Fracture Mechanics

Lecture 2
Introduction to fracture mechanics,
strength of structures in the presence of
cracks

Course Postgraduate PhD

Asst. Prof. Dr. Alaa Dahham Younis
 Introduction of Fracture Mechanics
All engineering components and structures contain geometrical discontinuities - threaded
connections, windows in aircraft fuselages, keyways in shafts, teeth of gear wheels, etc. The size
and shape of these features are important since they determine the strength of the artifact.
Conventionally, the strength of components or structures containing defects is assessed by
evaluating the stress concentration caused by the discontinuity features. However, such a
conventional approach would give erroneous answers if the geometrical discontinuity features
have very sharp radii. To illustrate this point, consider the following four cases:

Fig.2.1 Strength of uncracked and cracked plates

The thickness of each plate is the same. The forces required to break the four samples can be
arranged in the following order:

Clearly the sizes of the defects at F3 and F4 are crucial to the strength of the structure.
Fracture mechanics is a set of theories describing the behavior of solids or structures with
geometrical discontinuity at the scale of the structure. The discontinuity features may be in the
form of line discontinuities in two-dimensional media (such as plates, and shells) and surface
discontinuities in three-dimensional media. Fracture mechanics has now evolved into a mature
discipline of science and engineering and has dramatically changed our understanding of the
behavior of engineering materials. One of the important impacts of fracture mechanics is the
establishment of a new design philosophy: damage tolerance design methodology, which has now
become the industry standard in aircraft design.
Fracture mechanics can be divided into linear elastic fracture mechanics (LEFM) and elasto-
plastic fracture mechanics (EPFM). LEFM gives excellent results for brittle-elastic materials like
high-strength steel, glass, ice, concrete, and so on. However, for ductile materials like low-carbon
steel, stainless steel, certain aluminum alloys and polymers, plasticity will always precede
fracture. Nonetheless, when the load is low enough, linear fracture mechanics continues to
provide a good approximation to the physical reality. The purpose of this lecture is to provide a
broad picture of the theoretical background to fracture mechanics via a stress analysis view
point.

Types of fracture in metals:

• The concept of material strength and fractures has long been studied to overcome failures.
• The introduction of malleable irons during the revolution of material construction led to the
perception of brittle and ductile fractures as well as fatigue failure in metals.
Fracture
When material damage like micro-cracks and voids grow become localized, discontinuities must
be taken into account. This localization results in macroscopic crack, resulting in global failure.

Main Interests
• Will crack grow under the given load?
• When a crack grows, What is its speed and direction?
• Will crack growth stop?
• What is residual strength of a construction part as a function of the (initial) crack length and
the load?
• What is proper inspection frequency?

Comparison of the fracture mechanics approach

to design with the traditional strength of
materials approach:(a)the strength of materials
approach and (b)the fracture mechanics
approach.
THE ENERGY CRITERION
• The energy approach states that crack extension (i.e., fracture) occurs when the energy
available for crack growth is sufficient to overcome the resistance of the material.
• The material resistance may include the surface energy, plastic work, or other types of
energy dissipation associated with a propagating crack.

Types of material behavior

Strain-time and stress-time curves
• Elastic : reversible, time-independent
• Visco-elastic : reversible, time-dependent
• Elasto-plastic : irreversible, time-independent
• Visco-plastic : irreversible, time-dependent
What is Fracture?
Fracture : separation of a body into pieces due to stress, at temperatures below the melting point.

Steps in fracture
• Crack formation
• Crack propagation

Depending on the ability of material to undergo plastic deformation before the fracture two
fracture modes can be defined –ductile or brittle.
Shearing (Ductile fracture)
• The origin and growth of cracks is provoked by shear stresses.
• When a crystalline material is loaded, dislocations start to move through the lattice due to
local shear stresses and the number of dislocations increases.
• The dislocations coalesce at grain boundaries and accumulate to make a void.
• The fracture surface has a ’dough-like’ structure with dimples, the shape of which indicate the
loading of the crack.
• Extensive plastic deformation takes place before fracture.

Dislocation movement and coalescence into grain boundary voids, resulting in dimples in the
crack surface
Ductile Fracture
What is dislocation?
Dislocation : a crystallographic defect, or irregularity, within a crystal structure.

A crystalline material : consists of a regular array of atoms,

arranged into lattice planes.

An edge dislocation : a defect where an extra half-plane of

atoms is introduced mid way through the crystal, distorting
nearby planes of atoms.

A screw dislocation : Imagine cutting a crystal along a plane

and slipping one half across the other.
Dislocation
Dislocations are linear defects around which some of the atoms of the crystal lattice are
misaligned, where the atoms are out of position in the crystal structure. Dislocations are
generated and move when a stress is applied. The motion of dislocations allows slip – plastic
deformation to occur. Dislocations are connected with nearly all other mechanical phenomena
such as strain hardening, the yield point, creep, fatigue and brittle fracture
There are two basic types of dislocations, the edge dislocation and the screw dislocation.
Actually, edge and screw dislocations are just extreme forms of the possible dislocation structures
that can occur. Most dislocations are probably a hybrid of the edge and screw forms but this
discussion will be limited to these two types.
Edge Dislocation
The edge defect can be easily visualized as an extra half-plane of atoms in a lattice. The
dislocation is called a line defect because the locus of defective points produced in the lattice by
the dislocation lie along a line. This line runs along the top of the extra half-plane. The inter-
atomic bonds are significantly distorted only in the immediate vicinity of the dislocation line.

Fig (1):- An edge dislocation. (A) A perfect crystal. (B) When the crystal is sheared one atomic distance over part of the
distance S–P, an edge dislocation is formed. (C) Three dimensional view of slip.
As shown in the set of images above, the dislocation moves similarly moves a small amount at a
time. The dislocation in the top half of the crystal is slipping one plane at a time as it moves to
the right from its position in image (a) to its position in image (b) and finally image (c). In the
process of slipping one plane at a time the dislocation propagates across the crystal. The
movement of the dislocation across the plane eventually causes the top half of the crystal to move
with respect to the bottom half. However, only a small fraction of the bonds are broken at any
given time. Movement in this manner requires a much smaller force than breaking all the bonds
across the middle plane simultaneously
Screw dislocation
There is a second basic type of dislocation, called screw dislocation. The screw dislocation is
slightly more difficult to visualize. The motion of a screw dislocation is also a result of shear
stress, but the defect line movement is perpendicular to direction of the stress and the atom
displacement, rather than parallel. To visualize a screw dislocation, imagine a block of metal
with a shear stress applied across one end so that the metal begins to rip. This is shown in the
upper right image. The lower right image shows the plane of atoms just above the rip. The atoms
represented by the blue circles have not yet moved from their original position. The atoms
represented by the red circles have moved to their new position in the lattice and have
reestablished metallic bonds.
The atoms represented by the green circles are
in the process of moving. It can be seen that only
a portion of the bonds are broke at any given time.
As was the case with the edge dislocation,
movement in this manner requires a much
smaller force than breaking all the bonds
across the middle plane simultaneously

Fig (2):- screw dislocation

If the shear force is increased, the atoms will continue to slip to the right. A row of the green
atoms will find their way back into a proper spot in the lattice (and become red) and a row of the
blue atoms will slip out of position (and become green). In this way, the screw dislocation will
move upward in the image, which is perpendicular to direction of the stress. Recall that the edge
dislocation moves parallel to the direction of stress. As shown in the image below, the net plastic
deformation of both edge and screw dislocations are the same
Brittle Fracture
Although the tensile stress-strain curve already provides an indication for brittle/ductile failure,
the standard experiment to investigate this is the Charpy V-notch test. The main advantage of this
test is that it provides a simple measure for the dissipated energy during fast crack propagation.
The specimen is a beam with a 2 mm deep V-shaped notch, which has a 90° angle and a 0.25 mm
root radius. It is supported and loaded as in a three-point bending test. The load is provided by
the impact of a weight at the end of a pendulum. A crack will start at the tip of the V-notch and
runs through the specimen. The material deforms at a strain rate of typically 10³ s −¹ . The
energy which is dissipated during fracture can be calculated easily from the height of the
pendulum weight, before and after impact. The dissipated energy is the Impact Toughness Cv [J].
Cleavage fracture (Brittle fracture)
• When plastic deformation at the crack tip is prohibited due to low temperature or high strain
rate.
• The crack can travel through grains by splitting atom bonds in lattice planes.
• Trans-granular cleavage : cracks pass through grains. Fracture surface have faceted textures
because of different orientation of cleavage planes in grains. The crack surface has a ’shiny’
appearance.
• Inter-granular cleavage : crack propagation is along weak or damaged grain boundaries
• No apparent plastic deformation takes place before fracture.
Brittle Fracture (Limited Dislocation Mobility)
• No appreciable plastic deformation
• Crack propagation is very fast
• Crack propagates nearly perpendicular to the direction of the applied stress
• Crack often propagates by cleavage – breaking of atomic bonds along specific
crystallographic places cleavage planes)
Brittle Fracture vs. Ductile Fracture
Fracture phenomena
Ductile fracture – most metals (not too cold)
• Extensive plastic deformation ahead of
crack
• Crack is “stable” : resists further extension
unless applied stress is increased

Brittle fracture – ceramics, ice, cold metals

• Relatively little plastic deformation
• Crack is “unstable” : propagates rapidly
without increase in applied stress

Ductile fracture is preferred in most applications

A. Very ductile : soft metals (e.g. Pb, Au) at A. Ductile materials : extensive plastic
room temperature, other metals, polymers, deformation and energy absorption
glasses at high temperature (“toughness”) before fracture
B. Moderately ductile fractures : typical for B. Brittle fracture : little plastic deformation
ductile metals and low energy absorption before fracture
C. Brittle fracture : cold metals, ceramics
Fatigue

• When crack is subjected to cyclic loading

• Crack tip travels very short distance in each loading cycle
• Clam shell patterns in the crack surface
Fracture mechanics approach

• Determines material failure by energy criteria, possibly in conjunction with strength (or yield
criteria)
• Considers failure to be propagating throughout the structure rather than simultaneous
throughout the entire failure zone or surface
Linear elastic fracture mechanics(LEFM)
• Sharp cracks in elastic bodies
• Small scale yielding
• Brittle or quasi-brittle fracture
Dynamic fracture mechanics(DFM)
Predict the speed and direction of its growth
It is important to predict whether a crack will grow or
not. It is also essential to predict the speed and
direction of its growth. Theories and methods for this
purpose are the subject of Dynamic Fracture Mechanics
(DFM).
Non-linear fracture mechanics
• Large plastic crack tip zone (large plastic zone)
• Ductile fracture
• Crack growth criteria can no longer be formulated with LEFM method
When the plastic crack tip zone is too large, the stress and strain fields from LEFM are not valid
any more. This is also the case when the material behavior is nonlinear elastic (e.g. in polymers
and composites). Crack growth criteria can no longer be formulated with the stress intensity
factor. In Elastic-Plastic Fracture Mechanics (EPFM) or Non-Linear Fracture Mechanics
(NLFM) criteria are derived, based on the Crack Tip Opening Displacement. Its calculation is
possible using models of Irwin or Dugdale-Barenblatt for the crack tip zone. Another crack
growth parameter, much used in NLFM, is the J-integral, which characterizes the stress /
deformation state in the crack tip zone.
Griffith Energy Criterion

• Crack extension occurs when the energy available for crack growth is sufficient to overcome
the resistance of the material.
• Material resistance : Surface energy, plastic work, other types of energy dissipation
associated with a propagating crack
• If Energy release rate exceeds critical energy release rate(measure of fracture toughness,
crack growth is initiated )

• П : Potential Energy
• W : External work
• U : Strain Energy
• S : Surface energy used for crack growth

• G : Energy release rate

• Gc: Critical Energy release rate
Griffith’s experiments

In 1921 Griffith determined experimentally

the fracture stress σb of glass fibers as a
function of their diameter. For d > 20 μm the
bulk strength of 170 MPa was found.
However, σb approached the theoretical
strength of 14000 MPa in the limit of zero
thickness
Griffith new of the earlier (1913) work of Inglis
who calculated stress concentrations at circular
holes in plates, being much higher than the nominal Fracture strength of glass fibers in
stress. He concluded that in his glass fibers such relation to their thickness
stress concentrations probably occurred around
defects and caused the discrepancy between
theoretical and experimental fracture stress. He
reasoned that for glass fibers with smaller
diameters, there was less volume and less chance
for a defect to exist in the specimen.

In the limit of zero volume there would be no defect and the theoretical strength would be found
experimentally. Griffith published his work in 1921 and his paper can be seen as the birth of
Fracture Mechanics. It was shown in 1976 by Parratt, March en Gordon, that surface defects
instead of volume defects were the cause for the limiting strength.
Stress intensity approach
• Analyze stress field near crack-tip
• Fracture must occur at critical stress intensity K value (Another fracture toughness
measurement)
• Crack is initiated when KI≥KIC
• Three Crack loading modes are introduced
• Mode 1 : Opening mode
• Mode 2 : Sliding mode
• Mode 3 : Tearing mode
For the plate subjected to tensile stress
Time dependent crack growth and damage tolerance
• Rate of cracking can be correlated with fracture mechanics parameter such as the stress-
intensity factor
• Crack size for failure can be computed if the fracture toughness is known.
• Fatigue crack growth rate in metals.

• da/dN : Crack growth per cycle

• ΔK : Stress intensity range
• C, m : Material constants
Non-linear fracture mechanics
Energy criterion and stress intensity factor is
only valid for brittle fracture.
• At very high fracture toughness, LEFM is no
longer valid
• Non-linear fracture mechanics bridges the
gap between LEFM and collapse
Basic Fracture Mechanics Concepts
It should be clear that fracture is a significant problem in the industrialized world and that a
theoretical and practical basis for design against fracture is needed. Fracture mechanics deals
essentially with the following questions: Given a structure or machine component with a
preexisting crack or crack-like flaw what loads can the structure take as a function of the crack
size, configuration and time? Given a load and environmental history how fast and in what
directions will a crack grow in a structure? At what time or number of cycles of loading will the
crack propagate catastrophically? What size crack can be allowed to exist in component and still
operate it safely? This last question may surprise you. Perhaps you would say that any crack, any
flaw, is not allowable in the jet aircraft that carries your family across the ocean. Unfortunately
such an aircraft does not exist. We must face reality square-on, recognize that flaws exist and to
the very best of our ability, design our structures, monitoring protocols and maintenance
procedures to ensure a low probability of failure by fracture. Doing so will save lives. Ignoring
fracture could, in addition to the loss of life, bring down an entire corporation or industry and the
livelihoods of thousands.
Fracture can and is being approached from many scales. For example at the atomic level,
fracture can be viewed as the separation of atomic planes. At the scale of the microstructure of
the material, the grains in a polycrystalline material, or the fibers in a composite, the fracture of
the material around these features can be studied to determine the physical nature of failure.
From the engineering point of view, the material is treated as a continuum and through the
analysis of stress, strain and energy we seek to predict and control fracture.
Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM)
first assumes that the material is isotropic and linear elastic. Based on the assumption, the stress
field near the crack tip is calculated using the theory of elasticity. When the stresses near the
crack tip exceed the material fracture toughness, the crack will grow.

In Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics, most formulas are derived for either plane
stresses or plane strains', associated with the three basic modes of loadings on a cracked
body: opening, sliding, and tearing . LEFM is valid only when the inelastic deformation is small
compared to the size of the crack, what we called small-scale yielding

Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics LEFM provides our customers with powerful solutions to
mitigate many damage mechanisms.
Griffith and Irwin
Two 20th century researchers on whose work the modern subject of Fracture Mechanics
is constructed.
A far more fundamental piece of research had already been carried out by A.A. Griffiths, a
British physicist who, in 1920, had addressed the problem of why glass fibers fracture at stress
levels approximately two orders of magnitude below their theoretical strength. Griffiths
recognized that the separation of glass is a fracture dominated process in which fracture is
inevitable if the extension of an existing crack lowers the overall energy of the system. This
apparently very simple concept is an example of an energy balance (thermodynamic)
approach to fracture in which the decrease in elastic strain energy of the cracked body is
counteracted by the energy needed or required to create the two new crack surfaces.

The major advance on this earlier theory was due to G.R. Irwin, who in the late 1940s pointed
out that to apply a Griffith criterion to the fracture of metallic materials required that instead of
considering the energy balance as being between the strain energy of the body and the surface
energy term, as is the case for a truly brittle material like glass, the energy balance for a metallic
material should be between the elastic strain energy and the surface energy plus the work done in
plastic deformation. Most importantly Irwin also recognized that for a metallic material the work
done in producing the plastic deformation is invariably orders of magnitude greater than the
surface energy term.

Thus the basis for fracture mechanics came about with the definition of a material property G
which is defined as the total energy absorbed during a unit increment of crack length per unit
thickness. Nowadays G is invariably referred to as the strain energy release rate.
Only a few years later Irwin made a further fundamental step by showing that it was possible to
reconcile the concept of a critical stress intensity causing fracture, Kc, with the idea of a critical
value of the strain energy release rate, Gc. The realization that the strain energy and stress
intensity approaches to the prediction of fracture are equivalent led to a rapid development in the
discipline of Linear Elastic Fracture Mechanics (LEFM) which allows engineers to predict what
defects are tolerable in a given structure under known loading conditions — the basic goal of
Fracture Mechanics.

2.1 The theoretical stress approach to fracture

2.11 An Atomistic Model

In general, failure of a solid is characterized by separation of
the body. At the atomistic level the fracture strength of a
“perfect” material depends on the strength of its atomic bonds.
Consider two arrays of atoms in a perfect crystal as shown in
Figure 2.1. Let a0 be the equilibrium spacing between atomic
planes in the absence of applied stresses. The stress required to
separate the planes to a distance a > a0 increases until the
theoretical strength σc is reached and the bonds are broken.
Further displacements of the atoms can occur under a
decreasing applied stress (see Figure 2.2). This stress-
displacement curve can be approximated by a sine curve Figure (1)
(Figure 2.3) having wavelength as
Atomic planes in a perfect crystal
 Cohesive force versus
separation between atoms.

Cohesive force
between atoms

Figure (3) Figure (2)

… (2.1)

Where x = a - a0 is the relative displacement between the atoms.

At small displacement x we have

and, thus,
… (2.2)

The modulus of elasticity is … (2.3)

Using Eqs. (2.2) and (2.3), we obtain

Or … (2.4)

A reasonable value for λ is λ= ao , which yields the bond strength

… (2.5)

2.1.2 The energy balance approach

Theoretical strength may also be estimated using the simple atomic model with a surface energy
concept. We now define a quantity called the surface energy (energy per unit area) as the work
done in creating new surface area by the breaking of atomic bonds. From the sine-curve
approximation of the atomic force (see Figure 2.3), this is simply one-half the area under the
stress-displacement curve since two new surfaces are created each time a bond is broken. Thus,
 from which
… (2.6)

… (2.7)
However, from Eq. (2.4),

We obtain from substitution of Eq. (2.7) in Eq. (2.6)

Finally,
… (2.8)

Alan Griffith’s work on brittle fracture of glass was motivated by the desire to explain the
discrepancy between the theoretical strength and actual strength of materials.
According to the preceding theoretical strength calculation, we may conclude that glass should
be very strong. However, laboratory test results often indicate otherwise. Griffith argued that
what we must account for is not the strength but rather the weakness, which is normally dominant
in the failure process. Griffith postulated that all bulk glasses contain numerous minute flaws in
the form of microcracks that act as stress concentration generators.
The solution of an elliptic hole in a plate of infinite extent
under tension by Inglis was the first step toward relating
observed failure stress to ultimate strength. He solved the
problem as shown in Figure 2.4 and found that the greatest
stress occurs at the ends of the major axis:

… (2.9)
Or

If a = b (a circular hole), then σyy= 3σ, which yields the

well-known stress concentration factor near a circular
hole. If b 0, then we have a “line crack,” and the
stress σyy increases without limit. If a stress-based failure FIGURE 2.4
criterion is used to predict the extension of such a “crack,” An elliptic hole in an infinite
one would find the unreasonable answer that any amount plate subjected to tension.
of applied stress would cause the crack to grow.

Griffith took an energy balance point of view and reasoned that the unstable propagation of a
crack must result in a decrease in the strain energy of the system (for a body with a fixed
boundary where no work is done by external forces during the crack extension), and proposed
that a crack would advance when the incremental release of energy dW associated with a crack
extension da in a body becomes greater than the incremental increase of surface energy dWS as
new crack surfaces are created.
That is, … (2.10)
Inglis
In 1913, a man named C.E. Inglis looked at a thin plate of glass with an elliptical hole in the
middle in a new and different way. Theoretically, the plate was infinitely large and the hole very
small in comparison. The plate was pulled at both ends perpendicular to the ellipse. He found
that point A, at the end of the ellipse, was feeling the most pressure. He also found that as the
ratio of a/b gets bigger (the ellipse gets longer and thinner) that the stress at A becomes greater
and greater.

He also found that pulling on the plate in a direction

parallel to the ellipse does not produce a great stress at
A. This leads to the fact that a load perpendicular, not
parallel, to the crack will make it grow.
Radius

𝝆=

Stress
The equality indicates the critical point for crack propagation. In other words, if the supply of
energy from the cracked plate is equal to or greater than the energy required to create new crack
surfaces, the crack can extend.

It is easy to calculate the surface energy for a crack (having two crack tips) with length 2a, that
is,
… (2.11)

in which γ is the surface energy density and the fact that two crack surfaces for a crack has been
accounted for.

Griffith used Inglis’ solution to obtain the total energy released W due to the presence of a crack
of length 2a in an infinite two-dimensional body. His method for calculating energy release was
very complicated since he considered the energy change in the body as a whole. He obtained, for
plane strain,
… (2.12)

and for plane stress,

… (2.13)

Thus, the critical stress σcr under which the crack would start propagating may be obtained by
substituting Eqs. (2.11) and (2.12) or Eq. (2.13) into Eq. (2.10):
From this equation, we have

or … (2.14)

Similarly, for plane stress we have

… (2.15)

Comparing the previous critical stress σcr, or the fracture strength of the infinite plate with a
crack of microscopic or macroscopic length 2a, and the theoretical strength σc in Eq. (2.8), we
note σc ≫ σcr if a ≫ ao. This explains qualitatively why actual strengths of materials are much
smaller than their theoretical strengths.
The energy released dW for a crack extension of da can be expressed in terms of the “strain
energy release rate per crack tip” G as

… (2.16)
Thus,
… (2.17)

… (2.18)

The instability condition then reads

… (2.19)

The value of G when equal to 2γ is denoted by Gc and is called the fracture toughness or the
crack-resistant force of the material. This is, in fact, the Griffith energy criterion of brittle
fracture. In theory, a crack would extend in a brittle material when the load produces an energy
release rate G equal to 2γ . However, such an energy release rate turns out to be much smaller
than the test data since most materials are not perfectly brittle and plastic deformation occurs
near the crack tip.
The Griffith theory for fracture of perfectly brittle elastic solids is founded on the principle of
energy conservation that is, energy added to and released from the body must be the same as that
dissipated during crack extension. It states that, during crack extension of da, the work done dWe
by external forces, the increment of surface energy dWS, and the increment of elastic strain
energy dU must satisfy
… (2.20)

For a conservative force field, this condition can be expressed in the form

… (2.21)

where
WS = total crack surface energy associated with the entire crack
U = total elastic strain energy of the cracked body
V = total potential of the external forces

Note that a negative dV implies a positive work

dWe done by external forces.
Consider a single-edge-cracked elastic specimen
subjected to a tensile load P or displacement as
shown in Figure 2.5. The relationship between the
applied tensile
FIGURE 2.5
A single-edge-cracked specimen
force P and the elastic extension, or displacement, δ, is

… (2.22)

where S denotes the elastic compliance of the specimen containing the crack. The strain energy
stored in this specimen is

… (2.23)

The compliance S is a function of the crack length. The incremental strain energy under the
condition of varying a and P is

… (2.24)

Case 2.1
Suppose that the boundary is fixed during the extension of the crack so that

δ= SP = constant

Consequently,

d δ= SdP+PdS = 0
from which we obtain
SdP = - PdS

Substitution of the preceding equation into Eq. (2.24) yields

… (2.25)

Furthermore, dWe = 0 in this case because dδ = 0 and, thus, the external load does no work.
Substituting Eq. (2.25) into Eq. (2.20) and using dWe = 0, we have

… (2.26)

Thus, a decrease in strain energy U is compensated by an increase of the same amount in the
surface energy. In other words, the energy consumed during crack extension is entirely supplied
by the strain energy stored in the cracked body.

Case 2.2
Suppose that the applied force is kept constant during crack extension; then

dP = 0
From Eq. (2.24) we have
… (2.27)

Thus, there is a gain in strain energy during crack extension in this case. Moreover, we note that

… (2.28)

Substituting Eqs. (2.27) and (2.28) into Eq. (2.20), we again obtain Eq. (2.26), that is,

which is half of the work done by the external force. It is interesting to note that the work done by
the external force is split equally into the surface energy and an increase in strain energy.

For both boundary conditions discussed before, the energy released during crack extension is

The corresponding energy release rate is

… (2.29)

Hence, the strain energy release rate is independent of the type of loading.
The two loading cases can be illustrated graphically as in Figures 2.6a and 2.6b, respectively. In
the figures, point B indicates the beginning of crack extension and point C the termination of
crack extension. The area OBC is the strain energy released, dW. It can be shown rather easily
from the graphic illustration that the energies released in the two cases are equal. Under the
fixed load condition, we have

Thus, the energy release rate can be obtained with

… (2.30)

in which the differentiation is performed assuming that the applied load is independent of a.

Under the fixed displacement condition, we

have dW = - dU, and hence

… (2.31)

In the previous equation, the applied load P

should be considered as a function of crack
length a in the differentiation. The result should
be the same as that given by Eq. (2.30). It is FIGURE 2.6
noted that the relation dW = dU = dWe/2 is not Energy released during crack extension: (a)
true for nonlinear solids. constant load, (b) constant displacement.
Example 2.1
The double cantilever beam (DCB) is often used for measuring fracture toughness of materials.
Consider the geometry shown in Figure 2.7 where b is the width of the beam, and the crack
length a is much larger than h and, thus, the simple beam theory is suitable for modeling the
deflection of the two split beams.
Noting that the unsplit portion of the DCB is not subjected to any load and that in each leg the
bending moment is M = Px, we calculate the total strain energy stored in the two legs of the DCB
as

where

The total strain energy per unit width is

The strain energy release rate is obtained as

FIGURE 2.7
A double cantilever beam
subjected to concentrated
If the fracture toughness Gc of the material is known, then the
forces.
load that could further split the beam is
The Griffith approach can be applied to other crack shape. For
example, the fracture stress for a penny-shaped flow embedded
in the material Fig.2.8 is given by

𝜋𝐸𝛾𝑠
𝜎𝑓 = … (2.32)
2𝑎 1 − ν2

Where a is the crack radius and ʋ is a Poissonʾs ratio

Figure (2.8) penny-shaped

(circular) crack embedded in a
solid subjected to a remote
tensile stress

The Griffith model is based on a global energy balance: for fracture to occur, the energy
stored in the structure must be sufficient to overcome the surface energy of the material. Since
fracture involves breaking bonds, the stress on the atomic level must be ≥ the cohesive stress.
This local stress intensification can be provided by flaws in the material.
Modified Griffith Equation
Equation (2.15) is valid only for ideally brittle solids. Griffith obtained good agreement between
Eq. (2.15) and experimental fracture strength of glass, but the Griffith equation severely
underestimates the fracture strength of metals.
Irwin and Orowan independently modified the Griffith expression to account for materials that
are capable of plastic flow. The revised expression is given by

2𝐸(𝛾𝑠+ 𝛾𝑝 )
𝜎𝑓 = … (2.33)
𝑎π

Where 𝛾𝑝 is the plastic work per unit area of surface created, and is typically much lager than 𝛾𝑠

In an ideally brittle solid, a crack can be formed merely by breaking atomic bonds; 𝛾𝑠 reflects the
total energy of broken bonds in a unit area. When a crack propagates through a metal, however,
dislocation motion occurs in the vicinity of the crack tip, resulting in addition energy dissipation.

Although, Irwin and Orowan originally derived eq. (2.33) for metals, it is possible to generalize
the Griffith model to account for any type of energy dissipation.
Example 2.2
A flat plate made from a brittle material contains a macroscopic through-thickness crack with
half length a1 and notch tip radius ρ. A sharp penny-shaped microcrack with radius a2 is located
near the tip of the larger flaw, as illustrated in Fig. 2.9. estimate the minimum size of the
microcrack to cause failure in the plate when the Griffith equation is satisfied by the global stress
and a1.

Solution: The nominal stress at failure is obtained by substituting a1 into eq. (2.15)
The stress in the vicinity of the microcrack can be estimated from eq. (2.9) which is set equal to
the Griffith criterion for the penny-shaped microcrack eq.(2.32)

2𝐸𝛾𝑠 𝑎1 𝜋𝐸𝛾𝑠
2 =
𝜋𝑎1 𝜌 2𝑎2 1−ν2

Solving for a2 gives 𝜋2 𝜌

𝑎2 =
16 1−ν2
For ν=0.3, a2=0.68ρ. Thus the nucleating microcrack
must be approximately the size of the macroscopic crack Figure 2.9. A sharp microcrack
tip radius. at the tip of a macroscopic crack
This derivation contains a number of simplifying assumptions. The notch tip stress computed
from eq. (2.9) is assumed to act uniformly ahead of the notch, in the region of the microcrack; the
actual stress would decay away from the notch tip. Also, this derivation neglects free boundary
effects from the tip of the macroscopic notch

1ൗ
2𝐸𝑤𝑓 2
𝜎𝑓 = … (2.34)
𝜋𝑎

Where wf is the fracture energy, which could include plastic, visco-elastic, or visco-plastic effects,
depending on the material. The fracture energy can also be influenced by crack meandering and
branching, which increase the surface area. Figure 2.10 illustrates various types of material
behavior and the corresponding fracture energy.

A word of caution is necessary when applying eq. (2.34) to materials that exhibit nonlinear
deformation. The Griffith model, in particular eq. (2.17),(2.18) applies only to linear elastic
material behavior. Thus the global behavior of the structure must be elastic. Any nonlinear
effects, such as plasticity, must be confined to a small region near the crack tip. In addition,
eq.(2.34) assumes that wf is constant; in many ductile materials, the fracture energy increases
with crack growth.
 9

Figure 2.10 crack propagation in various types of materials, with the corresponding fracture
energy
The stress intensity approach

Fig. 2.11

While the energy-balance approach provides a great deal of insight to the fracture process, an
alternative method that examines the stress state near the tip of a sharp crack directly has proven
more useful in engineering practice. The literature treats three types of cracks, termed mode I, II,
and III as illustrated in Fig. 2.11. Mode I is a normal-opening mode and is the one we shall
emphasize here, while modes II and III are shear sliding modes.

Analysis of Irwin based on Westergaard’s analysis and Williams expansions

Solution of Stresses
The boundary conditions of the crack problem are

The solution to the preceding boundary value problem was given by

Westergaard

In terms of these polar coordinates, the function ZI becomes

The derivative of ZI is obtained as

Using these expressions, the normal stress σxx is obtained as

Similarly, the other two

stress components can
be obtained:
and consequently that

The Near-Tip Solution

In fracture mechanics, crack growth is controlled by the stresses and deformations around the
crack tip. We thus study the near-tip asymptotic stress field. In the vicinity of the crack tip (say
the right tip), we have
Similarly,

Along the crack extended line ( ϴ= ϴ1 = ϴ2 = 0), these near-tip stresses are
We have the Mode I stress intensity factor KI for the crack problem as
… (2.35)

and the Mode II stress intensity factor KII = 0.

If the origin of the coordinate system (r,ϴ)is located at the crack tip, then the stress field near the
crack tip can be written in terms of the stress intensity factor KI as

… (2.36)

The KI in Eqns. (2.35) is a very important parameter known as the stress intensity factor. The I
subscript is used to denote the crack opening mode, but similar relations apply in modes II and
III. The equations show three factors that taken together depict the stress state near the crack tip:
1
the denominator factor 2𝜋𝑟 − Τ2 shows the singular nature of the stress distribution.
For the specific case of a central crack of width 2a or an edge crack of length 2a in a large sheet,
KI = σ∞√ℼa, and KI = 1.12σ∞√ ℼa for an edge crack of length a in the edge of a large sheet.
Expressions for KI for some additional geometries are given in Table 1. The literature contains
expressions for K for a large number of crack and loading geometries, and both numerical and
experimental procedures exist for determining the stress intensity factor is specific actual
geometries. Table 1: Stress intensity factors for several common geometries.
These stress intensity factors are used in design and analysis by arguing that the material can
withstand crack tip stresses up to a critical value of stress intensity, termed KIc, beyond which the
crack propagates rapidly. This critical stress intensity factor is then a measure of material
toughness. The failure stress σf is then related to the crack length a and the fracture toughness by

… (2.37)

where α is a geometrical parameter equal to 1.125 for edge cracks and generally on the order of
unity for other situations. Expressions for α are tabulated for a wide variety of specimen and
crack geometries

The stress intensity and energy viewpoints are interrelated, as can be seen by comparing Eqns.
(2.15) and (2.37) (with α = 1):

2𝐸𝛾
𝜎𝑓 = 𝜋𝑎
=

2
𝐾𝐼𝑐 = 2𝐸𝛾 This relation applies in plane stress; it is
slightly different in plane strain
2
𝐾𝐼𝑐 = 2𝐸𝛾 1 − ν2
Crack tip stress field in polar coordinates-mode I

Principal crack tip stresses

 Table 2.1 Stress and displacement fields ahead a crack tip for modes I, II, III

μ is the shear
modulus, ĸ is
Muskhelishvili’s
constant κ=3-4ν
for plane strain
and κ=(3-
ν)/(1+ν) for
plane stress
Solved Example 2.3:
Determine the cohesive strength of a silica fibre that has the following characteristics:

• This theoretical cohesive strength is exceptionally higher than the fracture strength of
engineering materials.
• This difference between cohesive and fracture strength is due to inherent flaws or defects in
the materials which lower the fracture strength in engineering materials.
• Griffith explained the discrepancy between the fracture strength and theoretical cohesive
strength using the concept of energy balance.
Example 2.4
A large steel plate is has 8 mm a long inclined central crack at 20°. If the applied stress is
200Mpa determine whether or not the plate will fracture. The fracture toughness of the steel is
𝐾𝐼𝐶 = 30 𝑀𝑝𝑎 𝑚.

Thus

The fracture stress should be calculated using eq 2.37.

Therefore, the plate will not fracture because
And 𝜎 < 𝜎𝑓 for a fixed crack length.
 Principle of Superposition
For linear elastic materials, individual components of stress, strain, and displacement are
additive. For example, two normal stresses in the x direction imposed by different external forces
can be added to obtain the total σxx, but a normal stress cannot be summed with a shear stress.
Similarly, stress intensity factors are additive as long as the mode of loading is consistent. That
is,
𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝐾𝐼𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝐼 + 𝐾𝐼 + 𝐾𝐼 + … . .

But
𝐾 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 ≠ 𝐾𝐼 + 𝐾𝐼𝐼 +𝐾𝐼𝐼𝐼

In many instances, the principle of superposition allows stress intensity solutions for complex
configurations to be built from simple cases for which the solutions are well established.
Consider, for example, an edge cracked panel (Table 2.4) subject to combined member (axial)
loading, Pm, and three point, Pb. Since both types of loading impose pure Mode I conditions, the
KI values can be added:

𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐾𝐼 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐾𝐼 𝑚𝑒𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑒 + 𝐾𝐼
1 𝑎 𝑎 Where fm and fb are the geometry
=𝐵 𝑃𝑚 𝑓𝑚 + 𝑃𝑏 𝑓𝑏
𝑊 𝑊 𝑊 correction factors for membrane and
bending loading
Fig. 2.12 plot the stress intensity
solution from Table 2.4
Crack emanating from a hole in an infinite body

a/R f(a/R)
1.01 0.3256
1.02 0.4514
1.04 0.6082
1.06 0.7104
1.08 0.7843
1.10 0.8400
1.20 0.9851
1.25 1.0168
1.30 1.0358
1.40 1.0536
1.80 1.0495