PRINCIPLES AND THEORIES OF CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT

EDCI 211

DEFINATIONS AND MEANING OF KEY CONCEPTS IN EDUCATION

DEFINATIONS OF THE CONCEPT "EDUCATION"

By the end of this topic, you will be expected to be able to:

1. Discuss both the broad and comprehensive definitions of the concept of Education

2. Discuss the functions, types of stages of Education

1. EDUCATION CONCEPT

Broad Definition of Education

Curriculum represents the expression of educational ideas to practice. It is also aimed at

improving education. This makes in important to understand the meaning of education before
engaging in the study of curriculum.

Education has a variety of meanings and as it relates to curriculum, we can have

1. Broad definition of education

Under the broad definition of education can be defined as

i) Attendance of school or any other type of education institution

O Whether a student learns something or not is immaterial.

O The more years of education the better. This is commonly referred to as schooling.

ii) Education has also been defined as a means or process of acquisition of knowledge.

O A defined amount of knowledge has to be acquired when one attending school.

iii) A number of people also define education in terms of passing examinations. The more
examination one has passed the more educated one is.

IV) Education has also been taken to mean “to draw out” i.e. to facilitate the realization of self-
potential and latent talents of an individual.

v) The process of teaching to develop the knowledge, skills or character of students (Webster)

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Broad definitions of curriculum provide a general idea about what education is all but fail to
articulate concisely what education is. This is provided by comprehensive definitions that
capture what education all aspects of education

2. Comprehensive definition of education

i.) Oluoch (1984) gave a comprehensive definition of education as – The process of acquiring
and developing desirable knowledge, skills and attitudes’.

He underscored the importance of the following key terms used in the definition

a) Process – emphasize that that education is a continuous activity with several stages but have
an end.

b) ‘Develop’ - underscore the fact that acquisition of knowledge is not a one short affair. It
takes time to acquire an education.

ii.) Another comprehensive definition of education that is more complete as t gives the function
of education is -The process of acquiring the desirable knowledge, skills, and attitudes to fit well
in society and become a useful member of society.

iii) Education is also define as a process of bringing desirable changes in the behavior of human
beings

1. EDUCATION CONCEPT

1.1. FUNCTIONS OF EDUCATION

The functions of education can be summarized as follows

1. Intellectual functions

Enable man to awaken and have a taste of knowledge. Searching for knowledge to satisfy man’s
curiosity

2. Productive function

Provides individuals with knowledge, skills and attitudes that could be useful for economic
activities in society.

Makes an individual useful to the society because of the skills they possess.

3. Social functions

Taba (1962) summarizes functions of education as;-

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a) Process of preserving and transmitting preserving cultural heritage.

b) Instrument for transforming culture

4. Personal Function.

Serves in developing individual skills and talents for self-fulfillment.

1.2. TYPES OF FORMAL EDUCATION

There are basically four types of education namely;

1. Formal education

Hierarchically structured and chronologically graded education system provided in institutions of

learning in full time basis. It is well defined, systematic and given within a specified period of
time, usually by trained teachers and normally leads certification. It comprises primary education,
higher education and full time professional training.

It is referred to as mainstream or traditional education.

2. Adult education

This involves the practice of educating adults. Adult education is defined as the entire range of
formal, no formal and informal learning activities which are undertaken by adults after a break
since leaving education and training and which result in the acquisition of new knowledge and
skills’

It may be in a formal class, home-based learning, e-learning and self-directed learning. It is

flexible learner-oriented and built on learner participation. Adult education is also diversified in
content and method

3. Alternative education

This is an alternative approach to traditional/mainstream education. It is often rooted in several

philosophies that are quite different from that of mainstream education.

4. Special education

This is the type of education given to students who require special learning needs. These include
students with sight and hearing impairment among others.

1.3. STAGES OF FORMAL EDUCATION

There are basically four stages of formal education. These are;

1. Nursery education

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Referred to as pre-school and is the basic stage of formal teaching where children between 3-5
years of age are taught how to develop basic skills.

2. Primary education (elementary)

It consists of the first few years of structural formal education. Consist of 6-8 years of schooling
that usually starts from age 5-7 years.

Primary education is aimed at equipping learners with basic literacy as well as establishes
foundations in a variety of subjects such as mathematics science and social sciences.

3. Secondary education

It is the first stage of school education that is offered to adolescent children. It is characterized by
the transition from a comprehensive primary education to an optional and selective form of
training. The child develops in depth knowledge on specialized subjects.

4. Higher education (tertiary)

Non- compulsory education level comprising of undergraduate and postgraduate and is the most
specialized form of training in education system.

CURRICULUM

Narrow Definition of Curriculum

Curriculum originated from Greek word ‘curere’ which means to ‘run a course’. Curriculum has
therefore come to mean a course of study followed in learning. Some other narrow definitions of
curriculum are

· What examiners require teachers to emphasize in their teaching?

· What should be taught in a particular subject?

· Sum total of syllabuses of the school.

· Combinations of classrooms and out of classroom activities carried out in a school.

· Lessons and academic content taught in a school

· All courses offered in a school

· Prescribed course of study which students must fulfill in order to pass a certain level of
education.

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· Prescribed course of studies required in order receive a certificate

· A plan for teaching and instruction i.e. blueprint for instruction contact- Elizabeth Marcia
1965)

Broad definition of curriculum

Curriculum definition can take the form of descriptive, prescriptive or both. Prescriptive
definition of curriculum define curriculum in respect of what “ought” to happen and in most
cases describe curriculum as a plan, an intended program or some kind of expert opinion of what
needs to take place in a course of study (Elis, 2004). Some prescriptive definitions of curriculum
include:

1. All learning which is planned and guided by the school, whether carried out in groups or
individually inside or outside the schools. (Kerr 1968)

2. All learning experiences planned and directed by the school to attain its education goals

3. All activities in the school that are planned to enable the students acquire and develop the
desired knowledge, skills and attitudes. (Oluoch, 1984). There are other definitions by different
scholars

4. All planned learning outcomes for which the school is responsible (James Popham and
Ever Baker (1970)

Descriptive definitions of curriculum

Describe how things are in the classrooms and often use the term “experience”. Such definitions
provide a glance of the curriculum in action. Such definitions include

1. All experience children have under the guidance of teachers (Caswell & Campbell, 1935)

2. All experiences of the child for which the school accepts responsibility (Ragan, 1960)

3. All student school experiences relating to the improvement of skills and strategies in
thinking critically and creatively, solving problems, working collaboratively with others.
communicating well, writing more effectively, reading more analytically, and conducting
research to solve problems (Brown, 2006)

4. A curriculum is a “plan or program of all experiences which the learner encounters under
the direction of a school” (Tanner & Tanner, 1995).

It is important to note that the experience a learner undergoes in school is meant to influence
character building and moral training through physical activities and social responsibilities
organized by the school. Instruction in school subjects is only a part and not necessarily the most

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important part of the school curriculum. School curriculum is concerned with the whole moral,
intellectual, emotional and social development of a child.

Dimensions of curriculum

1. Formal dimension

Refers to the curriculum that is laid down as the syllabus to be learnt by students. It is the
officially selected body of knowledge which the government, through the Ministry of Education
or anybody offering education, wants students to learn.

Formal curriculum is an institutionalized activity and is articulated by the written document that
specifies what is to be taught and how it will be taught and evaluated. This is the curriculum
dimension that is ‘planned for’ or a predetermined part of the curriculum. Formal dimension of
curriculum is therefore the learning that is planned well in advance aimed at achieving some
specified goals.

It includes aims, goals and objectives, learning content, delivery strategies and methods of
evaluation. It is the course of study that is officially prescribed in the school syllabus

2. Non-formal curriculum

Consist of learning planned outside the formal learning system which is taken as part of the
school tradition. It is learning that is planned outside the formal learning system and includes
games, clubs, and youth organizations. It is not included in the syllabus and is a kind of learning
that does not lead to certification. It however contributes to the achievement of educational aims.
It is flexible, learner-centered and uses a participatory approach and is not designed for a specific
group of students. Learners in different grades learn together.

3. Informal curriculum

Consist of a guided aspect of informal learning activities that go on in the school at all times
(Olouch, 1989). Informal learning is a lifelong process that occurs through exposure to the
experience of day to day situations as students interact with the planned aspect of the school
curriculum. It is learning from life during play, exploring, during meals etc. It includes
assimilation of desirable habits by students from good examples deliberately given by the staff of
the school.

4. Hidden curriculum

It is sometimes called unstudied curriculum or implicit curriculum. It is those aspects of

schooling other than the intended curriculum that seem to provide changes in students’ values
perceptions and behaviors The change in students’ behavior may be positive or negative. It is a
non-academic but educationally significant component of schooling. The influence of the hidden
curriculum manifests itself in the student’s behavior and attitudes during and after completing
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school. It is usually remembered longer than the information learned formally in school. It
therefore should be acknowledged and treated as an integral part of the planned and guided
learning experiences.

Types of Curriculum

Glatthorn et al (2016) identify the following six types of curriculum

i) Recommended Curriculum

Curriculum recommended by individual scholars, professional associations, and reform

commissions. It stress on ‘oughtness’ of a curriculum identifying skills and concepts that ought
to be emphasized according to the perceptions and values.

ii) Written curriculum

Is the curriculum that is intended to primarily to ensure that the education goals of the system are
accomplished, it is more specific and comprehensive than the recommended curriculum.

It is a compromise between what the experts think should be taught and what teachers believe
can be taught under given prevailing circumstances.

iii) Supported curriculum

It is the curriculum as reflected in and shaped by the resources allocated to support and deliver it.
The resources critical in curriculum delivery include time, personnel, textbooks and other
learning resources.

IV) The taught curriculum

Taught curriculum is the delivered curriculum, a curriculum that an observer sees in action as
teacher teaches. It gives the degree of consonance (harmony agreement) of what is taught with
the written curriculum.

v) The Tested Curriculum

Ii the curriculum that is in material form (aligned) to standardized tests developed by the states.

VI) The learned curriculum

IT is all changes in values perceptions and behavior that occur as a result of school experiences,
Include What students understands, learns, retains from both the intentional curriculum and the
hidden curriculum.

vii) Excluded curriculum

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It is the curriculum that has been left out, either intentionally or unintentionally. Eisner (1979)
terms this the "null curriculum,"

Recommended reading

1. Thinking about curriculum. Curriculum Concepts and interactions of Curriculum types.

Aims , goals and Objectives

Aims Goals and Objectives.

The inclusion of the word “DESIRED” in the definition of education implies the existence of
something (objectives) at which learners are to aim. Objectives are therefore the first component
of curriculum. It is however important to distinguish between aims, goals and objectives

Aims

These are broad and general statements that provide direction or intent to education action. They
are usually stated in amorphous terms using words like learn, know, understand, and appreciate
which are not measurable.

Aims are normally broadly stated outcomes that are acceptable to virtually everyone who is
interested in the education program under consideration.

E.g. All students should become scientifically literate

Aims are important in communication with which many individuals may agree. However, aims
alone cannot be used to guide instructional decisions because they are too broad and general.
Aims provide direction but not a destination that a curriculum should plan to achieve.

Goals

Are statements of education intention which are more specific than aims. Goals relate a general
aim to some specific aspect of the curriculum. Like aims, goals are general and long term as
opposed to short term. They however provide a destination.

E.g. education should promote a positive attitude towards good health and environmental
protection. Goals connect aims to tangible aspects of the curriculum. Goals contribute to the
realization of aims.

Objectives

Objectives are usually specific statements of education intention which outline either general or
specific outcomes that are to be achieved in the short term. Objectives describe the specific

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behaviors the learners is to attain, the condition under which the behavior must be demonstrated
and the proficiency level at which the behavior is to be performed. Objectives are therefore
measurable. Objectives are important in that

1. They guide decision about the selection of content and learning experiences

2. Clarify what skills and abilities are to be developed at what levels

3. Enable teacher to communicate with students what they need to achieve.

Sources of Educational Objectives

Generally, there are three main sources of objectives: the learners, society and subject matter.

Let’s examine each in turn.

1. Learners as Sources of Objectives

In formulating goals and objectives, curriculum planners are concerned principally with the
needs of learners as members of society. Also important are their interests, and aspirations as
well as their potential.

Learners needs can be categorized into the following:

- Physical Needs

- Social Needs

- Psychological Needs

a) Physical Needs

The basic physical needs that should be provided to learners include food, clothing, shelter good
health among others. To meet these students’ physical needs educational objectives should be
formulated specifically to cater for areas of knowledge, skills and attitudes that will help meet
those needs.

b) Sociological Needs

These include affection from home, school and peers; acceptance, belonging, success, security,
status and respect.

c) Psychological needs

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The psychological aspects of the learners eg emotional needs should be taken into account when
formulating education objectives. Learners under special circumstance such as those with various
forms of disabilities and also the specially gifted should especially be considered

How to Identify Needs

Information about the needs of learners can be obtained by using the following methods among
others.

1. Social investigation approach can be obtained by the students’ observations done by the
investigator.

2. Students interviews can be very helpful in providing the required data on students needs
and interests, and their expectations of what to expect from school;

3. Parents interviews can also be used to provide further information about their children

4. Questionnaires could be used to provide usefully information on some aspects which

interviews could not provide.

5. Tests and school records will throw light on skills and knowledge of various students in
school.

Society as a source of objectives

- First the school is supposed to prepare the youth for the life in society. Hence the school
curriculum should reflect what goes on in society. E.g. cultural aspects of society should be
incorporated.

- Secondly, society provides support for education e.g. in funding resources etc and should
therefore be consulted in curriculum planning.

Thirdly, education should address the myriad of problems and cultural issues in society such as
unemployment, health issues such as HIV/Aids, and other vices such as corruption. All these
need to be part of a school curriculum.

Subject Specialists/Subject Matter as Source of Objective

These are experienced teachers and educators with adequate experience who are involved in
curriculum making. Subject specialists are crucial in the process of objective setting. This is
because they are the “custodians” of knowledge. Textbooks are written by subject specialists
among other reasons. Their contribution is therefore vital for curriculum objectives. They
determine which objectives, content and pedagogical practices would be suitable for learners at
different stages of development.

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Curriculum Content

Content or Subject Matter

This refers to the professional skills, knowledge laws and ideas to be learned during a
programme or course. Choice of subject matter is very crucial in curriculum making mainly due
to the explosion of knowledge.

Criteria for the selection of content

i) Validity- The content and learning experience should be correct, authentic or true and
accurate (Syomwene et al, 2017) Content should be meaningful to the learner based on maturity,
prior experience, educational and social value. This implies there should be a connection
between content and the goals which it is intended to serve. Content is therefore valid if it
promotes the outcomes that it is intended to promote.

ii) Significance- Content should contribute to basic ideas meant to achieve the overall aim of
curriculum and develop learning skills as set by the national curriculum (Ornstein & Hunkins,
1998). The material chosen should be sustainable in meeting certain needs and ability level of
the learners

iii) Needs and interest of the learners- Chosen content should be relevant to the student’s world.
It should also ensure learners are continually motivated

iv) Utility- Content should be useful to the learner in solving problems now and in the future
and empower the learner to be a useful member of the society.

v) Learnability- Content should be within the range of the experience of the learners. For
effective learning, the ability of the students must be taken into account at every point of
selection of content.

vi) Consistent with social realities( Relevant). To be a useful prescription for learning content
and the outcome it pursues needs to be in tune with the social and cultural realities of the time.
Related to learners real-life experience situations in and out of school.

vii) Economy. Should not require very expensive learning resources.

viii) Feasibility- content should be selected in consideration of time and resources available
including experienced teachers to handle the curriculum (Syomwene et al, 2017).

Principle to be followed in organizing content

1. Balance – Contest should be fairly distributed in-depth and breadth of a particular learning
area of discipline.

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2. Articulation – Each level of subject matter should be smoothly connected to the next. Glaring
gaps or wasteful overlaps in subject matter are removed. Each stage should build upon earlier
knowledge and achievements

3. Sequence – The logical arrangement of subject matters. Refer to the deepening and broadening
of contents as it is taken up in the higher levels. Subject matter should be arranged logically in a
hierarchical manner from easy to difficult, basic to complex and concrete to abstract

4. Integration – Horizontal connections in subject areas that are similar so that learning will be
related to one another. Arranged logically from easy to difficult, basic to complex, concrete to
abstract.

5. Scope. All the content topics learning experiences and organization thread comprising the
education plan

6. Continuity- Constant repetition, review and reinforcement of learning. Spiral curriculum

according to a Gerome Brunner

Learning Experience

Learning experiences refer to the interaction between the learners and the external conditions in
the environment which he/she encounters. Learning takes place through the active behavior
participation of the students; it is what the students are involved in that they learn and not what
the teacher does.

Learning experiences chosen should be the ones likely to produce given educational objectives
and also set up opportunity situations that will evoke or provide within the student the kinds of
learning experiences desired.

General Principles in Selecting Learning Experiences

1. Provide experiences that give the students opportunities to practice the behavior and deal
with the content implied.

2. Provide experiences that give satisfaction from carrying on the kind of behavior implied in
the objectives. Students need satisfying experiences to develop and maintain interest in learning.

3. Provide experiences that are appropriate to the student’s present attainments, his/her
predispositions. Learning experiences must fit the student’s needs and abilities. Teachers must
consider students' prior experience.

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4. There are many particular experiences that can be used to attain the same educational
objectives. There are many ways of learning the same thing. A wide range of experiences is more
effective for learning than a limited range.

5. The same learning experience should accomplish more than one l learning outcomes. While
students are acquiring knowledge of one subject content for a concept they should be able to
integrate the knowledge in several related fields

Curriculum evaluation

Curriculum evaluation refers to the formal determination of the quality, effectiveness or value of
the programme, process and product of the curriculum. Tyler (1949) defines curriculum
evaluation as a process of determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually
being realized. Doll (1992) further define curriculum evaluation as a continuous effort to
inquire into the effects of utilizing content and process to meet clearly defined goals.

Curriculum evaluation involves Not just gathering any information BUT information meant to
detect problems for modification of the curriculum program. That is gathering information to
arrive at a judgment about either the individuals involved in the curriculum program or the
curriculum program itself

The purpose of gathering data about strengthens or weakness of the program is to allow
curriculum experts to revise, compare, maintain or discontinue their action or program.

Foundations of Curriculum

Historical Foundation of Curriculum

Refer to factors and issues from the past that have an influence on the curriculum at present.
They form the basis of decision making and systematic growth of educational system. Both the
content and pedagogical practices are outgrowth of specific historical conditions. Historical
movements in education influence the current curriculum. It gives insights on the role of
curriculum in the achievement of nations as well as eliminates useless traditions.

Some majors forms of education in the part that are recognized globally in education are: -

Historical Landmarks that have Influenced Curriculum

a) Traditional education

- It's main aim is to pass the culture, traditions and practices of the people from one generation to
the next.

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- Helped man control his environment and master the forces of nature( Shiundu and
Omulando (1992)

- It is very conservative and aims at maintaining the status quos

b) Ancient Education

- Greek, Roman, Hebrew and Christian periods have influenced education.

- Greek education that was shaped by the works of Socrates and Aristotle had education
aimed at

i. Good citizenship for the populace, who would support and defend
the state and its laws.

ii. Development of a rational mind and creativity

Some of the theories used in education today at present such as Pythagoras Theory, Law of
gravity among others are a product of ancient education.

Early Christian

It was education that was a blend of Greek, Roman and Hebrew ideal and was taught to
Christians in churches ( Syomwenye, 2017). Placed emphasis on disciple, moral standards,
church doctrine, science, mathematics and astronomy (Shiundu and Omulando, 1992)

Early Modern Era including Renaissance Movement

- It was a period of renewal of education that coincided with the industrial revolution which
brought about a new order in economic, social and political development I society. There was an
increased desire for education which had a major focus on vocational education ( form of book-
keeping, business arithmetic.)

- Characterized by a desire to open education to the masses – led to the establishment of

humanistic schools which emphasized the study of man as a prerequisite to understanding man’s
roles and contribution in the society.

- Borrowed from Roman school’s curriculum that included good manners morals rhetoric and
composition in their curriculum

- Heights of renaissance saw the development of the university education in response to the
need of higher education.

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Reformation and enlighten era

- Greatly influenced by Martin Luther who advocated the replacement of the absolute
authority of the catholic with that of the Bible.

- Advocate that every person should read for themselves and independently interpret the
Bible.

- There was an emphasis on professionalism – proper training of teachers, teachers' conduct,

teacher payments and school staffing (Syomwene, 2017). These are important issues in our
education even today.

Scientific Movement

Lead to the philosophy of realism that advocated for classical literature, preparation of the
learner to the society and provision of appropriate environment stimuli (Syomwene, 2017).
Advocate for the application of scientific principles for management of education. Motivation of
teachers, students through reward, consideration of learners interest, pleasant atmosphere for
learning, use of a variety of learning resources and small manageable classes.

Modern (Progressive) Era

Coincided with the period when progressive philosophy of education was gaining root. Froebel,
Pestalozzi, Montessori, Comenius, Rousseau are scholars’ who are associated with modern era

- Emphasis was on a child-centered curriculum which necessitates a flexible and broad

curriculum. There was also an emphasis on practical skills

- Other areas that were emphasized are Non-formal curriculum activities and physical
training.

- The goal was a learning atmosphere that allowed children maximum self-creation and to
reduce teacher domination of the teaching-learning process.

Curriculum Theorists and their contributions.

http://simplyeducate.me/2014/12/03/six-famous-curriculum-theorists-and-their-contributions-to-
education/

Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum

Philosophy is a search for truth pursuit of wisdom or knowledge and ultimate reality.

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- A process of liberation from ignorance and prejudice – provide a framework for planning,
implementing and evaluating curriculum in schools. Philosophy is a crucial determinant of
curriculum trends and curriculum develop process by helping clarify our thought process.

The main philosophical thoughts are

1. Idealism

- Oldest – traced to Greek philosophers Plato and Socrates

- Advocates that ideas constitute what is real and permanent i.e. ideas are the only true reality.
Believe that matter is a notion of the mind. Man is therefore considered as a spiritual being and
because of this there is an emphasis on moral and spiritual growth

- Knowing is viewed as taking place in the mind. To know is to rethink the latent ideas that
are already present in the mind.

- Learning is a discovery process in which the learner is stimulated to recall the truth present
in the mind.

2. Realism

Traced to Aristotle. Refuse to agree that reality is construction of the mind. According to this
philosophical thought, everything can be explained in terms of natural causes.

- Realism views the world in terms of objects and matter.

- The universe is seen as a hierarchy where everything has a function as a result of inherent
potentialities. Man is at the top of the hierarchy because he is rational. They believe that people
come to know the world through their senses and reason.

- Everything is derived from nature and is subject to its laws.

- Believe that human behavior is rational when it conforms to the laws of nature and when it
is governed by physical or social laws.

According to this theory the ultimate goal of human beings is to develop their reasoning power.
Values arise from human interaction with the environment and as such, there is no absolute good
or evil.

1. Pragmatism (John Dewey – 1951 – 1952) also referred to as experimentalism)

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It is based on change, process and relativity. Pragmatism sees knowledge as a process in which
reality is changing. Learning is considered as a transaction where both the learner and the
environment are continuously changing.

Knowledge is based on experience and the use of the scientific method.

Argue that traditional education curriculum

Included a lot of meaningless and needless content

Did not give utility education.

Was rigid and did not cater for the individual needs of learners.

- Learners taught not what to think but how to critically think.

4. Existentialism ( advanced by Maxine Greene, George Heller among others)

It is defined as the philosophy of existence and advocates that man is nothing else but what he
made of himself. The philosophy stress on a man choosing the destiny

According to the existentialism philosophy, people are thrust into a number of choices making
situation. The choice is individual and the decision leads to personal self-definition and in doing
so makes his / her own essence. We are therefore what we choose to be.

Traditional Philosophical Foundation of Curriculum

Traditional Curriculum Philosophies

1. Peremnialism

General Principles

It is rooted in realism and in the oldest and most conservative education philosophy. The
philosophy is based on the believe that human nature is constant (Wiles, 2005). Thus knowledge,
virtue, beauty and truth do not change over time.

The second believe is that human beings have the ability to reason and to understand the
universal truths of nature (Ornstein & Hunkins, 1998).

Aims of education

The goal of education is to develop the rational person and to uncover the universal truths by
carefully training the intellect. Education also aims in character training as a means of
developing one’s moral and spiritual being.

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The Curriculum focus

1. Their curriculum is subject centered. They believe that students should be taught the things
that have everlasting importance to all people, everywhere.

2. Believe in the permanence of curriculum content and experience. Subjects taught for its
own good. To them ideas of western civilization have the potential of solving problems in any
era.

3. At the elementary level, the curriculum stresses the 3Rs (reading, Writing arithmetic). At
the secondary level Stress in liberal education with an emphasis on language, literature, and
mathematics. Logic rhetoric geometry.

4. Permanent studies comprise our intellectual heritage. There is an emphasis on reading of

great thinkers e.g. Plato, Aristotle in original language (Latin and Greek)

5. There is only one curriculum for all students with little room for elective subjects.

The role of the teacher

The teacher is viewed as an authority in the field where his knowledge and experience are
unquestionable. Teaching is the art of stimulating discussions to bring out the inborn rational
powers of students. Advocate Socratic method of teaching.

Students’ interests are considered irrelevant for curriculum development because the students are
immature and lack the judgment to determine what are the best knowledge and values for them.
Teachers help students think with reason.

The student mind is regarded as a sponge for absorbing knowledge.

2. Essentialism

General principles.

Essentialism is traditional and conservative philosophy rooted in idealism and realism

Advocates of this philosophy believe that education should be universal and that there is
essential knowledge that everyone in a given culture must have in order to be knowledgeable and
fully participate as member of that culture. Subject matter should therefore be taught for use.
Education concerned more with the present than the past. ( Kauchak & Eggen, 20110

Aim of education

To promote intellectual growth of the individual and educate the competent person

( Ornstein, 2005). Learners are educated to adjust to the changing world.

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Curriculum focus

1. The essentials at elementary are 3Rs, (Reading, writing, arithmetic)

2. Secondary – Five essentials comprising of English, Mathematics, science, history and

foreign language. Vocational subjects such as art, music, physical education are considered
wasteful.

3. Subjects in essentialism are not rooted in the past but are more concerned with the
contemporary scene.

4. Students are to be taught the same content regardless of ability.

Regard student mind as a sponge

Role of teacher

Master of a particular subject and model worth emulating and to be respected as an authority
because of the knowledge he has. ( Ornstein, 2005)

a) Rigid disciplinary in order to establish order in the classroom as an effective learning

cannot take place in a disorganized environment

b) Teacher must interpret the essentials of the learning process and control students with
distribution of rewards and penalties

Contemporary philosophies of curriculum

Contemporary Philosophies of Curriculum

1. Progressivism

General principles

It is rooted in pragmatism and progressivism. It bases its curriculum in the following principles: -

Education should be life itself not preparation for living.

Learning should be directly related to the interest of the learners.

Learning through problem-solving should take procedure over inculcating of subject matter.

Aim of education

The main aim of education in progressivism is to promote democratic social living

(Ornstein,2003) Subject matter is seen a medium of teaching life process skills and as such
schools are used to transmit the culture of the society.

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Curriculum focus

a) Since reality constantly changing, there is no need for a fixed body of knowledge.
Emphasis on ‘how’ to think and not ‘what’ to think.

b) Curriculum interdisciplinary in nature and book and subject matter part of the learning
process rather than the source of knowledge. There is an emphasis on social responsibility and
democracy.

c) There is a flexible curriculum and individualized instruction that stress on Learner-centered

teaching and learning.

d) The tools and skills of learning in this philosophical thought include problem-solving
methods and scientific inquiry, cooperative behaviour and self-discipline essential for democracy.
Through these skills and experiences, the school can transmit the culture of the society while
preparing the child for the changing world.

Role of the teacher

The teacher serves as a guide for students in their problem solving and scientific projects.
Teacher and student plan activities together but final authority rests on the teacher.

4 Reconstructionism

Have its root in pragmatism.

Critical on progressivism for putting too much emphasis on child-centered education. It

emphasizes on society-centered education that takes care of the needs of society.

General principles

Advocates of this philosophy believe that curriculum has to be transformed to be in line with a
new social-economic political education. Society is changing and so curriculum has to change
and teachers and students seen as agents of change.

Reconstructions education programs have the following characteristic: -

i. Critically examines the cultural heritage of a society as well as the entire

civilization.

ii. Is not afraid to examine controversial issues.

iii. It is deliberately committed to bringing about social and constructive change.

iv. Cultivate a future planning attitude that considers the realities of the world

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 v. It is very sensitive to global issues such as HIV AIDs Environmental
protection etc

vi. Emphasize that students should become oriented to other cultures

(Onzmon & Craver,1990)

Aim of education

Reconstruction aims at using the schools to improve and reconstruct society. ( Ornstein, 2005).
It is seen as a crisis philosophy, appropriate for a society in a crisis which is the essence of our
society.

They argue that teachers and students have a right to take sides, to stand up for the best reasoned
and informed partialities reached through examination of relevant evidence.

Curriculum focus

There is emphasis on social and behavioral sciences and social research methods as well as an
examination of social, economic and political problems. Subjects emphasized are History,
Political science, Economics, Sociology, Religion, ethics, Poetry, Philosophy. Science is given
very little emphasis. School are aimed at educating the learners on social injustices and
inequalities in society and how to solve them (Syomwene et al 2017). Curriculum change
constantly to address the changes in society.

Role of the teacher

a) Teacher serves as an agent of change and reform.

b) Help students become aware of problems confronting humankind

Recommended reading

http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED524740.pdf

Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychologists are concerned with establishing patterns in human behaviour so as to be able to

understand and predict behaviour. The insights gained from psychology that have a bearing on
the learning process is known as the psychological foundations of curriculum (Shiundu and
Omulando).

Psychological foundation provides the basis for understanding the teaching learning process
which is essential in curriculum development. This is because it is only when students learn and
understand the curriculum and gain knowledge and power to use it that curriculum has actual
worth.

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 Psychological foundation of curriculum aim at ensuring that learning experiences are introduced
to the learner when such exposure is most effective and beneficial. For this to be possible the
following has to be taken into account.

Capability of the learners

Maturation level of the learners

Students rate of learning as well as how they learn

Psychological foundation, therefore, becomes important in the development of content and

learning experiences in terms of

a) Sequencing- ensure that learning experiences match with the learner's stages of

Development

b) Organization- involve grouping of learning experiences for optimal effect

c) Methodology- deals with the question of what methods and approaches are likely to

Promote and guide learning most effectively.

Curriculum planners are guided by the following psychological principles of learning while
planning and developing a curriculum.

Learning is most effective when the learner is actively involved in the learning situations.

Effective learning situations require recognition of and provision for the purpose of the learning
(objective).

Learning is influenced by individual past experiences attitudes and values.

Learning is most effective when the learner is permitted to work in a threat free atmosphere.

Curriculum is influenced by: -

Behaviourism theory

Cognitive theory

Humanistic theory

Constructionist theory

Behavoiurism Theory

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Perspective on learning that focus on change in the individual’s observable behaviour-ie. It is
based on the proposition that people respond to influences in their environment

This theory supported by psychologist such as Pavlov, Thordike, Skinner and Bandura among
others .

Pavlov- learning is the result of an association formed between a stimulus and a response

Edward Thorndike contribution

Law of effect- If a response is followed by a pleasurable or rewarding experience, the response

will be strengthened and become habitual

Law of exercise- The connection between stimulus and response is strengthened with practice
and weakened when the practice is discontinued

Law of readiness- certain behaviors are more likely to be learned than others because the nervous
system of the organism is ready to make connections leading to a satisfying state of affairs

BF Skinner- emphasized on reinforcement and that learning is a function of change in overt

behavior.

Walter Bandura- The social learning theory emphasizes the importance of observing and
modeling the behavior, attitudes and emotional reactions to others.

Influence on curriculum

i) Use system rewards to encourage behaviour, provision of immediate and frequent feedback
when learning factual materials.

ii) Break down complex task into smaller and manageable sub-skills

iii) Sequencing material to enhance understanding.

iv) Having clearly stated objectives

v) Using a variety of learning materials as well as activities

vi) Provision of practice activities and review of activities to enhance mastery of

content

vii) Motivation and incentives

viii) Modeling the behavior students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations where
necessary

ix) Provision of immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult concepts

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Cognitive theories of learning

Focus on the mind or an attempt to show how information is received assimilated, stored and
recalled (Atkinson & Shriffin, 1968) Three stages of memory are Sensory, Short and Long term
memory. Those that advance this theory are Piaget, Ausubel etc

Sensory memory- receives information from various sources and the brain will only focus on the
information that has been attended to. It is very short and last for about ¼ second.

The short term memory- is where information is being attended and encoded. Encoding is
transforming information received into form that can be deposited or stored in memory.

Long term memory- where information that is encoded and rehearsed is stored. Long term
memory has unlimited capacity or storage area.

Influence on curriculum

a) Provide had outs

b) Write on the board

c) Present information in an organized manner

d) Go from simple to complex.

e) connect information to what is already known

Constructivism Theory (Jean Piaget, Bruner among others)

Concentrate on the perspective of learning that focus on how students actively create ( or
construct) knowledge out of experiences. The theory argues that a person learns by mentally
organizing and reorganizing new information or experiences. The organization happens by partly
relating new experiences to prior knowledge that is already meaningful and well understood.
Knowledge construction mechanism in constructivism theory include

1. Assimilation- fitting a new experience to an existing mental picture

2. Accommodation- revising an existing schema because of new experiences

3. Equilibrium- seeking cognitive stability through assimilation and accommodation

Influence on curriculum

a) Student’s autonomy and initiative are accepted and encouraged.

b) Respect of students ideas and encouraging independent thinking

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c) Students take responsibility of their own learning

d) Teachers challenge students to make connections, analyze, predict, justify and defend
their ideas

Humanism learning theories (Maslow, Carl Rogers)

Argue that a learner is a person who has feelings, attitudes and emotions. Emotions such as self-
efficacy, self-assurance intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determines how a student approach
learning.

Influence on Curriculum

a) Establish a warm democratic, positive and non-threatening environment in which learners

self-concept and esteem is considered an essential factor in learning.

b) Teachers set a good role model and set a good example.

c) Teacher and students plan together experiences and activities of the curriculum.

Recommended reading

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.963.2908&rep=rep1&type=pdf

Sociological Foundations

It encompasses the systematic study of groups and institutions in the culture with reference to
their contribution to the process and growth of education systems as well as the established
practice in the school system. (Shiundu & Omulando, 1992).

Schools exist within a given society and the graduates go back to society. Therefore society is an
inevitable determinant of curriculum.

Education according to Dewey is a means of both perpetuating (transmitting) and improving

(transforming) society. Therefore schools, through their teaching the curriculum, can alter the
society and on the other hand society can mould the school and its curriculum.

To perpetuate and improve society, curriculum planners have to be very selective in determining
and organizing the experiences of learners.

In planning the curriculum information from the society is used to determine

i. The kind of knowledge, skills and competence that youth in society will need so that they
can cope with tasks and roles in that society.

ii. The problems prevalent in society for which education should provide

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Sociological foundation of curriculum therefore forms and important basis in determining the
purpose of curriculum. In determining the purposes of curriculum the characteristic of the
students experiencing the curriculum are taken into account. These include: -

i. The social structure of which a student is a part dictates the relevance of the
curriculum.

ii. Aspiration of the students

iii. Effects of environment and mental development

Other social aspects that affect curriculum include: -

a) Ethnic and cultural diversity- The unique characteristics of people from different cultures
who interact ought to be preserved rather than blended together.

b) Changing values and morality-changes on values on family where single parent families
have been considered as a complete family.

Changes on Morality- single-sex marriages, selfishness and greed leading to corruption. Changes
from frugality to conspicuous consumption- School curriculum should include moral judgment
aimed at showing the learners the need live according to principles of equity, justice, caring and
empathy. Other institutions and agencies such as family, religious institutions and media should
assist in this endeavor.

c) Political development

d) Environmental protection in order to control nature and use it for comfort, convenience and
safety.

e) Family. The mobility of family members means the close ties among family members is no
longer strong. Moral guidance is given by grandparents, aunties, uncles in most cases is
nonexistent. With both parents working among middle-income families means that children are
left under the care of unreliable hired caregivers who may not necessarily inculcate the family
desired values. Important social values such as honesty, respect, humility among others are not
instilled at home and the school non-formal and informal curriculum ought to take the roles the
family inculcating these values.

f) Micro-electronics revolution – Computer based technology has permeated our lives to an

extent it part of our life,- for example mobiles phones and operation done through them such
banking, purchases of goods and services have made a mobile phone and it applications a
constant Kenyan companion. Learners will therefore require skills in computer based technology
to be able fit well in the fast changing information era.

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g) Changing world of work- Skills demanded in the job market changing rapidly and
curriculum has to respond to these changes. Computer course a core unit in all courses at the
university. Skill of working with minimum supervision and some time at home demanded-
Learning of skills that would lead to self-employment in the vogue due to shrinking job
opportunities in our economy.

h) Global interdependence

i) Ethnic cultural diversity

j) Religion

k) Equal rights – necessitate having the curriculum create awareness of the basic human rights
to students and empower them to demand for them.

l) Crime and violence- Criminal gangs, family violence, corruption and terrorism are major
security threat in Kenya. Curriculum need to create awareness and the dangers these vices pose
to the peace and tranquility in the country

m) Lack of purpose and meaning- lack of parental guidance coupled with the resultant stress,
poverty, crime make the youth indulge in drug abuse and premarital sex. School curriculum
need to address this.

In planning the curriculum, sociological foundation attempt to design a curriculum that meet the
following social needs.

Promotion of national integration

Acceleration of the process of modernization

Eradication of the social inequalities

Technological Foundation of Curriculum

Technology major issue in the 21 first century and keep evolving with time (Syomwene 2017)
but have some influence in the curriculum. It can be manifested in education in two main ways_

i) Introduction of technology based subjects- eg Computer science, packages ,

Provide learners with computer literacy and skills required in the work place

ii) Integration of technology in the curriculum in the teaching learning process

Syomwene point out that technology integration can be carried in schools in the following ways

a) Content being presented using technology- power point, videos, radio etc

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b) Use of –learning approach

c) Use of e-learning resources especially Open Education Resources (OER)

d) Email communication with students

e) Access and submission of assignment via email or online

f) Registration of courses and examination online

Use of technology in learning hampered by a number of problems which include

- Limited internet network coverage

- Fear of technology by some teachers

- Lack of technology hardware such as computers, printers, projectors

- Outdated computer hardware

- Limited number of skilled teachers in technology

Tyler's Curriculum Model

Introduction

Curriculum design is the structure or pattern of organization of curriculum. It refers to the way in
which the component parts or element of curriculum have been arranged in order to facilitate
learning. These elements are: -

i. Aims, goals and objectives

ii. Subject matter

iii. Learning experiences

iv. Evaluation approaches

The nature of these components and the manner in which they are organized in the curriculum
plan comprises the curriculum design. Though most curriculum plans have within their design
these four essential elements, they are not given equal weight.

Models of curriculum design.

They are graphical representation of how curriculum is developed. The earliest model of
curriculum development was formulated by Tyler in 1949. He began asking four questions

Page 28
1. What education purpose should the school seek to attain?

2. What education experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?

3. How can these education experiences be effectively organized?

4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

The four questions raised by Tyler can be formulated into a four step process by which
curriculum is developed as shown below.

Tyler model In the Tyler model, the objectives form the basis for the selection and organization
of learning experiences. They are derived from the learners; contemporary society and the
subject matter are also for of basis for assessing curriculum.

The model is linear starting with objectives and ends with evaluation. The emphasis in this
model is on objectives since all the other steps depend on it. According to Tyler three sources of
education objectives are considered;

These are;

1. Study of the learners- their needs at interests

2. Contemporarily society life

3. Suggestion from subject specialists

From these sources the designer comes up with education purposes/general objective. They are
subjected to a screening process using philosophy of education and psychology of learning as
major screens.

The philosophical screens answers questions on values essential to a satisfying and effective life-
such as whether there should be different education systems for different classes in society,
whether general education for citizens or specific vocational preparations,.

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Psychological foundation answers questions on what can be possibly be learnt and what stage,
when it might best be learnt and at what stage when it might be best learned, how long it might
take, what multiples purposes might be served by same learning experience.

This yields a number of specific objectives that can be focused on in education.

Strengths of Tyler’s Model

1. Emphasize on starting with clearly defined objectives

2. Learners are actively involved in learning

3. Have a simple linear approach to development of objectives

Kerr's Curriculum Design Model

Resembles Tyler & Wheelers model. Kerr however divide the domains into four arrears.

a) Objectives

b) Knowledge

c) Evaluation

d) School learning experience

The four domains in Kerr’s model are interrelated directly or indirectly. Objectives are derived
from school learning experiences and knowledge.

Curriculum Objectives

According to Kerr model the first step is defining the curriculum objectives. The objectives are
divided into three groups mainly affective, cognitive and psychomotor.

Knowledge

The second step is deciding on content to be taught referred to as knowledge. Further Kerr
suggest that knowledge should be organized, integrated, sequenced and reinforced. This is
achieved through unity, repetition and order.

Unity means to establish a connection within the field of knowledge

Repetition involve repeating of certain curriculum elements

Order-every new learning experience established on prior learning experience

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The activity in knowledge stage includes choosing and organizing content so as to achieve
school objectives.

School Learning Experiences

School Learning Experiences by which pupils gain knowledge are selected. Learning experience
are influenced by societal opportunities, the school community, pupil teacher relationship,
individual differences, teaching methods, content and maturity of the learners.

Evaluation

Evaluation in Kerr’s model is the collection of information for use in making decisions about the
curriculum

Kerr contends that four domains are interrelated directly or indirectly and that objectives are
delivered from school learning experiences to knowledge. Kerr asserts that everything influences
everything else and that it is possible to start an analysis at any point

Hilda Taba Model of Curriculum Design

Hilda Taba (1962) Model of Curriculum Design

She conceptualize the four element of curriculum suggested by Tyler

a) Objectives

b) Content

c) Learning Experience

d) Evaluation

Like Tyler, emphasis is placed on the objectives which is the first step in developing a
curriculum. However, the teacher develops the curriculum taking care of the learners needs. She
also suggest inclusion of content as an element in curriculum. Her approach is referred to as
grass root approach as it involves teachers as active participants in decisions made curriculum
development. This is as opposed to top-down approach.

She proposes the following seven steps

1. Diagnosis of needs. Teacher identifies the needs of the learner

2. Formulation of objectives. Done by the teacher based on the learners needs

3. Selection content- match the objectives, be valid and significant

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4. Organization of content- done In a sequence based on learners maturity, their academic
achievement( prior knowledge) and interest

5. Selection of learning experiences- teacher chooses instruction methods that engages the
learners with the content

6. Organization of learning experience- should be organized and sequenced.

7. Evaluation and means of evaluation- determine whether objectives have been met but also
specifies the means of doing so.

Drawbacks of the approach

- Teachers may not have the skills in preparing a curriculum

- All Schools may not have the required resources

Further reading

http://tspoetter.weebly.com/uploads/9/5/8/7/9587563/smith_taba.pdf

Activity

Discuss the questions on curriculum models on the website forum by giving your answer to any
of the two questions in a sentence or two. Avoid repeating what others have said but you can add
more information on any of the answers given. You could also agree or disagree with a any of
the information given by your colleagues. Click on reply to post your comment

SUBJECT CENTERED DESIGN

This is the design of curriculum in terms of subject matter e.g. science, mathematics curriculum
or in terms of class level e.g. primary or secondary should curriculum. Emphasis is placed on
separate academic area/subjects. The content or skills to be mastered are divided into subjects
with a logical order.

a) Assumes that subjects are best outlined in textbooks.

b) Emphasis on verbal activities. The argument is that knowledge is best communicated and
stored in verbal form.

Advantages

a) Teachers comfortable with its due to their college experience that orients them to subject
design

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b) Textbooks and other materials are easily available as they are organized per subject

c) Make specialization possible because full intellectual power can be developed

d) Easy to administer

e) Easy to evaluate

Disadvantage

a) Fragments knowledge

b) Relationship between subjects is not provided

c) Constraint of time may not allow teaching of many subjects

d) Does not give learners chance to choose content that is most meaningful to them.

e) Stress on subject found to foster social, psychological to physical development

f) Foster scholarly elite, a ruling class based on knowledge

a) Stress content and neglects students needs, interests and experiences

b) In delivery the students are in most cases passive in learning

To address the above short comings, some variations of subjects centered designs have come up
with these;

a) Broad field curriculum

This design is also called interdisciplinary design. It aims at reducing fragmentation of

knowledge by integrating content that appears to fit together logically.

Integration of content makes the learner to see the relationship among various elements of
curriculum. It also saves times.

It however encourages shallow coverage of content

Core- curriculum

Refer to areas of study that are required by all students. Consists of common concepts, skills and
attitude needed by all individuals in order to function effectively within the society.

Advantages

· Emphasize core values to be inculcated to learners

· Combine subject matters with the realities of life.

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· Unify subject matter for studying social issues and problem areas related to individual (or
society).

· takes care of social needs and interest of learners

· Provided for equally in education

Disadvantages

· Sends messages that core subjects are the most important.

· Does not take care of different ability level of learners because the core is mandatory for
all.

· Does not take care of the interest of the learners

Learners centered design

Emphasize the development of the individual. The organization pattern grows out of needs,
interest and purpose of students. A learner is not a passive individual but engages with the
environment.

Teacher’s roles are to discover the needs and interests of the learners and help them select the
most significant learning experiences.

Curriculum cannot be preplanned and mostly focus on problem solving.

Advantages

· Needs and interest of the learners are considered resulting in intrinsic motivation.

· Curriculum is relevant to the student world

· Students individual differences are taken care of

Disadvantages

· Difficult in time tabling

· It is expensive in terms of resources

· It is in some cases shallow

· It difficult to derive common education goals

· Lack of textbooks geared towards this type of design

Problem Centered Curriculum Design

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Problem centered designs focus on the problem of living within the individual and society. These
are varied depending on a number of factors such as persistent life situations, major social
reforms, and contemporary social values.

Characteristic of problem centered design

• Present subject matter in integrated manner cutting across the separate subjects.

• Encourage problem solving procedures

• Present content in a functional form

Disadvantages

• Difficult to determine scope and sequence

• Lack integration and continuity because the units are developed around separate areas.

• Does not provide adequate exposure to the cultural heritage

• Lack of textbooks.

Introduction to Curriculum Develpoment

Curriculum development is used to describe the building of a curriculum. It has been defined as

1) The planning of learning opportunities intended to bring about certain changes in the learner.

2) It has also been defined as a systematic process of determine the content to be imparted, the
pedagogy suitable for doing so, the structure through which it may be carried out most
effectively and determination of how such process will be evaluated (Rodman 1970)

Different scholars propose varied steps for the process e.g.

1. Information gathering

2. Project formulation.

3. Curriculum planning

4. Selection and development of materials and equipment

5. Try out.

6. Implementation

7. Project evaluation

Page 35
Shiundu and Omulando (1992) had the following stages

1. Situation analysis formulation of objective a setting up of curriculum project programme

building.

2. Piloting

3. Improving the new programme

4. Implementation

5. Evaluation

6. Maintenance

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS BY KICD (KIE ,2007)

The steps are as highlighted in the chart below

Policy decision/formed request Needs assessment

Conceptualization and policy formulation

Formulation of curriculum design

Development of the syllabuses

Development to selection of teaching and learning materials.

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Teacher preparation

Piloting

Curriculum implementation

Curriculum monitoring and evaluation

1. POLICY/FORMAL REQUEST

It entails considering a policy statement from MOE, that a new curriculum need to be developed
or the existing one needs revision in order to address some needs that have arisen or are felt.
They may be as a result of a report of an education commission or a presidential working party
or seasonal paper. Input of industry is also important to ensure that skills included in the
curriculum are marketable and match the skills required in the industry.

2. NEEDS ASSESSMENT

A need in the curriculum field in situation where there is discrepancy gap between ‘what is’ and
‘what ought to be’ need assessment attempt to establish the gaps in the existing curriculum or
specific needs of a target group. The finding facilitate the review or development of a curriculum,

It involves systematic investigation that correct data to establish learner’s needs. Data collected
inform whether curriculum change is necessary/ feasible.

Information sought may be from;

1. Society and its view on education.

-Education and philosophy of the country

- Learners’ needs

- Parent’s aspiration of their children.

- Employment opportunities now and in the future.

-Society resistance to curriculum change.

2. Data on schools and education system

- number of schools, pupils, gender

-Cost of running the school systems

Page 37
3. Policies and practices followed in schools systems eg examination system Sources of
information

- Information from policy documents

- Proceeding in parliament.

- Newspaper/magazines

- Research papers

- Government reports and circulars

- National Commissions or Committees

- Observations of learning taking place in schools.

- Interviews and the questionnaires

The need assessment and intensive situation analysis assist curriculum developers in coming up
with the curriculum development objectives.

The objective derived should be in the three domains;

Ø Cognitive/intellectual

Ø Psychomotor

Ø Affective

The objectives should also be SMART.

Specific, measurable, achievable, result oriented and time bound

The objectives are important because they;

- Assist curriculum planners in developing purposeful programmes

- Justify the needs for providing education and therefore solicit support for it.

- Guide the education process in selection of content, learning experiences teaching

methods and evaluation approaches.

- Provide a basis for education in determining the extent to which educational or

instructional programme is useful.

3. CONCEPTUALIZATION AND POLICY FORMULATION.

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It includes the process of formulating policies related to the curriculum to be developed. The
participants include KICD, relevant authorities and stakeholders in education sector. The results
of the needs assessment stage provide a basis on which proposed curriculum reforms or
interventions are discussed and binding policy decisions are made to address all aspects of the
curriculum to be developed. This stage involves interrogation of a country’s goals of education
and levels of competencies expected to be achieved through the new curriculum. This stage
provides a platform for education policy makers and stakeholders to come to a consensus on a
common direction for a given curriculum in terms of addressing the required social-political,
cultural, economic, scientific and technological needs of a country.

1. FORMULATION OF CURRICULUM DESIGN

Curriculum content is generated guided by and considering the competencies to be acquired by

the learners. Subject specialists meet to generate general objective, selection, sequencing and
organization of subject matter to be taught in each subject.

Also provide guidance on suggested assessment, the resources required to implement the
curriculum and time adequate for the coverage of the planned content

Factors that influence curriculum design are

a) Teachers individual characteristics

b) Application of technology

c) Students cultural background and social economic status

d) Interaction between teachers and students

e) Classroom management

2. DEVELOPMENT OF SYLLABUS

Subject specialists develop the syllabuses for the various subjects in the curriculum. They outline

- Objective of the subject

- The actual content to be covered

- The sequence to be followed

- The support material required

- Recommended instruction methods to be used

Page 39
- Suggestion on evaluation

The syllabuses developed are validated and approved by the course panel committee and
academic committee before dissemination to the implementing institutions.

3. DEVELOPMENT OF CURRICULUM MATERIALS

Accompanying learning and teaching support materials and resources are developed. These are
textbooks, teacher guide, maps, charts and models.

Included also are audio-visual and digital content which facilitate interpretation and
implementation of the curriculum.

Commercial publishers develop course books, teachers guide and other supplementary
curriculum support materials. Course books are vetted by KICD.

KICD develops instructional materials for subjects and areas where publishers do not develop
and submit such materials.

4. PILOTING/PHASING

It involves trying out the new curriculum in few carefully selected schools. This is followed by
evaluation of the pilot project during and after the trial period. Analysis of evaluation results
determines the efficacy and efficiency in achieving the set objectives.

Decision as to whether to revise, improve adjust or even shelf the new curriculum are made.

Phasing in phasing has been used by KICD where the old curriculum was gradually removed or
phased out and the new introduced on its place gradually.

Piloting involves;

1. Selection of schools to be involved

2. General information and briefing

- General public, teacher education (TAC Tutor)

3. Preparation of try out teachers

4. Supply of materials of equipment

5. Presenting the new materials

6. Gathering and analysis feedback

7. Modification of materials to equipment

Page 40
8. PREPARATION CURRICULUM IMPLIMENTERS

Involves orienting and retraining of teachers so that they have necessary knowledge and skills
and have positive attitude towards the new curriculum which they are expected to adopt and use
in schools.

TOT are educated at the national level and they in turn train teachers at the lower levels in a
cascading fashion.

9. CURRICULUM IMPLEMENTATION

This involves rolling out of the new curriculum nationally. Syllabuses and all the necessary
curriculum support materials are made available to the schools and other implementing
institutions and relevant guidelines on implementation given.

Oluoch (2007) identified nine-sub-processes in curriculum implementation

- Persuading people

- Keeping the public informed

- Educating the teachers

- Educating teachers educators

- Provisions of necessary facilities and equipments

- Supply of curriculum materials

- Actual presentation of new curriculum

- Instituting appropriate assessment methods.

- Continuous support of teachers.

10. CURRICULUM EVALUATION AND MONITORING

Monitoring of curriculum implementation is a continuous activity done by Quality Assurance

and Standards Officers (QASOs) where teachers are given continuous support with the focus
being on ensuring that the objective, content, methods of instruction and assessment procedure
are being carried out effectively.

Evaluation is a time bound activity that is done during and at the end of curriculum
implementation to find out the extent to which curriculum objectives have been achieved or are

Page 41
being achieved. Overall success or failure of the curriculum programmes in terms of expected
outcomes is also determined by evaluation

Panel System and Curriculum Approval Process by KICD

Subject Panels

The Subject Panel shall comprise of subject specialists who are drawn from practicing teachers,
teacher trainers, the Directorate of Quality Assurance and Standards, the Kenya National
Examinations Council, Universities, Faith Based Organizations, representatives of relevant
ministries and other interest groups. Each subject panel shall be chaired by an appropriate subject
specialist appointed by the KICD Council.

The functions of the Subject Panel shall be to:

a) initiate and guide appropriate curriculum development activities in the relevant

subject;

b) keep the existing syllabuses in the subject or curriculum area under constant
review and make recommendations to the Course Panel;

c) review teaching and learning materials and make recommendations to the

Course Panel;

d) keep assessments and examinations in the relevant subject areas under constant
review and make recommendations to the Course Panel; and

e) develop curriculum support materials.

5.2.2 Course Panels

(i) Basic Education Course Panel

There shall be a Basic Education Course Panel which will be comprised of technical experts
drawn from early childhood development and education, primary education, secondary education
and tertiary levels of education. The Basic Education Course Panel shall be chaired by the
director in-charge of quality assurance and standards in the Ministry of Education.

The functions of the Basic Education Course Panel shall be to:

a) keep the Basic Education curricula under constant review and make
recommendations to the Academic Committee;

b) coordinate and guide the activities of the Basic Education Subject Panels; and

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c) Where applicable, liaise with other institutions and agencies involved in human
resource development.

(ii) TIVET Course Panels

a) Technical, Industrial and Applied Sciences Course Panel

There shall be a Technical, Industrial and Applied Sciences Course Panel which will be
comprised of experts from technical, industrial and applied sciences. It shall be chaired by the
Director, Technical Accreditation, Quality Assurance and Standards.

b) Business, Hospitality, Commercial and Allied Trade Areas Course Panel

There shall be a Business, Hospitality, Commercial and Allied Trade Areas Course Panel which
will be comprised of experts from Business, Hospitality and related trade areas. It shall be
chaired by the Director, Technical Accreditation, Quality Assurance and Standards.

The functions of the TIVET Course Panels shall be to:

a) examine the curriculum in broad TIVET areas;

b) keep the TIVET curricula under constant review and make recommendations to the
Academic Committee;

c) coordinate and guide activities of the TIVET Subject Panels; and

d) where applicable, liaise with other institutions and agencies involved in human
resource development.

Functions of KICD

Read the functions from the link on KICD website below. In addition learn more about KICD
and especially on its history and services it offers from the website.

http://kicd.ac.ke/about-us/kicd-functions.html

CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Definitions

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1. Tyler (1949) defines curriculum evaluation as a process of determining to what extent the
education objectives are actually being realized.

2. Doll (1992) define curriculum evaluation as a continuous effort to inquire into the effects
of utilizing content and process to meet clearly defined goals.

3. Ornestein & Hankins (1998) defined curriculum evaluation as a necessary cluster of

activities in which curriculum developers and implementers gather data to arrive at a judgment
about either individuals, experiencing the curriculum (called assessment) or curriculum programs
in general – evaluation.

The information generated is used to provide strengths and weakness of the programme.

NB. Not gathering any information BUT information meant to detect problems for modification
of the program.

- Gathering information to arrive at a judgment about either individual or program.

Assessment establish what students know

The purpose of gathering data about strengthens to weakness of the program is to allow
curriculum experts to revise, compare, maintain or discontinue their action or programme.

For evaluation to be able to provide the above desired information, it has to be a reflective
exercise where each of the curriculum development and implementation is critically examined.

Feedback must be obtained from all the relevant stakeholders –teacher, pupils, parents etc.

Questions that need to be answered in reflective evaluation are;

- What should we keep doing?

- What should we stop doing?

- What should we start doing?

Reflective practice refers to the active process of examining ones own experience to create
opportunities for learning in teaching context. It involves a willingness to participate in
perpetual growing process requiring on going critical reflection on both classroom practices and
core beliefs.

Monitoring is continuous review of progress of planned activities - focus on what is being done.
It is therefore different from evaluation.

Types of curriculum evaluation

Types of curriculum evaluation

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Diagnostic evaluation

It is evaluation done before teaching or implementation of the curriculum. It is used to determine

the specific areas or weakness or strengths of learners/curriculum and determines their nature.

Diagnostic evaluation is used to categorise and not label the learners for appropriate teaching. It
also sheds light on the context in which the curriculum will operate so as to justify the
implementation of curriculum.

Formative evaluation

It is evaluation that takes place during the implementation of curriculum project or programme.
It comprises those activities undertaken to improve an intended programme. Evidence is sought
so that decisions can be made about how to revise a program while it is being developed.

Formative evaluation takes place at a number of specified points during the curriculum
development process. It provides opportunities for the evaluators to modify reject, or accept the
program as it is evolving.

Because curriculum development tales place over time, formative evaluation is well suited for
guiding the creation and fine tuning of the curriculum.

It examines the delivery programme, the quality of implementation and the assessment of the
organization context, personnel, procedures et

Aims

An aim of formative evaluation is to catch deficiencies so that proper interventions can take
place at every level of the progress. It fosters development within an ongoing activity.

Summative evaluation

Also called (external) evaluation is the method of judging the worth of a program at the end of
the program activities. It is meant to determine whether the stated objectives of the programme
have been achieved. The focus is on the outcome. Summative evaluation is also done to
determine the impact of an educational program/practice so that future efforts may be improved
or modified.

Summative evaluation includes the evaluation of the teacher’s performance in using the
curriculum, the infrastructure, the learning/teaching resources, time allocation, administrative
support, the cost of the programme and the impact of the programme. The finding of the
summative evaluation may lead to curriculum continuity, enhancement or change.

Purpose of curriculum evaluation

Purpose of curriculum evaluation

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1. To find out the extent to which the programmer has attained or is attaining the set goals.

2. To identify the problems that might hinder the attainment of the set goals.

3. To find out the extent to which learners have mastered the basic concepts

4. To appraise the effectiveness of the teaching approaches and learning materials

5. To provide the learners and/ or stakeholders with feedback about their performances

6. To provide an objective basis for determining the promotion of students

7. To make reliable decisions about education planning.

8. To identify problems being experienced in curriculum implementation.

9. To improve efficiency in schools system.

10. To determine the impact of a given curriculum

11. To provide useful information on the student entry behavior.

12. To obtain useful information that can assist in the designing of future education programs

CURRICULUM CHANGE AND INNOVATION

Curriculum change is a shift in position of a curriculum due to perceived need or unforeseen

circumstances. It involves change in curriculum scheme –design, goals and, content. Curriculum
innovation on the other hand is the introduction of something new that deviated from the
standard practice.

Changes occur in the curriculum so that it can adjust to the economic technological, social,
political and ideological needs in the society.

Change can be perceived at three levels

i) Minor changes

It Involves re-arrangement of sequences of content learning activities, re-organization of

personnel, and addition of topics or methods in curriculum project

ii) Medium curriculum change which involves overall organization of content,

materials or facilities, it may also involve integration of subjects or new approaches to the
existing subjects.

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iii) Major curriculum change curriculum that involves an overhaul of the existing
curriculum. It may result in complete re-organization of the conceptual design of the curriculum,
change in structure, content, method and approaches.

Causes of curriculum change

1. Politics

2. Globalization

3. Growth in knowledge – pedagogical learning approaches

4. Change in society – education sensitive to economy to social cultural structure

5. Growth in information of technology.

6. Employers and industry view points

Activity

Explain how each of the above factors influences curriculum change in Kenya.

Strategies of curriculum change

There are two approaches to curriculum change

1. Restricted approach

2. Democratic approach

In restricted approach decision making in curriculum change is restricted to a few people in

power so that information leaves from one source and goes direct to the consumers.

i) Democratic (open approach)

In this approach source of information is decentralized and the entire community including the
consumers involved in decision making. It is characterized by change promoted by research and
aimed at solving problems through social interactions.

Regardless of the approach used in curriculum change, the following strategies would reduce
resistance to curriculum change

i) Strong leadership – leaders who are acknowledged and accepted by all stake
holders should be used to spearhead curriculum change. Communication between the curriculum

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experts spearheading curriculum and the school teacher where implementation takes place is
very crucial because it one way of providing support to curriculum change.

ii) Promotion of curriculum change

Marketing of the change to the consumers and creating awareness of the usefulness of the change.
Promotion should aim at creating a shared and collective acceptance of the origin and need for
change. This is likely to provide incentive for curricular change that will help gain teachers’
support. Promotion of change also develops consensus about desired change and degree of
improving education. This leads to gaining of support of other stake holders and the learners.

Causes of resistance to change;

· Parochial interest – people more concerned with how the change will affect their own
interests rather than the effect of the whole organizations

· Misunderstanding where there is breakdown of communication.

· Low tolerance to change where some people are keen on maintaining status

· Different assessment of the situation where some employees may disagree on reasons for
the change.

Agents of curriculum change

Ø Institutes of education

Ø Curriculum development centers

Ø Research institutes

Ø Schools

Ø Colleges

Ø Universities

Ø Ministry of education

Ø Publishing firms

Ø Examinations bodies

Ø Local education authorities

Ø Teachers unions

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Ø Lay public

Activity

Discuss how each of the above agents can be used to ensure that a proposed curriculum change
in Kenya would be successful

CURRICULUM INNOVATION PROCESS

It involves the following stages.

a) Initial disturbance. This is the pressure exerted to a system either from within or without.

b) Feeling of need and decision to act on it.

c) Diagnosis of the problem

d) Search for solutions of the problem.

e) Application of possible solutions to the solve the problem

f) Evaluation of the strategies to see whether one will successfully solve the problem.

Criteria for judging the value of curriculum innovative according to Rogers to Shoemaker (1971)
are

1. Relative advantages

An innovation should bring improvement in the learning of students, should be economical,

manageable and have low initiative cost.

2. Compatibility

Should be perceived as being in agreement with or supportive of the potential adopters needs and
value

3. Triability

Should allow for collection of sufficient data from a limited trial in order to make a decision as to
whether the innovation in necessary or not.

4. Observation

The immediate consequence (results) of the innovation should be clearly defined.

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5. Complexity

Innovation must be simple enough to be understood and utilized (in terms of time, money and
expertise)

An innovation must be appropriate economical in terms of time, space and resources

Models of curriculum implementation change

There are three main models of curriculum innovation namely

1. Problem Solving Model

Suggests that change is a logical effort to provide solution to a problematic state perceived in an
organization. Thus the innovations are initiated, generated and applied by the teachers and
schools on the basis of their needs.

It is local in nature, usually limited in size and may not be of high quality compared to move
centralized approaches.

Steps on p-s model

1. Need is identified

2. The need is translated into a problem which is then diagnosed

3. Diagnosis leads to search for solutions

4. The possible solutions are evaluated and tested for effectiveness

2. Social Interaction Model.

Suggest that change occur in organization (school) because people in those organization talk to
other people who convince them to try something a little different. The process involves
individual rather than groups and organizations and is at times unplanned and informal.

However it can be made more systematic by structuring and coordinating the contacts between
groups and individual through seminars, conferences and workshops.

The pattern of operation involves awareness – interest – evaluation – trial- adoption.

Central agency acts merely as a coordinator or communicator of ideas rather than useful being
generator of ideas.

3. Research, Development and Diffusion model (RDD)

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Conceive change as an orderly planned sequence beginning with problem identification, the
finding or producing solutions and finally diffusing the solutions.

It is effective where curriculum developments is done on a large scale or ideas have to reach
wide areas.

The logical sequence of RDD is as follows;

1. Development of an innovation through research. A prototype is developed

2. Field trials of the prototype materials and redesigning then where necessary.

3. Mass production of the prototype materials

4. Mass dissemination or diffusion of innovation through courses conference and workshop.

5. Implementation of the innovation by users

Strategies of curriculum implements

Advantages

1. Innovation/curriculum change is a not ad-hoc but bases on research to relevant data and on
principle of curriculum development.

2. Results in high quality products

3. Materials innovations tested before diffusion on large scale.

Disadvantage

1. High initial development cost.

2. Teachers are most passive recipients

3. Because of being centralized, there are dangers of failing to take account of local needs to
various us.

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