STRUCTURAL MAPPING

Structural Mapping in the Mine Environment

Table of Contents

1 Introduction .......................................................................................................................................1
1.1 General Aspects to Structural Mapping ....................................................................................1
1.2 Some Things to Remember......................................................................................................1

2 Underground Mapping......................................................................................................................3
2.1 Equipment .................................................................................................................................3
2.2 Method of Mapping ...................................................................................................................3
2.3 Face Pictures ..........................................................................................................................10

3 Pit Mapping ......................................................................................................................................14

3.1 Equipment ...............................................................................................................................14
3.2 Method of Mapping .................................................................................................................14

4 Portable Outcrops - using Oriented Samples and Oriented Thinsections................................20

5 What to Measure - Dips, Strikes, Plunges etc. .............................................................................26

5.1 Planar Structures ....................................................................................................................26
5.2 Linear Structures.....................................................................................................................27
5.3 Apparent Dip ...........................................................................................................................29

Structural Mapping
List of Figures

Figure 2.2_1 – Example of an unwashed development wall in an underground mine 4

Figure 2.2_2 – Meterage mark on a development wall 4
Figure 2.2_3 – A map of a portion of the underground development at the Quarters Mine in Western Australia 5
Figure 2.2_4 – A map of another portion of the Quarters Mine 6
Figure 2.2_5 – Map of a portion of the stope development at Kanowna Belle Mine in Western Australia 7
Figure 2.2_6 – A geological level plan of the Tasmania Reef, Australia 7
Figure 2.2_7 – Wall exposure in the Kanowna Bell Mine 8
Figure 2.2_8 – Example of a mine-scale cross section compiled from wall mapping 9
Figure 2.2_9 – Wall map in a notebook 10
Figure 2.3_1 – Example of a face picture sketch in a notebook 11
Figure 2.3_2 – Example of a dedicated face picture sheet 12
Figure 2.3_3 – Construction of a map from face pictures 13
Figure 3.2_1 – Painted survey mark (A12) painted on a pit wall that has been mapped 15
Figure 3.2_2– Map of a portion of the Mulgarrie pit, showing structural features and alteration 15
Figure 3.2_3 – Map of a portion of the Mulgarrie pit, showing structural features and alteration 16
Figure 3.2_4 – Example of how geology can be appreciated from a distance 17
Figure 3.2_5 – Example of how geology can be appreciated from a distance 17
Figure 3.2_6 – Fact map for the BLC pit 18
Figure 3.2_7 – Detail of a portion of the BLC fact map 18
Figure 3.2_8 – Interpretation map 19
Figure 3.2_9 – Example of a quick sketch map 19
Figure 4_1 – Illustration of how to collect an oriented sample 20
Figure 4_2 – A slabbed sample from the Gimlet South Mine in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia 21
Figure 4_3 – Rock coated with epoxy to enhance textural detail 21
Figure 4_4 – Preparation of an oriented thin section from an oriented sample 22
Figure 4_5 – An example of selecting an oriented thin section from drill core 23
Figure 4_6 – Procedure showing how to prepare an oriented thin section 24
Figure 4_7 – Example of partly completed rock reference folder 25
Figure 5.1_1 – Diagram to illustrate collection of planar orientation data 26
Figure 5.2_1 – Diagram to show the pitch of lineations on a plane 28
Figure 5.3_1 - The relationship of true and apparent dip 29
Figure 5.3_2 - Table for conversion of true dip to apparent dip and vice-versa 30

Structural Mapping
1 INTRODUCTION
The importance of structural mapping in the ore environment cannot be overstated.
Understanding the geometry, grade distribution and history of a deposit is reliant on
accurate documentation of the geological features, in particular structures. The
identification and location of prospective mineralisation sites relies on an understanding
and appreciation of mapped data and the ability to use this data to predict the location of
ore.

In the production environment maps should be progressively updated so that they

accurately portray geological relationships in the most recent exposures, typically in
underground or pit development. Explorationists should be preparing maps of all
exposures in the area of interest and will typically end up with a number of maps of
different scale. Mapped features include road cuttings, drill pads, costeans, groove lines,
historical workings, coastlines, river exposures, hilltop exposures and so on.

This course will focus on the collection of data in the mine environment. Mapping of larger
areas uses the same techniques but typically integrates information from a number of
exposures.

1.1 General Aspects to Structural Mapping

Don’t collect data for data’s sake. That is, don’t think that a better map is the one
with the most measurements. It is better to collect a few quality measurements than
a lot of sub-standard data. This applies to core logging as well. Keep in mind the
reason for the mapping/logging – collect data that is pertinent.

Prepare a fact map with the data and produce an interpretation map from this.
Interpretations change, geological relationships don’t. Don’t believe that your
interpretation is the final, most accurate one – other people must be able to use the
same data to check your work and to produce their own interpretations (which may
be more accurate but with time will be revised also).

Work in plan and section. If the sections look great but a realistic map can not be
produced from them that honours the data then the sectional interpretations may be
radically incorrect. Create sections at the same time as the map – don’t do them
later as an afterthought.

Establish geometric and cross-cutting relationships. These relationships will
help establish the evolution of the deposit over time and also allow a fuller
understanding of the big picture.

1.2 Some Things to Remember

Some geometries can be very complex. For example the folded shape of an
originally irregular intrusive contact will be very hard to reproduce on a map if only a
couple of traverses have been undertaken. It is commonly important to walk out
contacts to resolve geometries. This is also the case with planar bodies, such as a
well-layered sedimentary sequence, because there may be large-scale folding or
even transposition that is not recognisable otherwise.

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Keep the scale at which you are mapping in context. What may be insignificant to
you may be very significant to someone working at a different scale. Also, small-
scale feature are often representations of what happens at the larger-scale.
Consequently, large-scale relationships may be understood by documenting small,
similar-style features such as fold styles, kinematics and orientations.

Try to understand the context of the geology within the bigger picture. The best mine
geologists are the enthusiastic ones who have taken the trouble to understand what
the geology does outside of their mine i.e. how their deposit fits in the regional
picture. In large mines, where subdivision of the development mapping falls to
several people, it is good practice to understand what your colleagues are mapping
rather than just trying to stitch your maps together.

Given that we are dealing with deformed rocks, keep in mind that variations in strain
can cause marked variations in geometries from unit to unit and even within units.
Learn to recognise this and put it in context at various scales.

The two key concepts to structural geology are geometry and overprinting.
Recognise and document cross-cutting and overprinting relationships. These will
then produce an understanding of the geometries.

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2 UNDERGROUND MAPPING
Underground mapping can be one of the most exciting and instructive tasks undertaken in
the production environment. New exposures are continually being produced and the ability to
walk through 3D exposures is rarely achieved above ground. The down-side of underground
development is that the exposures are often rapidly lost e.g. by coverage by mining dirt or
ground support (e.g. shotcrete), removed during stoping, flooded, or have deteriorated such
that they are too dangerous to be entered at a later date. For these reasons, the ability to
accurately and quickly document underground geological relationships is invaluable.

2.1 Equipment
Underground mapping equipment fairly closely duplicates surface mapping equipment.
However, the following equipment is essential:-

A strong light (e.g. a MagliteTM) in addition to a caplamp. This can markedly improve
productivity and accuracy of the map.

A 50m (or longer) tape.

A spraycan of fluorescent paint.

Survey plans.

The usual assortment of other equipment including a compass, g-pick, pen magnet,
pencils, scale rule and protractor.

2.2 Method of Mapping

Firstly an appropriate scale needs to be chosen to represent the geology. A scale of 1:250
is commonly a good scale to work with. This will portray 5 metre wide development as
2cm wide on a map, which allows the important features to be shown but stops the map
from being bogged down in an unnecessary overabundance of detail.

Mapping can be done onto mine survey plans, which will (hopefully) show an accurate
outline of development. This makes it easier to locate yourself and to accurately map the
structures. If mine development plans are not available, graph paper is a good alternative.
If graph paper is unavailable then a series of strip maps that have accurate metre marks
can be used. Some notebooks have a central strip in them that is useful in this regard.

If possible, the walls need to be washed down so that you can see the geology
(Figure 2.2_1). There are too many examples of maps with inadequate detail or showing
incorrect geological relationships because the development had not been washed down
prior to mapping. In some places it is possible to wash down the backs of the development
as well but caution should be exercised as this can make for dangerous ground conditions
in some instances.

Active mines should have up-to-date survey pickups that allow a plot of the development
and the survey peg positions. The location of these survey pegs underground is one of the
first steps in mapping. The end of the tape is pinned at the location of the survey peg
e.g. by putting a rock on it. It is useful to lay the tape down the centre of the drive.
However, if you are mapping development that is active (e.g. a lot of traffic such as trucks
etc) then the tape should be laid along one wall of the drive.

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 Figure 2.2_1
Example of an unwashed development wall in an underground mine

Example of an unwashed wall where massive sulphide has been exposed by using a g-pick. The features of the rock,
including composition and texture, are virtually impossible to document without fresh exposure. Washing down of the walls is
the quickest and easiest solution, and uncovers much more extensive exposure than could be achieved with a g-pick.

Fluorescent paint should then be used to mark distances along the wall from the survey
point. A useful method is to mark every metre and then label the 5m increments
(Figure 2.2_2). These marks then become the reference points during mapping, thus
avoiding constant reference to the tape, which may be lying in mud or underwater.

Figure 2.2_2
Meterage mark on a development wall

Example of a meter mark on a wall in the Kanowna Bell mine in Western Australia. The mark and meterage have been
transferred from the 50m tape lying on the floor of the drive adjacent to the wall

Now start mapping!

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 Structural mapping needs to achieve the following objectives:-

Portray accurately the positions and geometries of major structures such as faults

Portray the geometry of geological features such as orezone boundaries, alteration
fronts, folds and intrusions

Give information on the orientation of geological features such as contacts,
lineations, faults, cleavages etc

Provide information on the movement history of structures

Assess the geological history of the rocks in the zone of mapping, including
overprinting and cross-cutting, metamorphism, and intrusive events

Provide an indication of ground conditions
Figures 2.2_3, 2.2_4 and 2.2_5 are examples of mapping of ore-drive development for the
Quarters Mine and Kanowna Belle Mine in Western Australia.

Figure 2.2_3
A map of a portion of the underground development at the Quarters Mine in Western Australia

A map of a portion of the underground development at the Quarters Mine in Western Australia. Note that rock types,
including alteration, are documented in conjunction with structures and the movement senses that they accommodated.

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 Figure 2.2_4
A map of another portion of the Quarters Mine

A map of another portion of the Quarters Mine. The legends is the same as for Figure 2.2_3. Note that the foliation trends
have been incorporated into the major faults and veins, giving an indication of intense deformation.

Figure 2.2_5
A geological level plan of the Tasmania Reef, Australia

The displacement of the mapped conglomerate beds can be used to determine the kinematics and estimate the displacement. There are
also en echelon elements to the reef that relate to the sense of shear.

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 Figure 2.2_6
Map of a portion of the stope development at Kanowna Belle Mine in Western Australia

Map of a portion of the stope development at Kanowna Belle mine in Western Australia. The use of symbols in addition to
detailed documentation gives a good indication of the structural architecture including ground conditions.

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 A first-pass walk of the development to be mapped can be very useful. This will commonly
locate the important features, such as major faults or orebody boundaries, and thus avoid
getting bogged down in the mapping of less important relationships at the start.

Where possible, maps should also be prepared of the walls of the development. Wall
maps are particularly important for the following reasons:-

They provide information on low-dipping structures or other features that may not be
evident in the backs (Figures 2.2_6, 2.2_7, 2.2_8, and 2.2_9)

They provide a factual (rather than interpretative) geological section through the
deposit, particularly if a number of sections at different levels are mapped on the
same Easting or Northing

They provide a supplements to sectional drilling information and provide information
on locations of important geological relationships that have been extrapolated from
drill sections

The information from wall maps is more easily obtained than that from floor or backs
mapping (Figure 2.2_9).

Figure 2.2_7
Wall exposure in the Kanowna Belle Mine

Wall exposure in the Kanowna Belle mine. Note the moderately-dipping veins at upper left and the low-dipping structure at
upper right. Back mapping will not capture the orientation and textural data of these structures as effectively as wall mapping.

Figure 2.2_9 shows an example of a wall map that has been documented in a note book
for later drafting.

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 Figure 2.2_8
Example of a mine-scale cross section compiled from wall mapping

Schematic example of how a series of wall maps on the same easting or northing, but at different levels, can be used to
construct a geological section through a mine.

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 Figure 2.2_9
Wall map in a notebook

2.3 Face Pictures

Face pictures are an essential tool for understanding geology and for mapping, especially
when dealing with semi-planar orebodies such as quartz veins in lode-gold deposits. Face
pictures are a sketch of the development face exposed in a development heading,
commonly an oredrive that is being actively developed. The sketch can vary from a quick
note book scribble (Figure 2.3_1) through to filling out a dedicated face picture sheet
(Figure 2.3_2). The distance is noted from the nearest survey peg to the development face
and geological features in the face are documented as for a wall map. Additional data that
can also be collected are the location of face samples for grade determination
(Figure 2.3_2).

The correlation of structures in a series of sequential face pictures allows the construction
of a geological map (Figure 2.3_3). Given that the faces occur within development that
commonly follows structures that are sinuous and difficult to see in detail in the back. The
data in a face picture is extremely valuable as it is commonly short-lived, being destroyed
by the round of blasting that advances the face. Photographic documentation of features
in the face is also very useful for comparison with the face pictures at a later date.

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 Figure 2.3_1
Example of a face picture sketch in a notebook

Example of a face picture sketch in a notebook. The distance to the survey peg is noted and a sketch of detailed
relationships is included.

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 Figure 2.3_2
Example of a dedicated face picture sheet

Example of a dedicated face picture sheet, which incorporates grade sample details.

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 Figure 2.3_3
Construction of a map from face pictures

Diagram to show how sequential face pictures can be used to construct a map of development. The map shown is for the
back of development but it could be constructed at level intersected by the face pictures. This diagram emphasises the
importance of accurately recording the distance from the face picture to a survey point.

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3 PIT MAPPING
Pit mapping techniques are very similar to those utilised underground. The difference with
pit mapping is that a larger view of the deposit can be appreciated at any one time. As with
underground development, new exposures are continually being produced. However,
many of these are affected by blast heave and are commonly very dirty. Another similarity
with underground mapping is that the exposures are commonly rapidly lost, typically by
mining as the pit progresses. For areas such as the Eastern Goldfields of Australia there
are problems with hyper-saline groundwater, which tends to cause salt encrustation of pit
exposures very soon after mining. For these reasons, the ability to accurately and quickly
document pit geological relationships is an invaluable tool.

3.1 Equipment
Pit mapping equipment fairly closely duplicates underground mapping equipment. The
following equipment is essential:-

A 50m (or longer) tape

A spraycan of fluorescent paint

Survey plans

The usual assortment of other equipment including a compass, g-pick, pen magnet,
pencils, scale rule and protractor.

3.2 Method of Mapping

Firstly an appropriate scale needs to be chosen to represent the geology. A scale of 1:250
is commonly a good scale to work with as this portrays the geology on pit berms in
reasonable detail. This will portray 5 metre wide development as 2m wide on a map, which
allows the important features to be shown but stops the map from being bogged down in
an unnecessary overabundance of detail.

Mapping can be done onto pit survey plans, which will (hopefully) show an accurate outline
of development. This makes it easier to locate yourself and to accurately map the
structures. If pit development plans are not available, graph paper is a good alternative. If
graph paper is unavailable then a series of strip maps that have accurate metre marks and
location points can be used. Some notebooks have a central strip in them that is useful in
this regard.

Unlike underground development, pits lack long-lived survey points in the area of pit
development. Hence mapping should be commenced from an easily identifiable feature
on the survey plans, such as a ramp switchback, a pit corner, a sump or some such
feature. The end of the tape is pinned, typically by putting a rock on it. The location of the
end of the tape should be marked on the pit wall with a unique number so that it can be
surveyed in at a later date. Fluorescent paint should be used and the letters/numbers
should be large enough that the surveyor can see them from a distance. An example of a
survey mark is shown in Figure 3.2_1. If using a 50m tape then survey points should be
made at the start and end of the tape, with an intermediate one at approximately 25-30m.
It is good to vary the height of the marks as this increases the accuracy when transferring
mapping back onto the survey plans. Figures 3.2_2 and 3.2_3 are examples of portions of
mapped pit walls.

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 Figure 3.2_1
Painted survey mark (A12) painted on a pit wall that has been mapped

This point will be picked-up by the surveyor and transferred to the survey map of the pit so that the geology can also be
accurately transferred

Figure 3.2_2
Map of a portion of the Mulgarrie pit, showing structural features and alteration

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 Figure 3.2_3
Map of a portion of the Mulgarrie pit, showing structural features and alteration

The locations of major structures at the top and bottom of the faces should be located and
then the feature put on the map by linking the points with an accurate representation of the
geometry of the feature. This method is necessary because mapping of moderately to
steeply dipping pit walls is being done onto a plan projection, thereby distorting angles and
lengths of features.

When mapping intermediate mining faces across the floor of the pit the method of mapping
is the same. The location of the end of the tape should be marked on the mining face with
a unique number so that it can be surveyed in at a later date. However, given the speed of
mining, these marks can commonly be lost before they are surveyed. As such, it is useful
to measure the distance and orientation of the face from a survey mark on the pit wall.

Some pits have very steep walls and the distance between berms is quite large, particularly
if ground conditions are good. If mapping has not been undertaken for some time, the
documentation of these large steep faces can be difficult. It is commonly easier to put
some survey marks on the wall and then try mapping the face from a distance
(Figures 3.2_4 and 3.2_5), even as far away as the other side of the pit. Major features
should be outlined with fluorescent paint and a number of metre marks placed on the wall
so that mapping can be accurately located. It is commonly useful to take digital
photographs and map features on them for later transfer to the pit map.

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 Figure 3.2_4
Example of how geology can be appreciated from a distance

Example of how geology can be appreciated from a distance. The photograph shows subhorizontal quartz veins cross-
cutting, and deflecting through, a rhyolite dyke in the BLC pit in the Eastern Goldfields. The face is near-vertical and a full
appreciation of the geology can not be gained from mapping along the bench shown in the photo.

Figure 3.2_5
Example of how geology can be appreciated from a distance

Example of how geology can be appreciated from a distance. The photograph shows a labelled profile through the nose of a
thrust in the Eastern Goldfields in Western Australia. The pervasive foliation defining the thrust has controlled carbonate
alteration that in turn hosts gold-bearing quartz veins.

As with the preparation of any geological map, the product should be two separate maps.
The first should be a fact, or observation, map that shows all data collected (Figures 3.2_6
and 3.2_7). The other map should be an interpretation of the data, which will show
extrapolated trends, interpreted boundaries etc (Figure 3.2_8). This map will become a
work in progress, being modified as additional data is obtained. It is important to realise
that good data will stand the test of time, whereas interpretations will continually change. A
geologist’s duty is to ensure that he collects best quality data by using best practice
methods. That way all future interpretations have the best possible basis.

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 Figure 3.2_6
Fact map for the BLC pit

This has been laminated for preservation.

Figure 3.2_7
Detail of a portion of the top-centre of the BLC fact map shown in Figure 3.2_6

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 Figure 3.2_8
Interpretation Map

Interpretation map for the BLC pit compiled from the data and observations on the fact map shown in Figure 3.2_6.

For historical pits that do not have surveys it is useful to do a preliminary pit sketch to
assess the important features (Figure 3.2_9). A rough survey can be done with tape and
compass, or aerial photographs can also be used.

Figure 3.2_9
Example of a quick sketch map

Example of a quick sketch map done of an historical open pit in the Eastern Goldfields of Australia. Detail can be as much as
the worker desires and could include detailed sketches, structural measurements and locations of samples and photographs.

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4 PORTABLE OUTCROPS - USING ORIENTED SAMPLES AND ORIENTED
THINSECTIONS
Many outcrops have a wealth of information in them that commonly can not be appreciated
when viewed in the field. This may be for a number of reasons e.g. the exposed faces are
in the wrong orientation, more than one set of structures is present but cross-cutting
relationships can’t be resolved, the outcrop is dirty etc.

Many of the above problems can be resolved by collecting oriented samples and slabbing
them. Procedures for collecting an oriented sample are given in Figure 4_1. Slabbed
faces can reveal a huge amount of information and the textures can be enhanced by
polishing or by coating the cut surface. Surface coating can vary from spray-on lacquers to
two-part polymers to varnish, and markedly enhance features at a lesser cost than
polishing. A comparison of untreated and treated slab surfaces can be seen by viewing
Figures 4_2 and 4_3.

Figure 4_1
Illustration of how to collect an oriented sample

Illustration of how to collect an oriented sample. The sample is marked with a dip and strike symbol on a relatively planar
face. The orientation is recorded in a notebook in case the writing is lost from the sample. A note is also made if the
orientation is on an overturned surface

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 Figure 4_2
A slabbed sample from the Gimlet South Mine in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia

A slabbed sample from the Gimlet South mine in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia. Very little detail is evident
apart from the pyritic veins.

Figure 4_3
Rock coated with epoxy to enhance textural detail

The other side of the sample shown in Figure 4_2 and slightly magnified to show detail. The rock has been coated with a 2-
part epoxy resin. This has eliminated the damage effects from cutting and markedly enhanced the textural details.

The benefit of using oriented samples is that they can be cut back at the mine-site and
then reoriented. This allows measurement of features that may not have been possible in
outcrop. In addition, spatially oriented thin sections can then be prepared from the slabbed
samples, allowing feature not visible to the naked eye to be measured. Procedures for
preparing an oriented thin section are given in Figures 4_4, 4_5 and 4_6.

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 Figure 4_4
Preparation of an oriented thin section from an oriented sample

Preparation of an oriented thin section from an oriented sample. The sample is firstly reoriented in a container of non-
magnetic sand. The easiest way is to place the oriented mark horizontal first and then tip the sample to get the dip. The
whole container can then be rotated to get the dip direction. The sample can then be marked up according to features in the
rock.
Measurements of structures can be taken before and after slabbing of the marked sample. A horizontal asymmetric arrow is
placed on the area of the billet to be sectioned in order to uniquely identify it. Note that inclined slabs must have the dip and
dip-direction marked on them as well. For horizontal sections a north arrow is marked on the billet, along with a note as to
whether the sample is being viewed from above or below. The direction of viewing is important as changing from one to the
other will reverse any structural asymmetries.
The orientation mark needs to be transferred accurately to the slide as it will be lost when the billet is cut off. If the slide is
glued to the same side as the mark then care must be taken to transfer the mark exactly to the opposite side of the billet.
This is important as the asymmetries reverse depending on which side the slide is viewed from. This procedure is shown in
Figure 4_6.

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 Figure 4_5
An example of selecting an oriented thin section from drill core

An example of selecting an oriented thin section from drill core. The same system applies as for taking thin sections from
oriented hand specimens.

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 Figure 4_6
Procedure showing how to prepare an oriented thin section

Procedure showing how to prepare an oriented thin section. The example at top is for glass glues to the underside of the
selected sample. The example at the bottom is for when the portio of rock that needs to be sectioned is on the topside of the
billet where the oriented mark is.

Slabbed samples and thin section billets can make a valuable reference collection.
Archiving in folders is a cheap and easy way to achieve this (Figure 4_7).

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 Figure 4_7
Example of partly completed rock reference folder

Example of a partly completed rock reference folder. A simple plastic coated A4 ring binder is used and hosts thin section
billets and a hand specimen slab from the Sunrise deposit in the Eastern Goldfields of Western Australia. Notes on the
samples can be placed in the folder. The samples are held in with Velcro so that they can be removed for examination.

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5 WHAT TO MEASURE - DIPS, STRIKES, PLUNGES ETC.
Knowing the orientation of structural geological features is critical to the understanding of
the geology for any area. In ore deposits, knowledge of the orientation of these features is
crucial to the understanding of orebody geometries, and the structural controls on
mineralization.

For these reasons, measuring structural geological features in the field is a critical skill for
all geologists. This module describes the techniques that are used to identify and measure
structural geological features in the field.

Geological structures are divided into planar and linear groups. Planar structures include
bedding, faults, foliations, veins, joints, fold axial planes etc. Linear structures include
slickenlines, extension lineations, intersection lineations and fold axes (hinges).

5.1 Planar Structures

Planar structures can be measured either using strike and dip, or dip and dip-direction to
designate their orientation. When measuring planar structures, structural geologists tend
to have a preference to using dip and dip direction. This is because dip and dip direction
can be plotted direction onto an equal area net without conversion. Also, dip and dip
direction give a unique orientation whereas dip and strike gives two possible compass
directions for the strike value. The relationship between dip direction and strike is shown in
Figure 5.1_1.

Figure 5.1_1
Diagram to illustrate collection of planar orientation data

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 Strike is defined as the line of intersection of the planar structure and an imaginary
horizontal plane (often approximated by the Earth’s surface). It will have a value of
between 0 and 360°, and is always written as 3 digits e.g. 230°, 156°, 057°, 005°.

Dip is defined as the angle between the planar structure and an imaginary horizontal plane
(often approximated by the Earth’s surface). Dip has a value of between 0 and 90° and is
always written as 2 digits e.g. 85°, 17°, 06°.

Dip Direction is defined as the direction of maximum dip, which is always 90° from the
strike.

We can designate the orientation of a planar structure by dip/dip direction or by strike/dip.

When we measure by strike and dip, we must also designate the octant (or quadrant) of
dip direction. When we measure dip and dip direction we do not need to specify the dip-
direction octant. Some geologists prefer to use dip and dip direction because it is
unequivocal (ie less chance of making a mistake) and you do not need to specify the dip
octant. However, other geologists prefer strike and dip, because strikes are what we use
to plot on maps to visualize the trends of structural features. It is up to the individual
geologist to decide which method they prefer to use. However, it is also critical that all
geologists know how to measure planar structures with both methods, and know how to
convert data from dip/dip direction to strike/dip and vice-versa.

Below are a number of examples of strike/dip measurements and their equivalents in

dip/dip direction.

Strike/Dip 130/48 NE 334/56 SW 275/19 N 093/07 S 004/78 E 182/66 E

Dip and Dip Direction 48→050 56→224 19→005 07→183 78→094 66→092

To measure the strike of a planar feature we place the edge of our compass against the
structure so that the bubble indicates that it is horizontal. Let the needle settle and read off
the strike value, or lock the needle, take the compass off the face and read off the strike
value.

To measure the dip place the compass on its side, use the bubble to set the clinometer
and read off the dip. Remember when you write down the orientation as a dip and strike
you must also specify the octant of the direction of dip eg 130/48 NE, 093/07 S.

To measure the dip direction, place the top lid flat against the planar feature. Move the
compass base down so that the internal bubble indicates that it is horizontal. Now read off
the dip direction from the compass needle.

The relationship between dip direction and strike is shown in Figure 5.1_1.

5.2 Linear Structures

Linear structures are common and important in nearly all deformed rocks. These are
equally as important to the resolution of the structural geology in deformed rocks as are
planar structures. It is very important that all field geologists are adept at measuring and
interpreting linear structures.

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 Lineations are less worrisome in that they can only be depicted as plunge and plunge
direction (azimuth) if true orientations are quoted. This is shown in Figure 5.1_1.
Lineations can also be measured as a pitch in a plane. Figure 5.2_1 shows two lineations,
A and B, developed on the S1 cleavage plane. These lineations can be measured either
as plunge and plunge direction or as a pitch in the S1 plane.

Figure 5.2_1
Diagram to show the pitch of lineations on a plane

Plunge is defined as the acute angle between a horizontal plane and the linear feature in a
vertical plane parallel to the linear feature. Plunge is always between 0 and 90° and is
always written as two digits e.g. 76°, 09° etc.

Plunge Direction is defined as the direction that the linear feature plunges (downwards).
Plunge direction is also known as azimuth and is always between 0 and 360°. It is written
as three figures e.g. 345°, 060°. 007°.

Pitch is defined as the angle between the horizontal strike line and the linear feature on a
particular plane. Pitch can be measured with a protractor.

To measure a linear feature in outcrop there are two methods. Plunge and plunge
direction which we measure directly from the outcrop OR pitch on a plane where we
measure the orientation of the plane first (strike/dip or dip/dip direction) and then measure
the pitch with a protractor. The true plunge and plunge direction can then be calculated
using a stereonet.

We measure the plunge direction directly from the outcrop by holding our compass
horizontally, and then lining up the linear feature along the edge of it. Once we are happy
the compass is horizontal and we have lined the linear feature up we can read off the
plunge direction from the needle.

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 To measure the plunge we place the compass on its side in a vertical plane directly along
the lineation. We level off the clinometer bubble and read off the plunge value in the same
way we would read off dip. Note that it is critical that the compass is held in a vertical
plane.

The lineations can be described as a pitch in a plane in two ways. In both cases we have to
measure the acute angle down to the lineation from a horizontal line. In Figure 5.2_1 the
line strikes East-West and is shown in blue. This measurement is done on the plane.

For Lineation A:-

 We can say that Lineation A pitches 40º West in S1, which is oriented 70→180.
 We can also say that Lineation A pitches 40º anticlockwise in S1 when viewed
looking north.

For Lineation B:-
 We can say that Lineation B pitches 25º East in S1, which is oriented 70→180
 We can also say that Lineation B pitches 25º clockwise in S1 when viewed
looking north.

The true plunge and plunge directions of the lineations can then be calculated on a
stereonet. This process is described in the section of the course titled Equal area and
equal angle projections.

5.3 Apparent Dip

On maps and plans, we represent structural measurements with standard structural
symbols. The orientation of the structural symbols reflects the strike of planar features and
plunge of linear features. In cross-section, however, the orientations of planes are
depicted as apparent dips.

Thus the amount of dip we see in a cross-section may not be the true dip. True dip(A) of a
bed is the dip observed in a vertical plane perpendicular to the strike of the bed. In all other
sections (ie sections oblique to the dip-direction of a structure), we get apparent dips(B)
which are less than the true dip (Figure 5.3_1).

Figure 5.3_1
The relationship of true and apparent dip

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 We must use trigonometric methods to calculate true dip from the apparent dip, or
apparent dip from the true dip. We must also know the angle between the strike of the
plane in question and the strike of the cross-sectional plane.

An online calculator for converting true dips to apparent dips is provided at the URL below.
There is also a table attached below for converting true and apparent dip data (Figure 5.3_2).

http://www.geoahead.com/struct/index.cfm

Figure 5.3_2
Table for conversion of true dip to apparent dip and vice-versa

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