vibrational.
𝑉 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐾 = 𝐸𝑡 + 𝐸𝑟 + 𝐸𝑣 then 𝑈 = 𝐾

Law of Equipartition of energy: In thermal equilibrium, the total energy is equally distributed in
1
all possible degrees of freedom and average energy in each degree of freedom is equal to 𝑘𝐵 𝑇.
2
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 KINETIC THEORY
Explanation: The translational kinetic energy of a single molecule is,
1 1 1
𝐸𝑡 = 𝑚 𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑚 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑚 𝑣𝑧2
2 2 2
1 1 1
The average energy of the gas is given by, 〈𝐸𝑡 〉 = 〈 𝑚 𝑣𝑥2 〉 + 〈 𝑚 𝑣𝑦2 〉 + 〈 𝑚 𝑣𝑧2 〉
2 2 2
𝐸 3
From Kinetic theory, = 〈𝐸〉 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
𝑁 2
1 1 1 3
〈 𝑚 𝑣𝑥2 〉 + 〈 𝑚 𝑣𝑦2 〉 + 〈 𝑚 𝑣𝑧2 〉 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
〈 𝑚 𝑣𝑥2 〉 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇, 〈 𝑚 𝑣𝑦2 〉 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇, 〈 𝑚 𝑣𝑧2 〉 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2 2 2 2

Specific heat capacity of gas:

(i) Monoatomic gases: Molecule of monoatomic gas has 3 degrees of freedom.
3
Total internal energy of the monoatomic gas, 𝑈 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝑁𝐴
2
3
𝑈 = 𝑅𝑇
2
𝑑𝑈 3
𝐶𝑉 = = 𝑅
𝑑𝑇 2
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
3 5
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑅
2 2
𝑪𝑷 𝟓𝑹 𝟐 𝟓
The ratio of specific heats, 𝜸= = × =
𝑪𝑽 𝟐 𝟑𝑹 𝟑

(ii) Diatomic gases: Molecules of diatomic gas has 5 degrees of freedom.

5
𝑈 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝑁𝐴
2
5
𝑈 = 𝑅𝑇
2
𝑑𝑈 5
𝐶𝑉 = = 𝑅
𝑑𝑇 2
𝐶𝑃 − 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅
5 7
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉 = 𝑅 + 𝑅 = 𝑅
2 2
𝑪𝑷 𝟕𝑹 𝟐 𝟕
The ratio of specific heats, 𝜸= = × =
𝑪𝑽 𝟐 𝟓𝑹 𝟓

(iii) Polyatomic gases: A poly molecule has 3 translational, 3 rotational and 𝑓 number of
vibrational energy.
3 3
𝑈 = ( 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 + 𝑓 𝑘𝐵 𝑇) 𝑁𝐴
2 2
3 3
𝑈 = ( + + 𝑓 ) 𝑁𝐴 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2 2
(3
𝑈 = + 𝑓)𝑅𝑇
𝑑𝑈
𝐶𝑉 = = (3 + 𝑓)𝑅
𝑑𝑇
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 + 𝐶𝑉
𝐶𝑃 = 𝑅 + (3 + 𝑓)𝑅 = (4 + 𝑓)𝑅
𝑪𝑷 (𝟒 + 𝒇)
𝜸= =
𝑪𝑽 (𝟑 + 𝒇)
All the above values are in good agreement with experimental values.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 6

 KINETIC THEORY
Specific heat capacities of solids: Every atom in a solid vibrates about its equilibrium position.
A one dimensional oscillator has two degrees of freedom, one translational and one vibrational.
1
The average energy = 2 × 𝑘𝐵 𝑇 = 𝑘𝐵 𝑇
2
Each atom in a solid can be treated as three dimensional harmonic oscillators.
Hence average energy of an atom in a solid = 3𝑘𝐵 𝑇
If there are 𝑁𝐴 atoms, total energy per mole, 𝑈 = 3𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝑁𝐴
𝑈 = 3𝑅𝑇
At constant pressure we have 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈 + 𝑃𝑑𝑉
But 𝑑𝑉 ≈ 0 for solids, then 𝑑𝑄 = 𝑑𝑈
𝒅𝑼 𝒅𝑸
𝑪= = = 𝟑𝑹
𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑻

Specific heat capacity of water: Water can be treated as solid.

Then for each atom average energy = 3𝑘𝐵 𝑇
Water has three atoms, so 𝑈 = 3 × 3𝑘𝐵 𝑇𝑁𝐴 = 9𝑅𝑇
𝒅𝑼 𝒅𝑸
𝑪= = = 𝟗𝑹
𝒅𝑻 𝒅𝑻
𝐶 ≈ 75 𝐽 𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 𝐾 −1

Free path: The distance travelled by a gas molecule between two successive collisions is known as
free path.

Mean free path: The average distance travelled by a molecule between two successive collisions is
called mean free path.

Expression for Mean free path:

Consider a gas containing 𝑛 molecules per unit volume.
Let 𝑑 be the diameter of the each molecule.
Consider one such molecule is in motion and other are at rest.
The moving molecule will collide with all those molecules whose centres are at a distance 𝑑 from
the centre of the molecule.

Let 〈𝑣〉 be the average speed and distance travelled by the molecule in time ∆𝑡 is 〈𝑣〉∆𝑡.
This molecule collide with all the molecules whose centres lie on the cylinder of radius 𝑑.

Number of molecules in this volume, 𝑁 = 𝑛 𝜋 𝑑2 〈𝑣〉 ∆𝑡

Number of collisions in this volume = Number of molecules = 𝑛 𝜋 𝑑2 〈𝑣〉 ∆𝑡
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑛 𝜋 𝑑2 〈𝑣〉 ∆𝑡
Rate of collision = = = 𝑛 𝜋 𝑑2 〈𝑣〉
∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
1
Average time between two successive collisions, 𝜏=
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛
1
𝜏=
𝑛 𝜋 𝑑2 〈𝑣〉
Average distance between two successive collisions – mean free path, 𝑙 = 〈𝑣〉 𝜏
But actually all molecules are moving.
So collision rate is determined by average relative velocity of the molecule.
Therefore, mean free path, 𝑙 = 〈𝑣𝑟 〉 𝜏

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 7

 KINETIC THEORY
〈𝑣〉
But 〈𝑣𝑟 〉 =
√2
〈𝑣〉 〈𝑣〉 1
Men free path, 𝑙= 𝜏= 2
√2 √2 𝑛 𝜋 𝑑 〈𝑣〉
𝟏
𝒍=
√𝟐 𝒏 𝝅 𝒅𝟐

Note: From above equation it is observed that the mean free path is inversely proportional to
number of molecules per unit volume, (𝑛) and size of the molecule (𝑑).

Suggested Questions.
One Mark.
1. Define degrees of freedom of a molecule.
2. What is mean free path of a gas molecule?
3. How does an average kinetic energy of a gas molecule depend on the absolute temperature?
4. State Charles’ law.
5. What is ideal gas?
6. Mention the degrees of freedom for a triatomic gas molecule.
7. Name a factor on which internal energy of the gas depends.

Two Marks.
1. Mention an expression for pressure of an ideal gas and explain the symbol used.

Three Marks.
1. Mention any three postulates of kinetic theory of gases.
2. Mention the expression for average kinetic energy of a molecule in terms of absolute
temperature.
1 ̅̅̅2̅ with usual notation.
3. Derive 𝑃 = 𝑛𝑚𝑉 3
4. Define degrees of freedom. Mention the degrees of freedom for (a) monoatomic gas. (b)
diatomic molecule.
5. State and explain the law of equi-partition of energy.
6. State the law of equi-partition of energy. Write an expression for the energy associated with
diatomic molecule.
7. Derive the expression for the specific heat capacity of solids.

Five Marks.
1. Derive the relation between kinetic energy of a gas molecule and its absolute temperature.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 8

 OSCILLATIONS
Chapter-14 OSCILLATIONS

Periodic motion: A motion that repeats itself at regular intervals of time is called periodic motion.
Ex: Motion of planets in solar system, uniform circular motion.

Oscillatory motion: A motion in which a body moves to and fro between two extreme positions
about an equilibrium position.
Ex: boat tossing up and down, piston of a steam engine, motion of simple pendulum.

Equilibrium (Mean) position: It is the position of a body during oscillatory motion at which the
net external force acting on the body is zero.
It is the position, at which if it is at rest, it remains at rest forever.

Oscillations or vibrations: The motion of a body between two extreme positions forms oscillations
or vibrations.

Note: (i) There is no significant difference between oscillations and vibrations. When the frequency
is small we call it oscillation, while the frequency is high we call it vibrations.
(ii) Every oscillatory motion is periodic; but every periodic motion need not be oscillatory.

Importance of oscillatory motion: This motion is basic to physics. In musical instruments we come
across vibrating strings, membranes in drums and diaphragms in telephone and speaker system
vibrate, vibrations of air molecule, vibrations of atoms in solid include oscillatory motion. The
concepts of oscillatory motion are required to understand many physical phenomena listed above.

Description of oscillatory motion: The description of oscillatory motion requires some

fundamental concepts like period, frequency, displacement, amplitude and phase.

Period or Time period (T): The smallest interval of time after which a periodic motion repeats is
called period.
In case of oscillation, the time taken by the body to complete one oscillation is called period. SI unit
of period is 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑.

Frequency (𝝂): Number of times a periodic motion repeats per unit time is called frequency.
In case of oscillations, number of oscillations per unit time is called frequency. SI unit of frequency
is ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑧 (𝐻𝑧). 1𝐻𝑧 = 1 oscillation per second.

Note: Relation between period and frequency is given by, 𝑇 = 1⁄𝜈 or 𝜈 = 1⁄𝑇

Displacement (x or y): The term displacement refers to change of physical quantity with time. In
periodic motion displacement may be linear as well as angular.

Linear displacement: The straight line distance travelled by a particle

from its equilibrium position.

Angular displacement: It is the angle through which position vector of the body rotates in a given
time.

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 OSCILLATIONS
Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of the particle from its equilibrium
position is called amplitude.

Periodic function: Any function which repeats itself after a regular interval of time
is called periodic function.
In periodic motion displacement is periodic function and it can be represented by a mathematical
function of time. The simplest of these functions is given by, 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡.
If 𝜔𝑡 is increased by an integral multiple of 2𝜋 radian, the value of the function remains same and
𝑓(𝑡) is periodic.
2𝜋
If 𝑇 =
𝜔
𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔(𝑡 + 𝑇)
2𝜋
𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔 (𝑡 + )
𝜔
𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑇) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 2𝜋)
𝑓(𝑡 + 𝑡) = 𝐴 cos 𝜔𝑡 = 𝑓(𝑡)

Note: (i) In cos 𝜔𝑡, the term 𝜔 is called angular frequency.

(ii) The function 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 is also periodic.
(iii) The linear combination of both sine and cosine function is also periodic and it is represented
by 𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin 𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵 cos 𝜔𝑡 and it is called Fourier series.
By putting, 𝐴 = 𝐷 cos 𝜙 and 𝐵 = 𝐷 sin 𝜙
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐷 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜙 + 𝐷 cos 𝜔𝑡 sin 𝜙
𝐵
𝑓(𝑡) = 𝐷 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) where 𝐷 = √𝐴2 + 𝐵2 and 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (𝐴)

Simple harmonic motion (SHM): The oscillatory motion is said to be simple harmonic, if the
displacement of the particle from the origin varies with time as;
𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) or 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙).
Simple harmonic motion is a periodic motion in which displacement is a sinusoidal function of
time.

Note: The simplest kind of periodic motion is simple harmonic motion.

Analysis of simple harmonic motion:

Consider a particle oscillating back and forth about the origin along 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 between the limits +𝐴
and −𝐴 as shown.

Figure shows graph of 𝑥 versus 𝑡 which gives the values of displacements as function of time.

Phase: During the periodic motion, the position and velocity of the particle at any time 𝑡 is
determined by the term (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) in cosine function. This quantity is called phase of the motion.

Phase constant (Phase angle):

The value of phase at 𝑡 = 0 is 𝜙 and it is called the phase constant or phase angle.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 2
 OSCILLATIONS
Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion:
Consider a particle moving with a uniform sped along the circumference of circle of radius 𝐴.
Let the particle start from the point 𝑋 with a constant speed 𝜔.
After some time it reaches to 𝑃.
Draw 𝑃𝑀 perpendicular to 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
𝑂𝑀 represents the projection of position vector of the particle on 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

When the particle moves from 𝑋 to 𝑌 its projection of the position

vector moves from 𝑂 to 𝑌. As the particle moves from 𝑌 to 𝑋 ′ , its
projection moves from 𝑌 to 𝑂. Similarly the particle moves from 𝑋 ′ to
𝑋 via 𝑌 ′ , its projection moves from 𝑂 to 𝑌 ′ and 𝑌 ′ to 𝑂. This shows
that if the particle moves uniformly on a circle, its projection on the
diameter (𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠) of the circle executes SHM.

The position of the particle on the circle is given by, 𝑥(𝑡) = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
The displacement of the projection on 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is given by, 𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) which is also SHM
with same amplitude but different in phase by 𝜋⁄2.

Equation of SHM:
Consider a particle moving on a circle of radius 𝐴 with uniform velocity 𝜔.
Let the particle start from 𝑋 and subtend an angle 𝜃 in time 𝑡 and reaches 𝑃.
𝜃
Angular velocity, 𝜔 =
𝑡
𝜃 = 𝜔𝑡
The projection of the particle on 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is, 𝑂𝑁 = 𝑥
𝑂𝑁 𝑥
In Δ𝑂𝑃𝑀, cos 𝜃 = =
𝑂𝑃 𝐴
𝑥 = 𝐴 cos 𝜃
𝒙 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎𝒕
If the particle starts from 𝑄, 𝒙 = 𝑨 𝐜𝐨𝐬 (𝝎𝒕 + 𝝓)

Velocity of the particle:

We have, 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = −𝐴𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
Further, 𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔√1 − cos 2 𝜔𝑡

𝑥 2
𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔√1 − ( )
𝐴

𝐴2 − 𝑥 2
𝑣 = −𝐴𝜔√
𝐴2

𝒗 = −𝝎√𝑨𝟐 − 𝒙𝟐
Negative sign shows that 𝑣 has a direction opposite to the positive direction of 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.

The above equation tells that,

(i) When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑣 = 𝜔𝐴 - velocity is maximum, velocity is maximum at equilibrium (mean)
position
(ii) When 𝑥 = 𝐴, 𝑣 = 0 - velocity is minimum, velocity is minimum at extreme position.
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 3
 OSCILLATIONS
Acceleration:
We have 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑥
𝑣= = −𝐴𝜔 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥
𝑎 = 2 = −𝐴𝜔2 cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝑑𝑡
𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙
Negative sign indicates that the direction of displacement and acceleration are opposite to each
other.
(i) When 𝑥 = 0, 𝑎 = 0, acceleration is minimum at mean position.
(ii) when 𝑥 = 𝐴, |𝑎| = 𝜔2 𝐴, acceleration is maximum at extreme position.

𝑑2 𝑥
𝐍𝐨𝐭𝐞: + 𝜔2 𝑥 = 0, is called differntial equation of SHM.
𝑑𝑡 2

Force law for SHM:

Acceleration of a particle executing SHM is given by, 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥
From Newton’s second law, 𝐹 = 𝑚𝑎
𝐹 = 𝑚(−𝜔2 𝑥)
𝐹 = −𝑚𝜔2 𝑥
𝑭 = −𝒌𝒙 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2
Negative sign indicates that force and displacement are oppositely directed.

Note: (i) A particle oscillating under a force given by 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 is called linear harmonic oscillator

𝑘
(ii)We have 𝑘 = 𝑚𝜔2 , 𝜔=√
𝑚

Energy in SHM:
A particle executing SHM possess,
(i) Kinetic energy - because it is moving.
(ii) Potential energy - because it is subjected to conservative force 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
1
Kinetic energy, 𝐾 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
1
𝐾 = 𝑚𝐴2 𝜔2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2
1
𝐾 = 𝑘 𝐴2 sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2

1
Potential energy, 𝑈 = 𝑘𝑥 2
2
1
𝑈 = 𝑘 𝐴2 cos 2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2

1 1
Total energy, 𝐸 = 𝐾 + 𝑈 = 𝑘 𝐴2 sin2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) + 𝑘 𝐴2 cos2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)
2 2
1
𝐸 = 𝑘 𝐴2 [sin2 (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙) + cos2(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜙)]
2
𝟏
𝑬 = 𝒌 𝑨𝟐
𝟐

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 4

 OSCILLATIONS
Variation of Kinetic energy and potential energy of oscillator:
1 1
(i) When the particle is at mean position, 𝑈 = 0 and 𝐾 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝐴2 = 𝑘 𝐴2
𝑥 = 0,
2 2
At mean position kinetic energy is maximum and potential energy is zero.
1
(ii)When the particle is at extreme position, 𝑥 = 𝐴, 𝑈 = 𝑘 𝐴2 and 𝐾 = 0
2
At the extreme positions kinetic energy is zero and potential energy is maximum.

Some systems executing SHM:

There are no practical examples for absolutely pure simple harmonic motion. But under certain
conditions, some systems can be considered as approximately simple harmonic.

(i) Oscillations due to spring (Expression for Time period of oscillating string):
Consider a block of mass 𝑚 attached to a spring. The other end of the spring is rigidly fixed.
If the block is pulled and released, it executes to and fro motion.
Let 𝑥 = 0 be the mean position of the block.
The restoring force of the block is given by, 𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥
𝑘
𝑎 = −( )𝑥 − − − (1)
𝑚
The standard equation for SHM is, 𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥 − − − (2)
𝑘
On comparing, 𝜔2 =
𝑚
𝑘
𝜔=√
𝑚
𝟐𝝅 𝒎
Time period of the block is, 𝑻= = 𝟐𝝅√
𝝎 𝒌

(ii) Simple pendulum (Expression for time period of Simple pendulum):

Consider a simple pendulum of mass 𝑚 tied to a string of length 𝐿.
Let the bob is set into oscillations.
Let 𝑃 be the position of the bob at time 𝑡.
Let 𝜃 be the angle made by the string with the vertical.
Force acting on the bob are,
(i) weight of the bob 𝑚𝑔, vertically downwards, which can be
resolved into two components; 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃 along the string and
𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃 perpendicular to the string.
(ii) Tension 𝑇 in the string towards point of suspension.
The bob has two accelerations (i) radial acceleration
(ii) tangential acceleration
Radial acceleration provided by 𝑇 − 𝑚𝑔 cos 𝜃
Tangential acceleration provided by 𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 5
 OSCILLATIONS
Radial force gives zero torque.
Therefore, Torque on the bob |𝜏⃗| = |𝑟⃗ × 𝐹⃗ |
𝜏 = −𝐿𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
Negative sign indicates that the restoring torque tends to reduce angular displacement.
By Newton’s second law, 𝜏 = 𝐼𝛼
𝐼𝛼 = −𝐿𝑚𝑔 sin 𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝛼=− sin 𝜃
𝐼
𝑚𝑔𝐿
If 𝜃 is small, sin 𝜃 ≈ 𝜃 , 𝛼 = − 𝜃
𝐼
Comparing with, 𝛼 = −𝜔2 𝜃
𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝜔2 =
𝐼
𝑚𝑔𝐿
𝜔=√
𝐼

2𝜋 𝑚𝑔𝐿
=√
𝑇 𝐼

𝐼
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑚𝑔𝐿

𝑚𝐿2
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ (𝐼 = 𝑚𝐿2 )
𝑚𝑔𝐿

𝑳
𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅√
𝒈

Damped simple harmonic motion:

Damped oscillations: The oscillations of decreasing amplitude due to force opposing the motion
of the particle are called damped oscillations.
In damped oscillations, the energy of the system dissipates continuously.

Damping force: The force which opposes the simple harmonic motion of the particle is called
damping force. Ex: air drag, viscous force.

Analysis of Damped oscillations:

Generally damping forces are velocity dependent.
The damping force 𝐹𝑑 is given by, 𝐹𝑑 = −𝑏𝑣
where 𝑏 is the positive constant called damping co-efficient and depends on characteristics of the
medium. The negative sign indicates the 𝐹𝑑 is opposite to 𝑣.
The restoring force acting on the object is, 𝐹𝑅 = −𝑘𝑥
The net force on the oscillator is, 𝐹 = 𝐹𝑅 + 𝐹𝑑
𝐹 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝟐
𝒅 𝒙 𝒅𝒙
𝒎 𝟐 +𝒃 + 𝒌𝒙 = 𝟎
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
This is the differential equation of damped SHM.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 6

 OSCILLATIONS
𝑏𝑡
For small damping, the solution of the equation is given by, 𝑥 = 𝐴0 (𝑒 − 2𝑚 ) cos(𝜔′ 𝑡 + 𝜙)

𝑘 𝑏2 𝑏𝑡
where 𝜔′ = √ − and Amplitude, 𝐴 = 𝐴0 (𝑒 − 2𝑚 )
𝑚 4𝑚2
The amplitude of the oscillation decreases exponentially with time and finally becomes zero.

Energy of the damped oscillator:

1
The total mechanical energy of un damped oscillator is, 𝐸 = 𝑘 𝐴2
2
1
𝐸 = 𝑚 𝜔2 𝐴2
2
𝑏𝑡
For damped oscillator, 𝐴 = 𝐴0 (𝑒 − 2𝑚 )
1 𝑏𝑡
𝐸 = 𝑘 𝐴20 (𝑒 − 𝑚 )
2
𝒃𝒕
𝑬 = 𝑬𝟎 (𝒆− 𝒎 )
The equation shows that the total energy of the system decreases exponentially with time.

Free oscillations: When a particle set into oscillations, it oscillates with its own frequency 𝜔, these
oscillations are called free oscillations and the frequency is called natural frequency.
All the free oscillations eventually die out because of the ever present damping forces.

Forced or driven oscillations: When a body is subjected to periodic force, it oscillates with the
frequency of the periodic force. Such oscillations are called forced oscillations.

Note: In forced oscillations the system oscillates not with its natural frequency but at the frequency
of the external agency.

Analysis of forced oscillations:

The periodic external force is given by, 𝐹 = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
The motion of the particle under the combined force is given by,
𝑚𝑎 = −𝑘𝑥 − 𝑏𝑣 + 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑚 2 +𝑏 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝐹0 cos 𝜔𝑑 𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
The particle initially oscillates with natural frequency 𝜔. The oscillations with natural frequency
die out due to damping. Then the particle oscillates with frequency of the external periodic force.
Displacement is given by, 𝑥 = 𝐴 cos(𝜔𝑑 𝑡 + 𝜙)
𝐹0
Amplitude of the oscillation is given by, 𝐴 = 1
[𝑚2 (𝜔 2 − 𝜔𝑑 )2 + 𝜔𝑑2 𝑏2 ] ⁄2
2

−𝑣0
and 𝜙 = tan−1 ( )
𝜔𝑑 𝑥0
where 𝑚 is mass of the particle, 𝑣0 is velocity and 𝑥0 is the displacement of the particle at time 𝑡 =
0 at which we apply periodic force.

Case(i) Small damping, Applied frequency far from natural frequency.

Here 𝜔𝑑 𝑏 ≪ 𝑚(𝜔2 − 𝜔𝑑2 ) 𝑎nd we can neglect the term 𝜔𝑑 𝑏.
𝐹0 𝐹0
Then 𝐴 = 1⁄ = 2 2 2
[𝑚 (𝜔 − 𝜔𝑑 ) ] 2 𝑚(𝜔 − 𝜔𝑑 )
2 2 2 2

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 7

 OSCILLATIONS
If we go on changing the applied frequency, the amplitude tends to infinity, when 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑑
This cannot happen in reality as zero damping is ideal.

Case(ii) Applied frequency close to natural frequency.

When 𝜔 ≈ 𝜔𝑑 , 𝜔𝑑 𝑏 ≫ 𝑚(𝜔2 − 𝜔𝑑2 )
𝐹0
Then, 𝐴 =
𝜔𝑑 𝑏
The maximum amplitude for a given applied frequency depends on the applied frequency and the
damping force.

Resonance: The phenomenon of increase in amplitude when applied frequency is close to the
natural frequency of the oscillator is called resonance.
The frequency at which resonance takes place is called resonant frequency.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 8

 OSCILLATIONS
Suggested Questions.
One mark.
1) What is phase of an oscillating particle?
2) What happens to the time period of simple pendulum when it is taken from equator to the
pole?
3) Define Amplitude of simple harmonic oscillator.
4) What are damped oscillations?
5) What is resonance?
6) What is frequency of an oscillator?

Two marks.
1) What is simple harmonic motion? Write an expression for linear oscillator.
2) Write the expression for total energy of a simple harmonic motion and explain the symbols.
3) Mention any two characteristics of SHM.
4) Define SHM with an example.
5) Mention the expression for the velocity of the particle executing SHM and explain the symbol.
6) What are forced oscillations? Mention the condition for resonance.
7) On an average the human heart is found to beat 75 times in minute. Calculate its frequency.
8) Where is the velocity of the body maximum and minimum in case of simple harmonic
motion?
9) Mention an expression for the period of oscillation of a spring and explain the terms.

Three marks.
1) Obtain an expression for Time period of oscillating string.
2) Mention the expression for the velocity of the particle executing SHM and mention the
position where it is maximum and minimum?
3) Mention the expression for the acceleration of the particle executing SHM and mention the
position where it is maximum and minimum?

Five marks.
1) Obtain an expression for kinetic and potential energies of a particle in SHM varying between
zero and their maximum values with diagram giving total energy.
2) Derive the expression for time period of simple pendulum.
3) What is Simple Harmonic motion? Mention the characteristics of SHM.
4) What is SHM? Write its characteristics and give its graphical representation.

Numerical Problems.
1) The equation of a sinusoidal wave travelling along negative x-axis is 𝑦 = 0.4 sin 10𝜋 (3𝑡 + 2𝑥)
where 𝑥 and 𝑦 are in meters and 𝑡 is in seconds. Calculate the amplitude, wave length,
frequency and wave velocity.
2) The displacement of an oscillating particle varies with time according to the equation 𝑦 =
2 sin(0.5 𝜋𝑡), where 𝑦 is in metre and time in second. Calculate, (a) Amplitude of oscillation (b)
Time period of oscillation (c) Maximum velocity of wave particles and (d) Acceleration of the
wave.
3) A particle executes SHM along the x-axis, its displacement varies with the time according to
𝜋
the equation: 𝑥(𝑡) = 5.4 cos(6𝜋𝑡 + ), where 𝑥(𝑡) in metre and 𝑡 is in second. Determine the
4
amplitude, frequency, period and initial phase of the motion.

U N Swamy, Lecturer in Physics, GPUC Aranakatte, Hiriyur Taluk Page | 9