Q1. About Network Topologies in Computers? Q2.

Types of Network Protocols and Their Uses

Network topology refers to the arrangement of elements in a communication network such Network protocols are a set of rules that are responsible for the communication of data
as links, nodes, and so on. The term network topology refers to the arrangement of various between various devices in the network. These protocols define guidelines and conventions
types of telecommunication networks, such as command and control radio networks, for transmitting and receiving data, ensuring efficient and reliable data communication. A
industrial field buses, and computer networks. Local area networks, a common computer network protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication between different devices
network installation, contain examples of network topologies.Network topologies are in the network. It determines what is being communicated, how it is being communicated,
classified into two types: physical and logical. While logical topology emphasizes the and when it is being communicated. It permits connected devices to communicate with
pattern of data transfer between network nodes, physical topology emphasizes the physical each other, irrespective of internal and structural differences.
layout of the connected devices and nodes. Types of Network Protocols.
1. Network Communication: - Communication protocols are really important for the
Types of Network Topologies :- In computer networks, there are primarily six types of functioning of a network. They are so crucial that it is not possible to have computer
physical topology. They are as follows: networks without them. These protocols formally set out the rules and formats through
which data is transferred. These protocols handle syntax, semantics, error detection,
1. Bus Topology: - The simplest type of topology is called a bus topology, in which synchronization, and authentication. Below mentioned are some network communication
network communication takes place over a single bus or channel. There are numerous protocols:
taps and drop lines connected to the bus. Drop Lines are cables that connect the bus to the ## Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP): - It is a layer 7 protocol that is designed for
computer, and taps are connectors. In other words, each node is connected to a single transferring a hypertext between two or more systems. HTTP works on a client-server
transmission line. model, most of the data sharing over the web is done through using HTTP.
The following are the benefits of Bus topology: ## Transmission Control Protocol (TCP): - TCP lays out a reliable stream delivery by
1. Easy to install and use. using sequenced acknowledgment. It is a connection-oriented protocol i.e., it establishes a
2. Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails. connection between applications before sending any data. It is used for communicating
3. Less wiring is needed. over a network. It has many applications such as emails, FTP, streaming media, etc.
4. Economical to implement. ## User Datagram Protocol (UDP):- It is a connectionless protocol that lays out a basic
The following are Bus topology drawbacks: but unreliable message service. It adds no flow control, reliability, or error-recovery
1. Efficiency decreases as nodes increase (strength of signal decreases). functions. UPD is functional in cases where reliability is not required. It is used when we
2. A bus failure will result in network failure. want faster transmission, for multicasting and broadcasting connections, etc.
3. The bus's limited length means that only a certain number of nodes can connect to it. ## Border Gateway Protocol (BGP):- BGP is a routing protocol that controls how packets
4. As messages are broadcast to all nodes, there are more security concerns and risks. pass through the router in an independent system one or more networks run by a single
organization and connect to different networks. It connects the endpoints of a LAN with
2. Ring Topology: When two computers are connected to form a ring, the topology is other LANs and it also connects endpoints in different LANs to one another.
known as a ring topology. The message passing is circular and unidirectional. A fixed ## Address Resolution Protocol (ARP):- ARP is a protocol that helps in mapping logical
amount of time is allotted for each computer to access the network for transmission in this addresses to the physical addresses acknowledged in a local network. For mapping and
deterministic network topology. Each node is a part of a closed loop. maintaining a correlation between these logical and physical addresses a table known as
Ring topology has the advantages listed below: ARP cache is used.
1. Simple installation ## Internet Protocol (IP): - It is a protocol through which data is sent from one host to
2. Fewer Cables are needed. another over the Internet. It is used for addressing and routing data packets so that they
3. Minimizes the possibility of data collision. can reach their destination.
4. An easy problem to solve. ## Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP):- it’s a protocol for network
5. The access time is the same for every node. management and it’s used for the method of automating the process of configuring devices
The following are some drawbacks to ring topology: on IP networks. A DHCP server automatically assigns an IP address and various other
1. The network as a whole will collapse if one node fails. configurational changes to devices on a network so they can communicate with other IP
2. Slow data transfer rate as each message has to go through the ring path. networks. it also allows devices to use various services such as NTP, DNS, or any other
3. Getting more difficult to reconfigure. protocol based on TCP or UDP.
2. Network Management
3. Star Topology: A computer network topology known as a star topology connects each These protocols assist in describing the procedures and policies that are used in
node to a central hub. The hub or switch acts as a bridge between the nodes. Any node monitoring, maintaining, and managing the computer network. These protocols also help in
making a service request or offering a service must first get in touch with the hub. The other communicating these requirements across the network to ensure stable communication.
connected devices function as clients in a star topology, while the hub and switch serve as Network management protocols can also be used for troubleshooting connections between
a server. a host and a client.
The benefits of the star topology are as follows: ## Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP):- It is a layer 3 protocol that is used by
1. Less costly. network devices to forward operational information and error messages. ICMP is used for
2. Centralized management. reporting congestions, network errors, diagnostic purposes, and timeouts.
3. Simple to scale. ## Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP):- It is a layer 7 protocol that is used
4. Other nodes won't be impacted if one node fails. for managing nodes on an IP network. There are three main components in the SNMP
5. Easy to upgrade and reconfigure. protocol i.e., SNMP agent, SNMP manager, and managed device. SNMP agent has the
The following are some drawbacks of the star topology: local knowledge of management details, it translates those details into a form that is
1. The network will collapse if the primary device faults occur. compatible with the SNMP manager. The manager presents data acquired from SNMP
2. There are a limited number of devices in the network. agents, thus helping in monitoring network glitches, and network performance, and
troubleshooting them.
4. Mesh Topology: Mesh technology is a network configuration in which computers are Gopher. It is a type of file retrieval protocol that provides downloadable files with some
linked to one another by numerous redundant connections. There are numerous methods description for easy management, retrieving, and searching of files. All the files are
for transferring from one computer to another. It lacks a switch, hub, or any other central arranged on a remote computer in a stratified manner. Gopher is an old protocol and it is
computer that acts as a communication hub. not much used nowadays.
Mesh topology has the benefits listed below: ## File Transfer Protocol (FTP):- FTP is a Client/server protocol that is used for moving
1. Direct communication is facilitated by dedicated links. files to or from a host computer, it allows users to download files, programs, web pages,
2. There are no channel traffic issues. and other things that are available on other services.
3. Due to each node having its dedicated path, fault ## Post Office Protocol (POP3):- It is a protocol that a local mail client uses to get email
tolerance is good. messages from a remote email server over a TCP/IP connection. Email servers hosted by
4. Quick communication. ISPs also use the POP3 protocol to hold and receive emails intended for their users.
5. Maintains security and privacy thanks to a Eventually, these users will use email client software to look at their mailbox on the remote
separate communication channel. server and to download their emails. After the email client downloads the emails, they are
6. There are backup options in the network in case generally deleted from the servers.
a node fails. ## Telnet: - It is a protocol that allows the user to connect to a remote computer program
Mesh topology has the following drawbacks: and to use it i.e., it is designed for remote connectivity. Telnet creates a connection
1. Extremely high cabling is required. between a host machine and a remote endpoint to enable a remote session.
2. Implementation is expensive.
3. The network is difficult to install and takes up a lot of space.
3. Network Security: - These protocols secure the data in passage over a network.
4. Installation and regular maintenance are extremely difficult. These protocols also determine how the network secures data from any unauthorized
attempts to extract or review data. These protocols make sure that no unauthorized
5. Tree Topology: A computer network topology known as a "tree topology" is one in devices, users, or services can access the network data. Primarily, these protocols depend
which all nodes are either directly or indirectly connected to the main bus cable. Bus and on encryption to secure data.
Star topologies are combined to create tree topology. With a tree topology, the network is ## Secure Socket Layer (SSL): - It is a network security protocol mainly used for
split up into manageable segments that can be easily maintained. protecting sensitive data and securing internet connections. SSL allows both server-to-
The following are the benefits of Tree topology: server and client-to-server communication. All the data transferred through SSL is
1. Network coverage over a long distance. encrypted thus stopping any unauthorized person from accessing it.
2. Checking each hierarchy makes fault finding simple. ## Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTPS): - It is the secured version of HTTP. this protocol
3. There should be little or no data loss. ensures secure communication between two computers where one sends the request
4. A large number of nodes can be directly or indirectly connected. through the browser and the other fetches the data from the web server.
5. If one of the hierarchical networks fails, the others are unaffected. ## Transport Layer Security (TLS): - It is a security protocol designed for data security
The following are the drawbacks of Tree topology: and privacy over the internet, its functionality is encryption, checking the integrity of data
1. The cost of cabling and hardware is high. i.e., whether it has been tampered with or not, and authentication. It is generally used for
2. Implementation is difficult. encrypted communication between servers and web apps, like a web browser loading a
3. Hub cabling is also necessary. website, it can also be used for encryption of messages, emails, and VoIP.
4. A large network with a tree topology is difficult to manage. Q3. what is bit synchronization in a computer network?
5. It necessitates a lot of maintenance. Bit synchronization in computer networks refers to the process of ensuring that the
6. The network will fail if the main bus fails. receiver's clock is synchronized with the sender's clock so that data can be accurately
sampled and interpreted. In digital communication, data is transmitted as a series of bits (0s
6. Hybrid Topology: A hybrid topology is a computer topology made up of two or more and 1s), and it's essential that the receiver knows exactly when each bit starts and ends to
topologies. All topologies in this topology are interconnected based on their needs to form a decode the transmitted information correctly.
hybrid. Here's how bit synchronization typically works:- Clock Extraction: The receiver extracts
The following are the benefits of hybrid topology: the clock signal from the incoming bit stream. This clock signal helps the receiver determine
1. It can support a large number of nodes. the timing of each bit. Phase Adjustment: Sometimes, due to transmission delays or clock
2. It allows us to modify the network to meet our specific requirements. differences between sender and receiver, the phase of the received clock signal may be
3. Very Dependable. slightly off. Bit synchronization algorithms adjust the phase of the received clock to match
The following are the drawbacks of hybrid topology: the sender's clock. Bit Sampling: Once the clocks are synchronized, the receiver samples
1. The design is complicated. the incoming bit stream at the correct times, ensuring that each bit is interpreted accurately.
2. Implementation is costly. Error Detection and Correction: After synchronization, error detection and correction
3. MSAL (Mult station Access Unit) is required. techniques may be employed to ensure the integrity of the received data. Bit
synchronization is crucial in maintaining the integrity and accuracy of data transmission in
computer networks, especially in high-speed and high-volume communication systems
where even slight timing discrepancies can lead to data corruption or loss. Token Ring is a
type of local area network (LAN) protocol. It operates on a ring topology, where each device uses the entire bandwidth of the medium to transmit a single digital signal, while broadband
in the network is connected transmission divides the available bandwidth into multiple channels to transmit multiple
signals simultaneously
Q4. What is network design?
Network design, or network topology, is planning and mapping out the infrastructure of an
IT network. It requires identifying the various design requirements of the network and
creating a plan that is both aligned with those requirements and can be successfully Q8. what is signal transmission- digital signalling or analog signalling?
implemented. Network design is necessary because individual organizations will have Signal transmission refers to the process of sending data from one point to another,
unique requirements for their computer network. A network provides a way for many typically over a communication channel. There are two main types of signal transmission
computers to all be connected and exchange data with each other simultaneously. It allows methods: digital signaling and analog signaling.
members of organizations to quickly complete tasks, share information, and carry out any Digital Signaling:- In digital signaling, data is transmitted as discrete, binary signals
computing responsibilities that rely on a working network. Each organization needs to represented by two distinct voltage levels (usually high and low).
ensure that their network design is suitable for their needs. Digital signals are characterized by being less susceptible to noise and distortion compared
6 best practices for network design:- Here are six best practices for your organization’s to analog signals, making them more reliable for long-distance transmission.
network design: Digital signals can be easily processed and manipulated by electronic devices, allowing for
1) Simplify:- The best network designs have simple and straightforward connections, and more advanced communication protocols and error detection/correction mechanisms.
everything in the design serves a specific purpose. Avoid adding unnecessary components Common digital signaling techniques include pulse code modulation (PCM), phase-shift
to your network or making unnecessary connections. This will make it easier to set up, keying (PSK), frequency-shift keying (FSK), and amplitude-shift keying (ASK).
operate, and restore if ever needed. Analog Signaling:- In analog signaling, data is transmitted as continuous, variable
2) Secure:- Install firewalls to protect your organization’s network. The firewall allows you to signals that vary in amplitude, frequency, or phase.
view and prevent traffic coming to and from your network on your various endpoints. Analog signals are more susceptible to noise and distortion compared to digital signals,
Depending on the size of your organization, you may need a few firewalls, or one might be which can limit the distance over which they can be reliably transmitted.
enough. Despite their susceptibility to interference, analog signals are often used in applications
3) Document:- Record your network design and store it in your IT documentation. where the exact representation of a continuously varying physical quantity (such as sound
Company SOP’s and other instructions related to the setup and operation of your network or video) is required.
should also be documented. If anything needs to be altered, fixed, something goes wrong Common analog signaling techniques include amplitude modulation (AM), frequency
with your network, or if your IT environment goes into full disaster recovery, you will have modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM).
documentation provided to help you restore and operate your network. Both digital and analog signaling have their own advantages and disadvantages, and the
4) Consider scalability:- As your business grows, you will want to have your network grow choice between them depends on factors such as the nature of the data being transmitted,
with it to accommodate the growing needs of the company. Functionally design your the distance over which it needs to be transmitted, and the required reliability of the
network now so it has the ability to work well now and also change and evolve in the future. communication channel. In modern telecommunications, digital signaling has become
5) Monitor:- Continually monitor your network to ensure that all devices are working increasingly dominant due to its robustness, flexibility, and compatibility with digital
properly. Active monitoring supports network uptime because it gives you clear visibility of processing technologies.
what is operating efficiently and what might be lacking. If you can determine areas of Q9. What is OSI and IEEE 802 model?
weakness in your network design early on, you can fix those issues and update the design OSI Model: The OSI model is a conceptual framework developed by the International
in your organization’s documentation. Organization for Standardization (ISO) to facilitate communication between different
6) Make changes as needed:- Just because a network design has been finalized does not systems. It consists of seven layers, each responsible for specific functions in the
mean that it is unalterable. If a certain aspect in your network design isn’t working as communication process. These layers are:
effectively as originally planned, make changes to the design. Physical Layer: 1. The lowest layer of the OSI model.
Q5. Token Ring 2. Deals with the physical transmission of data over the network medium.
Token Passing: Token Ring uses a token-passing mechanism to regulate access to the 3. Concerned with characteristics such as voltage levels, cable types, and data rates.
network. A token is a special data packet that circulates around the ring. Only the device 4. Examples include Ethernet, Wi-Fi, and fiber optics.
possessing the token is allowed to transmit data onto the network. Data Link Layer. Responsible for node-to-node communication.
Token Rotation: The token circulates around the ring continuously, and when a device 2. Ensures reliable data transfer across the physical layer.
wants to transmit data, it must wait for the token to arrive at it. 3. Handles issues such as framing, error detection, and flow control.
Data Transmission: When a device receives the token, it can attach data to it and transmit it 4. Examples include Ethernet switches and Wi-Fi access points.
onto the network. The data travels around the ring until it reaches its destination, which can Network Layer: 1. Focuses on routing and forwarding data packets between different
be the intended recipient or another device that needs to forward it further. 2. Determines the best path for data transmission.
Acknowledgment: Each device along the ring checks the data as it passes by. If the data is 3. Provides logical addressing and internetworking capabilities.
intended for that device, it is copied, and an acknowledgment is sent back to the sender. If 4. Examples include IP (Internet Protocol) and routing protocols like OSPF (Open Shortest
the data is not intended for that device, it is passed along unchanged. Path First).
Token Reclaiming: After a device has transmitted its data, it releases the token back onto Transport Layer: 1. Manages end-to-end communication.
the network for other devices to use. 2. Ensures data reliability, flow control, and error recovery.
3. Segments and reassembles data into manageable units.
Q6. ATM 4. Examples include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram)
An Automated Teller Machine (ATM) is a widely-used electronic device that enables Session Layer:
banking customers to perform various financial transactions without the need for human 1. Establishes, maintains, and terminates sessions between applications.
intervention or visiting a bank branch. ATMs have revolutionized the way people access 2. Synchronizes dialogue between systems and manages data exchange.
their money, offering convenience and accessibility around the clock. Standing as a pillar of 3. Supports services such as session checkpointing and recovery.
modern banking, ATMs facilitate a range of functions, including cash withdrawals, balance Examples include RPC (Remote Procedure Call) and NetBIOS (Network Basic Input/Output
inquiries, fund transfers, bill payments, and more. System).
ATMs consist of several key components that work together to provide seamless services Presentation Layer:
to users. The primary element is the card reader, which scans and reads the information 1. Translates data into a format that the application layer can understand.
stored on the magnetic stripe or chip of the user's bank card. This allows the ATM to 2. Handles data encryption, compression, and protocol conversion.
authenticate the user's identity and access their account information securely. Additionally, 3. Ensures data syntax compatibility between different systems.
most ATMs feature a keypad or touchscreen interface where users input their Personal 4.Examples include encryption standards like SSL/TLS and data formats like JPEG.
Identification Number (PIN) to validate their identity further. Application Layer:
One of the most fundamental functions of an ATM is cash withdrawal. Users can access 1. Interacts directly with end-users and application software.
their available funds by selecting the withdrawal option, specifying the desired amount, and 2. Provides network services to applications such as file transfer, email, and web browsing.
confirming the transaction. The ATM then dispenses the requested cash, providing users 3. Implements protocols like HTTP, FTP, SMTP, and DNS.
with immediate access to their money. This feature is particularly valuable for individuals 4. Examples include web browsers, email clients, and file transfer programs.
who require cash on short notice or outside of traditional banking hours. The OSI model offers a standardized approach to network communication, allowing
Beyond cash withdrawals, ATMs offer a range of other services to enhance banking different vendors to create interoperable networking devices and protocols. However, in
convenience. Balance inquiries allow users to check the current balance of their accounts, practice, most network architectures and protocols do not strictly adhere to the OSI model.
providing real-time financial information without the need to visit a bank branch or access
online banking platforms. Moreover, many ATMs support fund transfers between accounts,
IEEE 802 Model:
The IEEE 802 model, developed by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
enabling users to move money between their various accounts or send funds to other
(IEEE), focuses specifically on local area networks (LANs) and metropolitan area networks
individuals securely.
(MANs). It comprises several submodels, each addressing different aspects of network
In addition to basic banking functions, ATMs have evolved to accommodate a variety of
communication:
advanced features and services. Many ATMs now support cash and check deposits,
IEEE 802.1 – 1. LAN/MAN Bridging and Management:
allowing users to deposit funds directly into their accounts without visiting a bank teller. This
2. Defines protocols for LAN/MAN bridging and network management.
functionality expedites the deposit process and reduces the need for manual intervention,
3. Specifies standards for spanning tree protocol (STP), VLANs (Virtual LANs), and link
enhancing overall efficiency.
aggregation.
Security is a paramount concern for ATM operators and users alike. To safeguard against
IEEE 802.2 - Logical Link Control (LLC):
unauthorized access and fraudulent activities, ATMs are equipped with robust security
Specifies the LLC sublayer of the data link layer.
measures. These may include encryption technologies to protect sensitive data,
Defines the frame format and procedures for error detection and control.
surveillance cameras to monitor ATM surroundings, and physical safeguards to deter
IEEE 802.3 - Ethernet:
tampering or vandalism. Furthermore, ATM networks employ sophisticated fraud detection
Defines the physical and data link layers of Ethernet networks.
systems to identify and prevent fraudulent transactions in real-time, safeguarding the
Specifies standards for Ethernet frames, cabling, and signaling.
integrity of the banking system.
Includes variants such as 10BASE-T, 100BASE-TX, and Gigabit Ethernet.
Q7. What is baseband and broadband transmission in computer IEEE 802.4 - Token Bus:
networks? Specifies a token-passing bus access method for LANs.
Baseband and broadband are two fundamental types of transmission methods in computer Designed for real-time applications requiring predictable access to the network.
networks: IEEE 802.5 - Token Ring:
## Baseband Transmission: - 1. In baseband transmission, the entire bandwidth of the Specifies a token-passing ring topology for LANs.
medium (like a cable or a wire) is used to transmit a single digital signal. Defines frame formats, token passing procedures, and ring maintenance protocols.
2. It is a digital transmission method where digital signals are sent without modulation IEEE 802.6 - Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):
directly over the transmission medium. Defines standards for MANs, typically larger than LANs but smaller than WANs.
3. Baseband transmission is typically used in local area networks (LANs), where distances Specifies protocols for high-speed data communication over metropolitan distances.
are relatively short and the signal does not need to be shared with other devices. IEEE 802.11 - Wireless LAN (Wi-Fi):
4. Ethernet networks, for example, commonly use baseband transmission. Defines standards for wireless LANs.
## Broadband Transmission: - 1.In broadband transmission, the available bandwidth of Specifies protocols for medium access control (MAC) and physical layer specifications for
the medium is divided into multiple channels, and different signals are transmitted Wi-Fi networks.
simultaneously over these channels. IEEE 802.15 - Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN):
2. It is an analogy transmission method where signals are modulated to different Defines standards for short-range wireless communication.
frequencies and then transmitted. Includes protocols such as Bluetooth and Zigbee.
Broadband transmission is commonly used in cable television (CATV) networks and in IEEE 802.16 - Broadband Wireless Access (WiMAX):
some older implementations of internet access, such as DSL (Digital Subscriber Line). 3. In Specifies standards for wireless broadband access in metropolitan and rural areas.
broadband transmission, multiple signals (such as voice, video, and data) can be Supports both fixed and mobile wireless communication.
transmitted concurrently over the same medium. 4. In summary, baseband transmission IEEE 802.22 - Wireless Regional Area Network (WRAN):
Defines standards for wireless communication in regional and rural areas.
Utilizes unused TV spectrum to provide broadband access over large geographic areas.
Each IEEE 802 standard addresses specific networking technologies and protocols,
enabling the interoperability of devices from different manufacturers within the same
network environment.
Q10. Define Hubs, Repeater, Bridge, and Multiplexer.
Hubs: - A hub is a simple networking device that serves as a central Q11 Define Routers,Brouters,Gateway,CSUs/DSUs?
connection point for multiple devices in a network. It operates at the physical Routers:- Routers are fundamental devices in network architecture designed
layer (Layer 1) of the OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model. Essentially, to forward data packets between computer networks. Acting as intermediaries,
a hub receives data packets from one device connected to it and broadcasts routers analyze the destination addresses of incoming data packets and
them to all other devices connected to the hub. determine the most efficient path for their transmission. This process, known
Hubs come in various forms, including passive hubs and active hubs. Passive as routing, relies on routing tables and algorithms to make intelligent decisions
hubs simply serve as physical connectors and do not amplify or regenerate the regarding packet forwarding.One of the primary functions of routers is to
signals. Active hubs, on the other hand, regenerate the signals they receive, interconnect multiple networks, such as local area networks (LANs) or wide
allowing them to extend the network range and connect more devices. area networks (WANs), enabling communication between devices across
However, hubs have largely become obsolete in modern networking due to disparate networks. Routers also provide network segmentation, enhancing
their limitations. One significant drawback is that they operate in half-duplex security and performance by dividing large networks into smaller
mode, meaning devices connected to a hub cannot transmit and receive data subnetworks.Modern routers often incorporate additional features beyond
simultaneously. This results in collisions and inefficient data transmission, basic packet routing, such as network address translation (NAT), quality of
especially in larger networks. service (QoS) management, and virtual private network (VPN) support,
Repeater: _ A repeater is another basic networking device that operates at expanding their capabilities to meet diverse networking requirements.
the physical layer of the OSI model. Its primary function is to regenerate and Brouters:- Brouters, short for bridge routers, represent hybrid devices that
retransmit signals to extend the range of a network. Repeater amplifies signals combine the functionalities of both bridges and routers. Bridges operate at the
received from one network segment and transmits them to another network data link layer (Layer 2) of the OSI model, facilitating communication between
segment, effectively boosting the signal strength and compensating for signal devices within the same network segment by examining MAC addresses. On
degradation over long distances. the other hand, routers operate at the network layer (Layer 3) and enable
The repeater's role is crucial in ensuring that data signals maintain their communication between different network segments or networks based on IP
integrity and reach their destination without loss or distortion. It helps addresses.Brouters integrate the capabilities of both bridges and routers,
overcome attenuation, which is the reduction in signal strength as it travels allowing them to forward data packets within the same network segment
through cables or other mediums. By amplifying the signals, repeaters enable based on MAC addresses (like bridges) and between different network
networks to cover larger geographical areas or span across multiple floors or segments based on IP addresses (like routers). This dual functionality makes
buildings. brouters versatile devices suitable for various networking environments.While
Despite their importance in network infrastructure, repeaters have limitations. brouters were prevalent in earlier networking architectures, advancements in
They do not possess the intelligence to filter or interpret data packets, and router technology have led to their decline in popularity. However, the concept
they cannot alleviate congestion or collisions in the network. Moreover, the of integrating bridging and routing functionalities remains relevant in certain
effectiveness of repeaters diminishes with each successive regeneration, as specialized networking scenarios.
noise and distortion accumulate in the signal. Gateway::- A gateway serves as an entry and exit point for data traffic
Bridge: - A bridge is a network device that operates at the data link layer between different networks or network protocols. Essentially, gateways
(Layer 2) of the OSI model. Unlike hubs, which broadcast data to all connected translate between different communication protocols, enabling interoperability
devices, bridges selectively forward data packets based on their MAC (Media between disparate systems that may employ incompatible protocols or
Access Control) addresses. By examining the MAC addresses in the incoming technologies.Gateways play a crucial role in facilitating communication
packets, bridges can determine whether to forward the packets to another between networks with distinct architectures or protocols, such as connecting
network segment or discard them. a local Ethernet network to the Internet or linking an IP-based network with
Bridges are commonly used to divide large networks into smaller segments, legacy systems using different protocols like SNA (Systems Network
known as collision domains, thereby reducing the likelihood of data collisions Architecture) or X.25.In addition to protocol translation, gateways often provide
and improving overall network performance. They facilitate the segmentation additional services such as data encryption, authentication, and traffic filtering,
of networks while still allowing devices within each segment to communicate enhancing security and control over network communications. These
with one another. capabilities make gateways indispensable components in heterogeneous
One of the key advantages of bridges is their ability to filter network traffic, network environments where seamless integration and interoperability are
which helps optimize bandwidth usage and reduce unnecessary network paramount.
congestion. Additionally, bridges can learn and store MAC addresses in a CSUs/DSUs:- Channel Service Units (CSUs) and Data Service Units (DSUs)
forwarding table, allowing them to make forwarding decisions more efficiently are components commonly used in digital telecommunications networks,
based on past traffic patterns. particularly in the context of leased lines or T1/E1 connections. Together,
Multiplexer: - A multiplexer, often abbreviated as MUX, is a device used in CSUs and DSUs perform the crucial task of connecting customer premises
telecommunications and networking to combine multiple signals into a single equipment (CPE), such as routers or multiplexers, to digital
transmission medium for transmission over a shared channel. At its core, a telecommunications lines.
multiplexer functions as a data selector, choosing which input signal to The CSU serves as the interface between the customer's equipment and the
transmit based on a control signal. digital telecommunications network, providing functions such as line
Multiplexers are particularly useful in scenarios where there is a need to conditioning, signal amplification, and error monitoring to ensure reliable data
transmit multiple data streams over a limited number of channels or physical transmission over the leased line.
connections. By multiplexing several signals into one, multiplexers help On the other hand, the DSU acts as the interface between the CSU and the
maximize the utilization of available bandwidth and optimize the efficiency of customer's data terminal equipment (DTE), such as routers or computers. The
communication systems. DSU is responsible for framing data into the appropriate format for
There are several types of multiplexing techniques, including time-division transmission over the digital line, handling clocking signals, and synchronizing
multiplexing (TDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), wavelength- data transmission rates between the customer's equipment and the
division multiplexing (WDM), and code-division multiplexing (CDM). Each telecommunications network.
technique employs different methods to combine and separate the signals at Together, CSUs and DSUs play a crucial role in establishing and maintaining
the transmission and reception ends. reliable connections over digital telecommunications lines, ensuring efficient
Time-division multiplexing (TDM) is one of the most common multiplexing data transmission and adherence to communication standards.
techniques, where each input signal is allocated a specific time slot within a
predefined time frame. The multiplexer cycles through the input signals Q. What is VPN?
sequentially, transmitting a portion of each signal during its respective time VPN stands for the virtual private network. A virtual private network
slot. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the combined signal back (VPN) is a technology that creates a safe and encrypted connection
into its individual components based on the timing information.
over a less secure network, such as the Internet. A Virtual Private
Frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) involves dividing the available
frequency spectrum into multiple non-overlapping frequency bands, with each Network is a way to extend a private network using a public network
band assigned to a different input signal. The multiplexer combines the signals such as the Internet. The name only suggests that it is a Virtual “private
by modulating them onto carrier frequencies within their respective frequency network” i.e. user can be part of a local network sitting at a remote
bands. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer filters out the individual signals location. It makes use of tunneling protocols to establish a
based on their assigned frequency bands.
Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) is similar to FDM but is used in
secure connection.
Q. What is the DNS?
optical fiber communications, where different wavelengths of light are used to
carry multiple data streams simultaneously over the same fiber optic cable. DNS is the Domain Name System. It is considered as the
Each input signal is assigned a specific wavelength, and the multiplexer devices/services directory of the Internet. It is a decentralized
combines the signals by multiplexing them onto different wavelengths of light.
At the receiving end, a demultiplexer separates the signals based on their
and hierarchical naming system for devices/services connected
respective wavelengths. to the Internet. It translates the domain names to their
Code-division multiplexing (CDM) is a multiplexing technique that assigns a corresponding IPs. For e.g. interviewbit.com to 172.217.166.36.
unique code sequence to each input signal before combining them for
transmission. The multiplexer combines the coded signals using a process It uses port 53 by default
known as spread spectrum modulation, which spreads the signals across a
wider frequency band. At the receiving end, a demultiplexer uses the
corresponding code sequences to extract the individual signals from the
combined transmission.
 switches or software configuration. This address is used to identify
devices on the network and facilitate communication between them.

Q13. Write a note on FDDI. Write the working and component af

ARC net .
## Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI):- Fiber Distributed Data Q14. What is Transmission mode and transmission
Interface (FDDI) is a high-speed network technology that uses fiber media
optic cables to transmit data. It was primarily designed for use in Transmission Mode:- Transmission mode, also known as
environments requiring high bandwidth and reliability, such as communication mode, refers to the way data is transmitted between
backbone networks in organizations. FDDI was standardized by the devices or systems in a network. There are three primary
American National Standards Institute (ANSI) in the 1980s and transmission modes:
became popular for its robustness and fault tolerance. Simplex Mode: In simplex mode, data travels in only one
Working of FDDI:- FDDI operates on a token-passing mechanism, direction, from the sender to the receiver, without any feedback or
similar to token ring networks, where a token is passed around the acknowledgment. This mode is comparable to a one-way street,
network, allowing devices to access the network in a sequential where traffic flows in a single direction. Examples of simplex mode
manner. Here's how FDDI works: include television broadcasting, where the viewer can only receive
Token Passing: The FDDI network consists of a dual information but cannot send any back.
counter-rotating ring topology. One ring is active, while the other Half-Duplex Mode: Half-duplex mode allows data
serves as a backup in case of a failure. A token circulates around transmission in both directions, but not simultaneously. Devices can
these rings, granting permission for devices to transmit data. Only either send or receive data at any given time, but not both
the device possessing the token can transmit data, ensuring orderly simultaneously. This mode resembles a walkie-talkie
data transmission. communication, where users must take turns transmitting and
Data Transmission: When a device wants to transmit receiving. Ethernet hubs operate in half-duplex mode.
data, it seizes the token and attaches the data to it. The token then Full-Duplex Mode: Full-duplex mode enables
travels around the network until it reaches the destination device. simultaneous transmission of data in both directions. Devices can
Upon receiving the token, the destination device extracts the data send and receive data concurrently, enhancing the efficiency of
and releases the token back onto the network. communication. This mode is akin to a two-way street, where traffic
Fault Tolerance: FDDI's dual-ring topology provides fault flows in both directions simultaneously. Examples of full-duplex
tolerance. If a break occurs in the active ring, the network communication include telephone conversations and modern
automatically switches to the backup ring, ensuring uninterrupted Ethernet switches.
data transmission. Additionally, FDDI supports self-healing The selection of transmission mode depends on the
capabilities, where the network reconfigures itself to bypass the specific requirements of the communication system. For instance,
faulty segment. applications requiring real-time interaction often utilize full-duplex
Data Rates: FDDI supports data rates of up to 100 Mbps, mode to enable seamless bidirectional communication.
making it suitable for high-bandwidth applications. It employs a Transmission Media: - Transmission media, also referred to as
Manchester encoding scheme to transmit data over the fiber optic communication channels, are the physical pathways through which
cables. data is transmitted between devices. Various transmission media are
Connectivity: FDDI supports a large number of devices, making it available, each with its own characteristics, advantages, and
suitable for large-scale networks. It also allows for the connection of limitations. The choice of transmission media depends on factors
multiple FDDI rings to create even larger networks. such as distance, data rate, cost, and environmental conditions.
MAC Layer: FDDI uses a variation of the IEEE 802.2 Here are some common types of transmission media:
Logical Link Control (LLC) protocol at the Media Access Control Twisted Pair Cable: Twisted pair cable consists of pairs
(MAC) layer to manage communication between devices on the of insulated copper wires twisted together. It is one of the most
network. prevalent forms of transmission media, known for its flexibility and
cost-effectiveness. Twisted pair cables are commonly used in
2 Components of ARCnet:- ARCnet (Attached Resource Computer Ethernet networks for short to medium-distance communication.
NETwork) is a local area network (LAN) protocol that was popular in Coaxial Cable: Coaxial cable comprises a central
the 1980s and 1990s. It is known for its simplicity and low cost, conductor, surrounded by insulation, a metallic shield, and an outer
making it suitable for small-scale networks. Here are the key insulating layer. It provides better shielding and higher data
components of ARCnet: transmission rates compared to twisted pair cables, making it
Media:- ARCnet can use various types of media for data suitable for cable television and broadband internet connections.
transmission, including coaxial cables, twisted pair cables, and fiber Fiber Optic Cable: Fiber optic cable utilizes optical fibers
optic cables. Coaxial cables were commonly used in ARCnet made of glass or plastic to transmit data using light pulses. It offers
installations due to their affordability and ease of installation. exceptionally high bandwidth, low attenuation, and immunity to
Topology:- ARCnet typically employs a bus topology, electromagnetic interference. Fiber optic cables are ideal for long-
where all devices are connected to a single coaxial cable. Each distance communication and high-speed internet connections.
device on the network has a unique address, allowing for targeted Wireless Transmission: Wireless transmission utilizes
communication. electromagnetic waves to transmit data without the need for physical
Network Interface Cards (NICs): Devices connected to an ARCnet cables. It includes technologies such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, and
network require a network interface card (NIC) to communicate with cellular networks. Wireless transmission offers mobility and flexibility,
other devices. These NICs contain the necessary hardware and making it suitable for mobile devices and remote communication.
software components to transmit and receive data on the network. Satellite Communication: Satellite communication involves
Access Control Mechanism: ARCnet uses a token-passing transmitting data via communication satellites orbiting the Earth. It is
mechanism similar to FDDI, where a token is passed around the used for long-distance communication, broadcasting, and global
network to control access to the transmission medium. Only the connectivity. Satellite communication is particularly valuable in
device possessing the token can transmit data, ensuring orderly data remote areas where terrestrial infrastructure is limited.
transmission. Microwave Transmission: Microwave transmission uses
Data Rates:- ARCnet initially supported data rates of up to high-frequency radio waves to transmit data between fixed locations.
2.5 Mbps, which later increased to 20 Mbps with the introduction of It is commonly used for point-to-point communication over relatively
ARCnet Plus. While not as fast as some other LAN technologies, short distances, such as in microwave links for telecommunications
ARCnet's simplicity and low cost made it attractive for small and network backhaul.
businesses and home networks.
Protocol Stack:- ARCnet uses a simple protocol stack
consisting of the physical layer, data link layer, and network layer. It
does not implement more complex networking protocols like TCP/IP
but instead relies on a straightforward communication protocol
optimized for its specific use cases.
Node Addressing:- Each device on an ARCnet network
is assigned a unique node address, typically set via hardware