REPUBLIC OF IRAQ

MINISTRY OF HIGHER EDUCATION

AND SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH
AL-FURAT AL-AWSAT TECHNICAL
UNIVERSITY
ENGINEERING TECHNICAL
COLLEGE- NAJAF

NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

OF SOLAR WATER HEATER IN HEATING
A SPACE
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES OF POWER IN PARTIAL
FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR MASTER OF
THERMAL TECHNOLOGIES DEGREE IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING TECHNIQUES OF POWER
(M. Tech.)

BY
MOHAMMED JASIM OBAID
(B. SC. MECH. ENG. 2003)

Supervisors
Asst. prof. Dr. Dhafer M. Hachim Asst. prof.Dr. Asaad A. Alsahlanee

January 2020
 ‫بِسنِ اهللِ الزَّمحَيِ الزَّدُِنِ‬

‫قَالُىا سُبْذَاًَكَ لَا عِلْنَ لَنَا إِلَّا هَا عَلَّوْخَنَا ۖ إًَِّكَ أًَجَ‬

‫الْعَلُِنُ الْذَكُِنُ‬
‫صدق اهلل العلٍ العظُن‬

‫البقزة اَِت (‪)23‬‬

 ‫االهداء‬
‫اىل ائوت اهلدي وهصابُخ الدجً ‪ ..‬اهل بُج النبىة (علُهن افضل الصالة والسالم)‬

‫اجالال هلن مجُعا‬

‫اىل روح ابٍ ‪ ..‬إىل الذٌ وهبين كل ها ميلك دخً أدقق له آهاله‪ ،‬إىل هي كاى َدفعين قدها‬

‫حنى األهام لنُل املبخغً‪ ,‬اىل هدرسيت األوىل يف احلُاة‪..‬‬

‫إىل اهٍ‪ ..‬إىل اليت صربث علً كل شٍء‪ ،‬و كاًج دعىاها يل بالخىفُق‪ ،‬حخبعخين خطىة خطىة‬

‫يف عولٍ جشاها اهلل عين خري اجلشاء يف الدارَي‪..‬‬

‫إىل إ خٍ و أ خىاحٍ‪ ..‬الذَي حقامسىا هعٍ عبء احلُاة‪..‬‬

‫اىل اسزحٍ الصغرية‪ ،‬سوجيت رفُقت دربٍ ‪..‬‬

‫اىل اساحذحٍ وكل هي علوين دزفاً فصزث له بعلوٍ عبداً‪..‬‬

 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

In the beginning, I thank almighty Allah for all his countless grace. I thank

you, Lord, and thank you for facilitating the completion of this research on the face

that I hope you will be satisfied with me. I thank the deanship of the Technical

Engineering College/Najaf, the teaching professors, for all their great efforts. I

thank the department head of Power Mechanics for their efforts and continued

support in completing this work. I would like to express my sincere appreciation to

the supervisors, Assist. Prof. Dr. Dhafer M. Hachim and Assist. Prof. Dr. As'ad

Awad al-Sahlani for their supervision, and their keenness to complete the research

and for this provided me with their advice and give me their valuable time and

knowledge. Thanks and appreciation to Dr. Tahseen Al Badri, Head of Renewable

and Alternative Energy Unit Research who provided me with the necessary

measuring devices to conduct experimental work for the purposes of completing

the requirements of research. Last but not least; I would like to express my deep

thanks to my family for their support all my life.

I
II
III
 Abstract
In this work, solar water heaters were used to heat the space by passing a hot
fluid from the solar collector to a radiator inside the room. This work aims to save
electrical energy, and reduce environmental pollution. A numerical and
experimental study was conducted to evaluate the thermal performance of the
heating system. Experimental tests were conducted to heating a room with a 10 m2
area by using flat plate collector (FPC) solar water heater at The Engineering
Technical College in the Alternative and Renewable Energy Research unit Najaf /
Iraq (31.59o N Lat., 44.19o E Long.) within three months (January, February,
March) in 2019. The factors whose impact has been studied are (weather
conditions, working fluid type, and economic analysis of the system). The
numerical studies were obtained by COMSOL 5.3 multiphysics software to
analysis the thermal performance of a flat plate collector, where the effect of
(volume flow rate, working fluid type, and weather conditions) were studied.
Numerical results showed the optimum volume flow rate was 40 L/hr. Also, the
ethylene-glycol-water mixture achieved the highest amount of useful heat and
efficiency than other fluids at the same flow rate. The experimental results showed
that the use of engine oil grade (10w-30) as a working fluid gave the highest
amount of useful heat and efficiency at the high volume of flow rate compared to
other fluids. So the solar heating system has contributed to save electric power at a
rate of 34% of the total energy required for room heating at days test in January.
Whereas in February and March were 39.5% and 86% respectively. The economic
analysis of the use of heating systems showed that the average cost saved was
38000 IQD/month, while the payback period was 5.2 years. In the present work, the
maximum error between theoretical and experimental results does not exceed (8%).

IV
 Contents
Title Page No.
Acknowledgments I
Supervisor Certification II
Committee Report III
Abstract IV
Contents V
Nomenclature VIII
Greek symbols XI
Abbreviations XI
Subscript XII
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1 General 1
1.2 Solar energy 1
1.3 Application of solar energy 4
1.3.1 Solar heating of the building 5
1.4 Solar heaters collectors 5
1.4.1 Solar air heaters collector 6
1.4.2 Solar water heaters collector 7
1.4.2.1 Type of solar water heaters 9
1.5 Heating load of buildings 11
1.6 Solar Heating Systems Economic Analysis 11
1.7 Objective of the work 13
Chapter Two: Literature review
2.1 Introduction 13
2.2 Theoretical and numerical Studies 13
2.3 Experimental studies 19
2.4 Experimental and numerical or theoretical studies 26
2.5 Summary of results for the literature review 28
Chapter three: Theoretical Analysis
3.1 Introduction 37
3.2 Heating load calculation 37
3.3 Energy balance equations of flat plate collector 42
3.3.1 The glass cover 45
3.3.2 The air gap between the cover and the absorber 46
3.3.3 The absorber 46
3.3.4 The working fluid 47
3.3.5 The insulation 48
3.4 The useful heat and energy equations of an indoor radiator 49

V
3.5 System Modeling and Simulation 50
3.5.1 Computational domain 50
3.5.2 The Governing Differential Equations 53
3.6 Thermal efficiency of flat plate collectors 54
3.6.1 Absorbed solar radiation 55
3.6.2 Tilt angle of flat plate collector 56
3.6.2 Losses of solar collector 56
3.6.2.1 Calculations of the top heat loss coefficient of the collector 58
Chapter four: Experimental work
4.1 Introduction 61
4.2 Experimental Rig 61
4.2.1 Flat plate collector 62
4.2.2 Radiator 65
4.2.3 Electric Pump 66
4.2.4 Pipelines 66
4.3 Measurements Devices 68
4.3.1 Temperatures 68
4.3.2 Solar radiation 70
4.3.4 Wind Speed 70
4.3.5 Relative humidity 71
4.3.6. Flowmeter 72
4.5 Mechanism of the solar heating system of the room 72
4.6 The aspects that examined the experimental work 73
4.6.1 Study of the weather condition on the performance solar 74
heating system
4.6.2 Study of working fluid type on the performance solar heating 74
system
4.7 Experimental procedure 75
Chapter five: Results and Discussion
5.1 Introduction 77
5.2 Numerical results 77
5.2.1 Validation Model 77
5.2.2 Effect of the volume flow rate on the performance of the solar 79
collector
5.2.3 Effect of the working fluid on the performance of a flat plate 82
solar collector
5.2.4 Effect of the weather condition on the performance of a flat 84
plate solar collector
5.3 Experimental results 88

VI
5.3.1 Comparison between numerical and experimental results of the 88
present Work
5.3.2 Effect of the weather condition on the performance of a flat 92
plate solar collector
5.3.3 Effect of the weather condition on the performance of the 98
indoor radiator
5.3.4 Effect of the weather condition on the heating load of the room 101
5.3.5 Effect of the different working fluids on the performance of the 104
flat plate solar collector
5.3.6 Effect of using different working fluids on the performance of 109
the indoor radiator
5.3.7 Effect of using different working fluids in the solar heating 113
system on room heating
5.3.4 Losses calculation in the pipeline 119
5.4 Energy saving and cost calculations 122
Chapter six: Conclusion and Recommendations
6.1 Conclusion 126
6.1.1 Numerical study 126
6.1.2 Experimental study 127
6.2 Recommendations 127
Reference 129
Appendix A
Appendix B
Appendix C

VII
 Nomenclatures
Symbol Definition Unit
Area
-
Number of air changes per hour
Specific heat
Inner diameter of the tube in solar collector
Heat flux of solar radiation
gravitational constant
Convection heat transfer coefficient

Radiation heat transfer coefficient

Radiation heat transfer coefficient between the glass

cover and ambient air
Radiation heat transfer coefficient between the glass
cover and absorber plate
Radiation heat transfer coefficient between the absorber
plate and glass cover
Radiation heat transfer coefficient between the tube and
air of room
Radiation heat transfer coefficient between the fin and
air room
latent heat of vaporization of water
Beam radiation
Diffuse radiation
Thermal conductivity

VIII
 geographic latitude Degree
Air gap space thickness between absorber and glass
cover
Mass flow rate
Mass flow rate inlet to the solar collector
Mass flow rate inlet to single tube of collector
Number of tubes -
Nusselt number -
Prandtl number -
Gage pressure
Width of control volume of solar collector
Latent heat transfer
QL Heat losses from collector W
Sensible heat transfer
Total latent heat transfer
Total sensible heat transfer
Heating load of space
Heat transfer in the system
Heat transfer out the system
Heat generation in the system
Useful heat
Rayleigh number -
Thermal resistance
Beam radiation tilt factor -
Total thermal resistance

IX
 Maximum solar heat gain factor
Shading Coefficient -
S Absorbed Solar Radiation (W)
o
T Temperature C
U Overall heat transfer coefficient
Overall heat losses coefficient of the solar collector
Us Internal energy of the system
Volume
Infiltration volume flow rate
Wind speed
Fluid velocity at y-direction
Fluid velocity at x-direction
Fluid velocity at z-direction
Indoor humidity ratio -
Outdoor humidity ratio -

X
 Greek Symbols
Absorptivity coefficient -
Tilt angle of solar collector degree
́ volumetric coefficient of expansion
Thickness
Δ Change in Variable -

Emissivity coefficient -

Thermal efficiency -

Kinetic viscosity m2/s

τ Transitivity coefficient -

Boltzmann constant

Abbreviations
Symbol Description
CPC Compound parabolic collector
COP Coefficient of performance
CWSC Concentrating water solar collector
DHW Domestic hot water
ETC Evacuated tube collector
FPC Flat plate collector
HTF Heat transfer fluid
ICS integrated collector storage
PCM Phase change material
SWH Solar water heaters
PIV Particle Image Velocimetry

XI
 Subscripts
Symbols Definition
a Air gap
ab Absorber plate
am Ambient air
f Working fluid
fin The fin
g Glass cover of collector
ins Insulation of collector
inf Infiltration
M Moist air
collector
Floor
Roof
t Tube
w Wall
Outlet fluid of solar collector
Inlet fluid of solar collector
Outlet fluid of the radiator
Inlet fluid of the radiator
Room air
Outdoor

XII
CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION
Chapter one INTRODUCTION

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General:

The process of heating buildings consume a large amount of energy, which

makes them very economically expensive. Heating of buildings facing many
challenges to using traditional energy sources, including the lack of supplying of
electric power and high costs and pollution of the environment due to the use of
fossil fuels. The increase in population leads to increased demand for energy
consumption and thus the problem of pollution is constantly increasing, which
affects human health and lead to global warming. Many countries have resorted to
the use of alternative energy sources to meet some of their energy needs, the most
important of these alternative energy source is solar energy. Solar energy is used to
heating buildings by solar heating systems. Solar energy is a sustainable, clean and
free source that contributes to solving the problem of electricity shortage, reducing
environmental pollution, saving high costs of energy consumption and investing in
these systems to achieve economic feasibility.

1.2 Solar Energy

Solar radiation is radiant light and heat emitted by the sun, which is a huge
source of energy. Solar radiation travels in the form of electromagnetic waves that
travel across space uniformly in all directions to reach Earth and other plant. Solar
radiation loses approximately half of its energy as a result of its reflection in the
atmosphere and clouds (Dickinson 1983)[1]. When sunlight passes through the
atmosphere, it is devalued as a part of it which is absorbed as it passes through

1
Chapter one INTRODUCTION

different layers of the atmosphere. Very short wavelengths such as X-rays and
gamma rays are absorbed in the ionosphere at very high altitudes. The Ozone layer
absorbs relatively longer waves in the ultraviolet region at the height of 15 to 40
km above the Earth's surface (Torres et al. 1998)[2]. In the closest atmosphere
some of the infrared beams are absorbed by water vapor and carbon dioxide. Solar
radiation reaching the Earth's surface lies primarily in the wavelength range from
0.29 to 2.5 μm (Reach et al. 2009)[3]. Furthermore, part of the radiation is
dispersed and intercepted from dry air, water vapor, and suspended dust particles.
As a result of the absorption of the atmosphere of part of the radiation and the
dispersion of the other part, the energy loaded in the radiation decreases its value
before reaching the earth surface as shown in Figure.1.1. Also it depends on the
degree of shortness of radiation along the path in the atmosphere and the nature of
the atmosphere in this path( Wald 2018)[4].

Fig 1.1: Shows the loss of solar radiation as it reaches the Earth's surface (Kim 2018)[5]

2
 Chapter one INTRODUCTION

Solar radiation consists of direct and diffuse radiation. Direct radiation

reaches the surface directly without contraindications. Diffuse radiation is radiation
that reaches the Earth's surface indirectly from the sun as a result of reflections
occurring as it passes through the atmosphere and clouds.

Iraq is located in the Middle East region, which is characterized by high rates
of solar radiation in most months of the year, as shown in Figure1.2. This feature
makes Iraq distinguished from many countries to take advantage of solar energy in
various fields, in fields of generation of electric power and the use of solar water
heaters, especially Iraq suffers from a constant shortage of electricity.

Fig. 1.2: Shows the rates of solar radiation distribution in Iraq (Al-kayiem 2019)[6]

3
Chapter one INTRODUCTION

1.3 Application of Solar Energy

The sun is the most important source of energy in the earth. It is considered a
cause of the presence of other sources of energy. It cannot be dispensed in any way.
( Kalogirou, 2008)[7]. At the last nineteenth century, humans began to use fossil
and nuclear energy sources, ignoring solar energy and developing methods to avoid
many of the problems and complications of the current era of depletion of fossil
fuels, high prices, and environmental pollution. Scientific development and
technologies have opened up broad prospects for increasing energy demand in all
commercial, industrial, and social fields. There is a growing need for renewable
energy sources, which differ in form and combine in their sources.(Deceased and
Beckman n.d.)[8]. Applications of solar energy for electrical and thermal energy
remain the most important and most accessible sources of energy for easy design,
ease of maintenance and achieved high economic feasibility in long-term use. The
widespread applications of solar energy are [9, 10, 11, 12 and 13]:

1. Solar heaters: Solar heaters have several uses: household usage, heating of
buildings, drying ,and industrial applications.
2. Solar distillation: Solar energy is used to convert salt water into potable
water by solar distillers in desert and semi-arid areas where well water is
available.
3. Solar panels for electricity generation: Photovoltaics convert sunlight
falling into electrical energy and can be used directly or stored.
4. Solar Thermal Production: In thermal plants, electrical energy can be
produced depending on solar energy instead of using fossil fuels where
steam is produced by solar water heaters.
5. Solar Furnaces: In the solar furnace, the solar radiation is concentrated
using sun-tracking mirrors on a given sample which raises its temperature up
to the melting point.
4
 Chapter one INTRODUCTION

1.3.1 Solar Heating of the Building

The heat obtained from the solar collectors is transferred to the space to be
heated by using some suitable equipment to transfer the thermal energy from the
solar collector to the building. There are two types of solar heating system, one
uses air and the second uses water as a working fluid. ( Kalogirou 2008)[7]. In the
solar air heating system, the air is heated in the solar collectors and then pumping
directly into the building by a fan to warm the building or space. The design of
solar air heaters is not much different from solar water heaters except in the design
of the absorber plate (Hobbi and Siddiqui 2009)[14]. In solar water heating
systems, hot water is pumped from the solar collector to a radiator inside the space
where heat exchange is carried out either naturally or forced. A thermal storage
tank can be used in these systems to extend the working time of the system as much
as possible. The size of the tank corresponds to the area of the solar heater (Yang,
Wang, and Xiong 2017a)[15].

1.4 Solar Heaters Collectors

Solar heaters collectors work to convert solar irradiance into thermal energy
and store it for later use. A solar water heater is a combination of a solar collector
array, an energy transmission system, and a storage tank, as shown in Figure1.3.
Mechanism of working solar heaters is convert the solar energy falling on the
absorber plate into thermal energy, then the heat is transferred from the absorber to
the working fluid that passes through the tubes fixed on the absorber plate. The
working fluid is then transferred to the storage tank directly or indirectly via a heat
exchanger. Thermal energy is used in heat water for domestic usage, heating
building, generating steam, dry crops [16, 17, 18, 19 and 20].

5
Chapter one INTRODUCTION

Fig. 1.3: schematic diagram of a solar water heater system (Haq 2012)[21]

Solar heaters are divided into two types according to the working fluid used:

1.4.1 Solar Air Heaters Collector

This type of heaters uses air as a working fluid and is characterized as

cheaper and easier to operate and used to dry crops and heating building. These
systems are classified as an active system type where a fan is used to pump air from
the solar collector to the space. Although it produces thermal energy less than solar
water heaters, but the solar air heater is less susceptible to damage and works for
many years. The air temperature may rise between (20 -50) depending on the
method of insulation in the system and the volume flow rate of air and the
accumulation of dust on it ( Kalogirou 2008)[7].

6
 Chapter one INTRODUCTION

1.4.2 Solar Water Heaters Collector

Solar water heaters are used to supply hot water for domestic use, heating
buildings and heating pool water. Solar heaters can be manufactured in several
sizes to meet the needs of energy at temperatures required for water, whether warm
(below 50 ) for swimming pools or heated (60-80 ) for domestic use or boil for
steam to generate electricity, depending on the area and design of the solar heater
( Kalogirou 2008)[7]. Solar water heaters work during the day and provide hot
water directly and can be stored hot water by an insulated storage tank to cover the
need during the blocking of the sun by clouds or at night. Solar water heater
systems can be classified depending on the method of circulating the working
fluids in the system:

 Passive systems: In these systems, the circulating the working fluid inside
system does not require an external power source, but it depends on the free
convection due to the difference in temperature between water in the solar
heater and storage tank, which leads to a difference in densities, this causes
movement of fluid from the high-density to the low density. The systems that
operate in this way are called thermosiphon systems, as shown in Figure1.4.

Fig. 1.4: showed Thermosyphon phenomenon in a solar water heater(Haq 2012)[21]

7
Chapter one INTRODUCTION

These systems are more economical because they do not need an external
power source to circulate working fluid. The disadvantages of these systems, need
high temperature difference between the solar heater and the tank in order to
circulation working fluid, and the storage tank must be higher than the solar heater,
which may be large.

 Active systems: In these systems, need to external power source where the
working fluid is circulated inside the system by an electric pump. These
systems are less economical but give more heat energy due to increased
volume flow rate, thus improves the efficiency of the solar heater, as shown
in Figure1.5.

Fig. 1.5 Schematic diagram of the active solar water heater system.

8
Chapter one INTRODUCTION

There are another classification of the solar water heaters depends on the
method of heating water:

 Direct or open-loop systems: In this system, the water is heated directly in

the solar collector.
 Indirect or closed-loop systems: In these systems, water is heated indirectly
by a heat transfer fluid that is heated in the collector and passes through a
heat exchanger to transfer its heat to the domestic or service water, as shown
in Figure1.3.

1.4.2.1 Type of Solar Water Heaters

Solar water heaters are usually used in domestic uses and in some industrial
applications that require hot water at medium and low temperatures. The most
prominent types are:

1. Flat plate collector (FPC)

It is one of the most common solar heaters, especially in the residential
sector for the supplying of hot water and heating buildings. It is easy to
install, maintenance-free, longevity, and low price. This type of solar heaters
will be the focus of this study for use in heating buildings. Figure1.6 showed
main parts of flat plate collector (FPC).

Fig. 1.6: shows the components of (FPC)

9
Chapter one INTRODUCTION

2. Evacuated Tube Collector (ETC)

This type of solar water heater is widely used in home use. These
systems are characterized by the production of hot water with high
temperatures of up to 90oC due to the small thermal losses (Guo et al.
2010)[22]. Figure1.7 showed main part of (ETC).

Fig. 1.7 schematic of evacuated tube collector (ETC) [7].

3. Integrated Collector Storage Systems (ICS)

In this system, the solar heater is mounted above the storage tank. The
heat is transferred directly from the absorber to the storage tank. Hot water
is pulled from the top and cold water enters from the bottom of the tank.
One of the disadvantages of this solar heater is its large thermal losses due
to the presence of the storage tank under the heater, and a large area of it is
exposed to air.

10
 Chapter one INTRODUCTION

1.5 Heating Load of Buildings

The heating load is the maximum thermal energy that may be provided into
particular space to maintain suitable interior design condition. Heating load
calculations are performed to determine the capacity of heating equipment for a
particular space. There are several factors that affect heating calculations, the most
important of which are the internal and external conditions of the space. In addition
the building site and the properties of construction materials etc.(Kharagpur
2008)[23].The design of the interior conditions is based on the thermal comfort
standard of the occupants. While in industrial and commercial applications, the
interior conditions are designed to suit the production requirements or conditions
suitable for storage. External design conditions are based on dry bulb temperature
and wet bulb temperature in conjunction with the peak winter months. In other
words, heat load calculations lead to guessing the amount of heat loss from the
building during the winter and determining the required heating capacity [24, 25,
26, 27, 28 and 29].

1.6 Solar Heating Systems Economic Analysis

Solar energy is a free source of energy, but the equipment for collecting and
transporting this energy is costly. Solar systems have high primary costs versus low
operating costs. Therefore, when deciding to use solar heating systems it should be
less than the cost of traditional systems to perform the same task. There must be an
economic study that compares the initial cost with the operating and maintenance
costs, and to have good knowledge of the various solar systems and components to
determine the long-term thermal performance to obtain a realistic analysis and
evaluation of the economic feasibility of these systems, so we get a convincing
result for customers wishing to use these systems. Economic analysis also includes
determining the correct size of the heating system for a particular application that

11
Chapter one INTRODUCTION

gives as much thermal energy as possible at the expense of using a conventional

system. Life cycle analysis of the solar heating system reflects the cumulative
benefits of solar energy use compared to conventional fossil fuel systems. In the
long-term, the use of solar heating system saves cost after the end of the payback
period compared to conventional heating devices. Life cycle analysis should
include the initial and operating costs of a solar heating system and include the
purchase of materials for the system and operation fuel and electricity costs for
pumps, and maintenance( Kalogirou 2008)[7]. An important factor in the economic
study is the payback period which means the length of time required (in years) to
covering the initial investment cost by calculating the energy provided by the solar
heating system compared to using conventional heating systems.

1.7 Objective of the Work

This work aims to achieve the following goals:

1- Construction a solar heating system for individual room and

experimentally tested. Then calculating the amount of useful heat
supplied by the system to heat the space and study the economic
analysis.
2- Calculating the room's heating load in different climatic conditions for
some days in January, February and March 2019 in the Najaf city.
3- Studying of the effect of the climatic conditions of the Najaf city on the
thermal performance of the solar heating system.
4- Test different working fluids on the thermal performance of the solar
heating system, as well as changing the amount of flow rate.

12
 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW
Chapter two Literature review

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Solar water heaters have undergone several developments by researchers

during the past years to make them more efficient, via reducing production costs
and increase the period of operation to achieve the highest possible economic
feasibility within the highest specifications give high efficiency. These studies
included the thermal performance of solar heaters for heating buildings and
supplying hot water for domestic use under different operating conditions.

Researchers have varied their studies and methodologies in assessing the

thermal performance of solar heaters. This chapter includes theoretical and
numerical studies, experimental studies, and experimental and numerical
studies.

2.2 Theoretical and Numerical Studies

(Morrison and Braun 1985)[30] studied numerically thermosyphon
approach to assess performance of solar water heaters which has two models:
horizontal and vertical storage tank. There was a discrepancy between
simulation results and data recorded from two locations. Results showed that
the best performance of the solar water heater works by thermosiphon
method when the daily production of hot water is approximately equal to the
amount of daily consumption. The study showed that the horizontal tank
system was the best performance during the day from the vertical tank
system.

13
Chapter two Literature review

(Morrison et al. 2005)[31] investigated the flow rate of the circulation

for the evacuated tube which is closed from one end using simulation model
for a flow rate of water which related with heat transfer in an evacuated tube
and flow measurement by Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV). Then worked
non-dimensional correlation for circulation rate diffuse in collector tilted at
an angle 450. This study showed that there is agreement between simulation
and experimental results. The circulation flow rate inside tubes depends
mainly on two factors, the rate of radiation intensity received by absorber
surface and temperature of the storage tank. They found that the natural
convection circulation rate can reach 35kg/h at a maximum rate of radiation
intensity and temperature of the storage tank is 60 .
(Chow et al. 2006)[32] evaluated produce of the Domestic Hot Water
(DHW) in high- rise virtual building in Hong Kong by fixing central Solar
Water Heaters (SWH) in the south and west vertical facades for building.
The economic feasibility study was carried out in terms of technical and cost
aspects. The results of the numerical model reported that the evaluated
annual thermal energy produced was 904 GJ, and the thermal efficiency of
solar water heater collector was 38.4%, average annual hot water
temperature achieved was 41.4 and the payback period was 9.2 years.
This period may be less if the electricity consumption of air-cooled
appliances is taken into consideration due to the blocking of direct solar
radiation on the facades of the building on which the solar collector is
installed.
(Ucar and Inalli 2008)[33] searched in the comparative study of the
thermal and economic performance of the central solar water heaters with
seasonal storage in Turkey. Evaluation by using Simulation models for three
types of seasonal storage: storage tank without insulation, another one with

14
Chapter two Literature review

insulation both mounted on ground and storage tank buried underground

without insulation. Two types of collectors examined: a flat plate collector
and evacuated tube collector. The results explained that the system with
storage tank underground gives higher saving energy form other system and
achieve higher solar fraction equivalent to three load sizes. Moreover, when
the area of collector increased the solar fraction was also increased for three
seasonal storage type.
(Mateus and Oliveira 2009)[34] presented the study to evaluate the
possibility of utilization from solar energy to conditioning air applications.
Combination of solar absorption cooling and heating system are adopted to
reduce conventional fuel consumption that causes harmful environmental
pollutants. The basic assessment was based on a simulation model by using
TRNSYS software tools for different building such as hotel, residence, and
office. Three different locations which have different climates are choosing
which was Rome (Italy), Lisbon (Portugal) and Berlin (Germany).the results
estimated that an annual solar fraction was between (20% - 60%). The use of
solar integration for a single-family house and the hotel achieve maximum
economic feasibility. Only Rome city has potential to attain tie case. It
concluded the solar integration contribute to reduction exploitation costs
between 35% and 45%.
(Hobbi and Siddiqui 2009)[ 14] studied the performance of solar water
heaters with an indirect forced flow rate to provide domestic hot water for a
single-family house in Montreal, Canada using flat plate collector and
evaluated by simulation using TRNSYS software tool to analyze all main
design parameters for system and collector and determining the optimum
value for it. The solar fraction was considered as an optimization parameter.
The simulation results explained that the rapid increases of solar fraction and
collector efficiency when circulation rate increases. And the system can
15
Chapter two Literature review

produce 83–97% in summer and 30–62% in winter from hot water needs.
They found the collector non-selective coated locally made can provide 54%
from annual water heating demands which obtained by solar energy.
(Allen et al. 2010)[35] searched the impact of environmental and
economical for integrated assessment of solar water heaters for the housing
sector in the UK. Energy evaluation performed by reducing dependence on
the conventional energy source: electrical heater, oil boiler, and gas boiler.
then integrated with solar water heaters which can be stopped or reduce
using traditional energy sources, especially fossil fuels. as a result, it reduces
carbon emissions. The economic assessment explained in current time have
high costs and give a negative indication of the various scenarios assessed.
Future anticipation refers to reduce capital costs, which contribute to
enhancing the economics of performance. The results refer to the annual
energy produced of (SWH) was 1940–3520 MJ while the range of solar
fraction was 28–52%.
(Ayompe et al. 2011)[36] a developed comparative study to validate
the performance of solar water heaters with forced flow rate using flat plate
collector and evacuated tube collector installed in Dublin, Ireland. The
comparison was performed by simulation models with TRNSYS software
tool for (FPC), (ETC) collectors. Also, they verified the validity of the model
with measured data that is more acceptable in simulations with long-term
performance under different operating and weather conditions. Results of
modeling and trail field data in term percentage mean absolute errors for
output temperature of collectors and heat collected by collector and heat
delivered to load of 16.9%,14.1%, and 6.9% respectively for the flat plate
collector, and 18.4%, 16.8% and 7.6% respectively for evacuated tube
collector.

16
Chapter two Literature review

(Serale et al. 2014)[37] presented the enhance of thermal performance

of a flat plate collector which produces limited temperature. Thermal
enhancement can be achieved by using latent heat. which can be obtained by
fitted slurry phase change material (PCS) with water and surfactants. So heat
carried the fluid are evaluated. This study suggested that conceptual
proposals to an integrated solar thermal system with slurry (PCMs) were
presented. Also, a prototypal system based on n-eicosane (PCS) was
developed. This leads to give the system thermo-physical and rheological
properties and material behavior that interest flat-plate solar thermal
collectors. To interface possible problems is to use of PCSs as Heat Transfer
Fluid (HTF) such as clogging in pipes, high-pressure drop, some
sedimentation in the storage tank and capsule rupture as a result of pumping
work.
(Ekramian et al. 2014) [38] investigated numerically analysis was
used to study the effect of different parameters on thermal efficiency of flat
plate solar collectors. Various geometries and operating conditions were
examined in order to assess the influence of riser position, shape of tube area
section, mass flow rate, absorber thickness, absorber material, absorber
absorptivity, and glass transmissivity on thermal efficiency of solar
collectors. Results show that the efficiency of collector with risers on top of
the absorber plate is 4.2% more than that of the collector with risers on
bottom. Also the tube cross-sectional geometry shows strong effect on the
efficiency. the efficiency of collectors with circular tubes is 38.4% more than
that of collectors with triangular cross sections. Thermal efficiency of solar
collectors increases with increasing the fluid flow rate, plate absorptivity,
absorber thickness, and glass transmissivity.
(Yao et al. 2015)[39] evaluated performance of solar water heaters of
single tube collector inserts inside it a twisted tape. A simulation model
17
Chapter two Literature review

studied flow rate and heat transfer inside the tube. Numerical data explained
that the twisted tube decreases velocity value and makes temperature field
uniform. For series of investigations, mean result number of (SWH) with a
relative twisted ratio of the twisted tape (m) 2.5m and 4m respectively was
1.07% less and 9.29% higher than the ordinary solar water heater.

(Guo et al. 2017)[22] analyzed the thermal performance and

economics of solar water heaters, through optimal correspond between
collector area and storage tank size for heating space applications. The
simulation results showed that the (SWH) using for heating space, the perfect
ratio between storage tank size and collector area relies on total area of
collector, and analysis the examined model gives reasonable accuracy
(±10%) for transient storage temperature distribution and (±3%) for
accumulated heat flow accumulated over the entire heating season.

(Sami et al. 2018)[40] investigated the energetic and economic

possibility of the integration of flat plate collector solar water heaters system
with high energy performance housing. They choose four houses in different
locations to have a distinct climatic zone in Algeria to study this case. The
evaluation based on calculations depending on using F-Chart method (which
is empirical to characterize the long-term performance of solar heating
systems) with monthly meteorological data characterizing each region. The
study focused on finding the optimum solar collector area, which minimized
the cost of installation in versus economic and energetic aspects. The results
showed that the(SWH) contributed to saving the traditional energy reach to
46% and 57% in northern and southern regions respectively and in the same
time-saving in the annual operating cost of the solar system reached 51% and
69% respectively.
18
Chapter two Literature review

2.3 Experimental Studies:

(Naphon et al. 2008)[41] studied improvement thermal efficiency of

the heat pipe by enhancement thermal properties for working fluids over
alteration fluid transport and flow characteristic of working fluid. The heat
pipe experience using nanofluids (alcohol and titanium nanoparticles) and
compared the output when heat pipe working with fluid transport was
de-ionic water once and alcohol again. The results showed when volume
concentration of nanoparticle was 0.10%, the thermal efficiency has
improved 10.60% higher than that with the based working fluid.
(Reindl et al. 2008)[42] modified the thermal storage system of the
solar water heaters which work with indirect circulation: external heat
exchanger and storage tank. The modified system uses a spiral-jacketed
storage tank which achieves the function of heat exchanger and storage tank.
The experimental results showed a decrease in the thermal performance of
the modified system in ranges between (6%-11%) compared with the
conventional system. So this leads to an increase in the temperature of fluid
supply to collector thus heat losses in collector increased.
(Al-Madani 2006)[43] evaluated experimentally of cylindrical solar
water heaters which consist of cylindrical glass tube has length 0.8m, outer
diameter 0.14m and thickness of 6 mm. coil tube made from coppers has
shaped as spiral rings. The tube has inner and outer diameter 2mm and
3.175mm respectively. The system was tested during March and April 2002.
The result showed that the maximum temperature difference between inside
and outside of (SWH) was 27.81 at a circulation rate of 9 kg/h. Maximum
thermal efficiency achieved during the above period was 41.8%.

19
Chapter two Literature review

(Ayompe, Duffy, Keever, et al. 2011)[44] compared the annual

thermal performance for flat plate collector and evacuated tube collector
having area 4m2 and 3m2 respectively. The test was done under the same
conditions for both collectors in Dublin, Ireland. The results explained that
for an annual total in-plane solar insolation of 1087 kWh.m-2. The total
thermal energy obtained by (FPC), (ETC) system was 1984 kWh and 2056
kWh respectively, Annual thermal efficiency rates were 46.1% for (FPC) and
60.7% for (ETC). The economic analysis indicates the lack of commercial
application for both (SWH) system because net present value ranging
between 4264€ and 652€ while simple payback period (years) varied
between 13 years and 48.5 years. The results of energy analysis showed that
the 4m2 (FPC) system has an advantage compared with (ETC) when fitted
with a 300L storage tank.
(Parida 2011)[45] studied experimentally design and fabrication
hybrid solar water heaters flat plate collector for heating pool water. (FPC)
fabricated from the material locally available, system operating to make a
pool water temperature at a comfort level. The experiment was tested for
many values of flow rate. Results revealed that the optimal flow rate was
15L/min for favorable heating, unglazed solar collectors gives efficiency of
27.8 %.
(Yousefi et al. 2012)]46] evaluated the effect of nanofluid (Al2O3-
water) as an absorbing medium to the enhancement of the thermal efficiency
of flat plate collector. Nanofluid tested with a weight fraction (wt) of 0.2%
and 0.4 %, With or without used surfactant Triton X-100. The nanoparticle
has diameter 15 nm and circulation rate varied (1-3) L/min. Experiments
showed that the thermal efficiency of (FPC) system enhancement reached
28.3% by using nanofluid 0.2 wt% Al2O3 in comparison with water base
fluid. Maximum improvement efficiency by using surfactant was 15.63%.
20
Chapter two Literature review

(Gang et al. 2012)[47] studied the performance of Compound

Parabolic Collector (CPC)-type solar water heaters based on experiment and
exergetic analysis. The experiment rig installed with U-pipe and the study
was conducted in December at Hefei in the eastern region of China. The
system was in the steady condition during winter and the Heating water of
the tank from the temperature 26.9 to 55, 65, 75, 85, and 95 . The
empirical study and exergetic analysis of the five experiments showed that
the overall thermal efficiency of the (CPC) solar water heaters was always
above 49% when the temperature is reached 95 and exergetic efficiency of
above 4.62% When the temperature is reached 55 . It is mentioned above
(CPC) type solar water heaters with U-pipe gives an excellent thermal
performance achieving a high temperature which has Possibilities to use in
different applications.
(Nouvelles et al. 2012)[48] investigated the performance of Integrated
Collector Storage (ICS) solar water heaters with fixed compound parabolic
concentrator reflector is conducted in Ghardaia, Algeria. The experiment rig
consists of one horizontal cylindrical tank set up in fixed symmetrical
compound parabolic concentrating reflector. This study focused on obtaining
low-cost (SWH) by using: absorber surface with high emittance, curved
reflectors has low cost and single glass cover. The results explained that the
solar water heaters system provided (120L/day) were attaining to enough
energy-saving.
(Ahmad 2012)[49] searched the potential to reduce energy
consumption in building by using Concentrating Water Solar Collector
(CWSC) to achieve two functions: blocking the incident solar radiation by
mounted (CWSC) as adjacent to southern side of the room to reduce obtain
energy for cooling space and in the same time (CWSC) provided a hot water

21
Chapter two Literature review

for some special usage. This work experience on the room has 1m2 area for
each side conducted in Baghdad in days, July 28, 29 and September 21, 22
and 23, 2010. The experiment data explained that the concentrator water
solar collector contributes for decreasing heat gain to the wall by 30%
through summer season, and (CWSC) has instantaneous thermal efficiency
45%. This system is suitable for small hotel and hospital which need cooling
in the long term as well as hot water required in some special cases.
(Pei et al. 2012)[50] evaluated experimentally the performance of
evacuated tube collector(ETC) with and without a mini-compound parabolic
concentrator (CPC) reflector. A series of experiments were conducted under
the same time and conditions for two types SWH; water tank was heated
from 26.9 to 55, 65, 75, 85, and 95 . The results indicated that when water
is required at low temperature, ETC without mini CPC has higher thermal
and exergy efficiencies than ETC with mini CPC . And when water is
required at high temperature, ETC with mini CPC has higher thermal and
exergy than ETC without mini CPC. These results are taken for average and
instantaneously values.
(Wayne 2012)[51] developed the performance of the experimental
apparatus of solar water heaters for domestic usage. The system operating by
thermosyphon methods, (SWH) fitted with a tracking mechanism to increase
heat absorbed by the collector. The results explained that the water tank was
heated by solar energy absorbed by the collector also thermosyphon affected
by water temperature measurements in the tank for different height inside it.
moreover, the natural flow rate increases when water demands increase.
(Cruz-Peragon et al. 2012)[52] investigated experimentally the
characterization of solar collectors is based on experimental techniques next
to validation of associated models. It serves to characterize the device by

22
Chapter two Literature review

means of critical coefficients. The first step consists of identifying those

significant parameters that match the selected model with the experimental
data, via nonlinear optimization techniques, applied to steady state
conditions. Second, new correlations must be adopted. Finally, the overall
model must be checked in transient regime. To illustrate the technique, a
tailor-made prototype flat plate solar collector has been analyzed. An
intermediate complex collector model has been proposed (2D finite-
difference method). Both steady and transient states were analyzed under
different operating conditions. Parameter identification is based on Newton‟s
method optimization. For parameter approximation, exponential regression
functions through multivariate analysis of variance is proposed among many
other alternatives. Results depicted a robustness of the overall proposed
method as starting point to optimize models applied to solar collectors.
(Fazilati and Alemrajabi 2013)[53] investigated improving the
performance of solar water heaters by using phase change material (PCM) as
a storage medium. The solar tank is of jacketed shell type, Three levels of
radiation intensity were studied (weak, middle and strong). Experimental
data revealed improving in thermal performance of (SWH) system using
(PCM) which leads to increase the time of 25% for supplied hot water from
system, highest improvement in thermal energy was 39% when the
temperature was 80 . exergy efficiency reached 16% when the temperature
was 40 .
(Ayompe and Duffy 2013)[54] evaluated annual thermal performance
for (SWH) evacuated tube collector in a temperate climate which was
performed with recalling a field trial installation in Dublin city, Ireland
(Lat. 53.3, Long. -6.26) . The system takes into consideration the effects
between (ETC), thermal storage tank and immersion heater which provide

23
Chapter two Literature review

auxiliary energy when collector is incapable of reaching the obtaining

temperature. Results revealed that the higher temperature of the outlet fluid
collector was 70.3 . The mean annual energy produced was 20.4 MJ/day,
and the thermal efficiency of collector was 63.2 %.
(Mongre 2013)[55] studied experimentally the performance of flat
plate solar water heaters fitted with circulating pump linked by aluminum
pipes. Testing of an apparatus conducted in September 2012 and November
2012. The results showed that there is a marked increase in immediate
efficiency of 55.24 % when glazing area increased. This system can be used
in remote areas to supply hot water usage.
(Ogie, et al. 2013)[56] developed designing and fabricating flat plate
collector solar water heaters for domestic usage at low cost utilizing from
material available locally as much as possible. The study arrived the
possibility to construction (SWH) system which has low cost, cover
domestic requirements of hot water, leading to saving cost and electrical
energy, and reducing harmful emissions in the long term. Experimental
results showed the higher temperature of output fluid was 55 .
(Sharma and Joshi 2013)[57] promoted the thermal performance of V-
through flat plate collector (corrugated absorber plate) by novel design
improving heat transfer technique and reducing cost by fabricated from
available material. Each zone consists of two aluminum plates that are
installed diagonally and pass through two tubes. This design increases
absorbed solar energy and enhanced thermal performance for the system.
Results showed the system produced 30L at average water temperature of
50 at 5:00 pm.
(Madan and Sirse 2015)[58] investigated evaluating thermal efficiency
of flat plate collector solar water heaters. Thermosyphon system was tested

24
Chapter two Literature review

in Nagpur (21.15ºN, 79.09ºE), , Maharashtra, India during winter. The results

reached was higher outlet temperature of 73 and higher obtained efficiency
was 65%.
(Pandey et al. 2015)[59] searched experimentally the thermal
performance of open system solar water heaters evacuated tube collector has
U-shape copper tubes based on energy and exergy analysis. The system was
examined with different flow rate:10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 liters per hour (L/hr)
to reach optimum value giving the best heat and mass transfer mechanism.
Results revealed the optimum performance of the system for 15 (L/hr),
temperature reached 79 , energy efficiency was 66.57%, and exergy
efficiency was 13.38 %.
(Luo et al. 2017)[60] evaluated saving energy for residential heating
buildings using solar water heaters as an assistant with a heat pump. Many
experimental tested in Xi‟an(34°20'N and 108° 56E) located in the northwest
of China, satisfied comfortable conditions for occupants. Results showed that
integrated solar water heaters with a heating pump contributed to saving
energy in the rate was greater than 60% from total energy consumption.
(Lokhande and Dubey 2017)[61] investigated analysis performance of
solar water heaters fitted with heat exchanger. system fabricated, distilled
water used to flow in collector to enhance efficiency and tested in various
condition to reach the best performance. System tested on 30th March 2016
from 9:00 A.M. to 5:00 PM. The weather was sunny for a few hours, cloudy
sky and sun completely faded away. Results of the experiment showed the
system gave temperature reach for more 50 when the weather was sunny,
so when the sun completely vanishes, or weather was cloudy, the system
gives satisfactory results.

25
Chapter two Literature review

(Bellos and Tzivanidis 2018)[62] improved analytical model of solar

water heaters for daily performance and validated with experimental work.
The developed model examined with experimental data from an integrated
laboratory system with a flat plate collector. Model extended with real
weather data for the climate conditions of Athens city, Greece (37° 59' N and
23° 43' E). Evaluation of the system from energetic and economic aspects is
by testing a day of each month in the year. Results indicated the energy
produced during the year by the system was 2171 kWh, average thermal
efficiency reached 54.24% and payback period reached 5.03 years.

2.4 Experimental and Numerical Studies:

(Koffi et al. 2008)[63] Searched experimentally and theoretically

enhancement efficiency of SWH system work according to thermosyphon
approach, fitted with internal heat exchanger. An exchanger manufactured
from the copper tube which is rolled and mounted inside storage tank
diagonally. This study found a good consensus between experimental and
theoretical results; results indicated that the outlet water temperature of
collector was more than 85.5 , and thermal efficiency of the collector was
58% when heat flux reaches major value.
(Budihardjo and Morrison 2009)[64] Evaluated numerically model of
a water-in-glass evacuated tube, the experimental measurement for the
system can be presented. Model of thermosyphon system water-in-glass
evacuated tube and experimental measurement study to describe the
characteristics of the system. Results showed that the water-in-glass
evacuated tube system consists of 30 tubes array. It has slightly less energy
saving than the two systems (3.7 m2) of flat plate collector. Moreover, the

26
Chapter two Literature review

performance of ETC system shows little response to the size of the tank than
the FPC system.
(Li, Dai, and Wang 2015)[65] Used a new design of solar water
heaters evacuated tube collector which was fixed vertically on the wall of
balcony in high rise buildings in Shanghai, Chine. The system was studied
by two methods, the numerical simulation model for water consumption are
presented, and experimental data of the system were compared with the
numerical model and found a good agreement between them. Results
explained that the average daily efficiency of the collector was 40%, total
annual energy derived from the tank was 2805.3 MJ/m2.
(Yang, Wang, and Xiong 2017b)[15] Searched potential heating space
using thermal solar system in Lhasa, chine. The study focused on calculation
distribution of temperature in the storage tank to reach the optimized solar
thermal system using numerical simulation taking into account the effects of
instantly charging and discharging operation mode and then validated with
experimental measurements. The coefficient of performance (COP) of the
system computed dependent on experimental data. Results indicated that the
system has a high (COP) with instantly charging and discharging operation
mode and good heating effect.
(Koholé and Tchuen 2018)[66] Investigated optimization of solar
water heaters flat plate collector worked with thermosyphon approach.
Experimental and numerical studies to obtain an optimization system
combined between the perfect design of parameter and higher performance
of FPC collector, and there is good agreement between experimental and
numerical results. Results revealed that the higher thermal efficiency and
outlet fluid temperatures were 64.93 % and 63.66 %, 65.19 and 64.10
obtained by experimental and simulation, respectively.

27
Chapter two Literature review

(Liu et al. 2018)[67] Studied heating space using a new hybrid solar
heating system which consists of solar Kang system (An ancient Chinese
heating system based on burning animal waste), direct gain window, and
Trombe wall. This study examined the impacts of five solar system operation
method on the hourly temperature inside building in the Qinghai-Tibetan
plateau. Results revealed that there was a good consensus between numerical
and experimental results. Moreover, solar Kang system operating along the
day on the contrary from another system, combined application: solar Kang
system, direct gain window and Trombe wall can provide the optimum
indoor thermal environment, especially in rural domestic buildings.

2.5 Summary Of Results For The Literature Review

A review of previous studies shows that there is an interest in the
development of solar water heaters for various domestic, commercial and
industrial applications These studies focused on four essential aspects that
contribute to increasing the efficiency of solar heating systems:
1- Solar water heater design, geometric shape, dimensions of solar
collector components and type of materials used in its composition.
2- Testing several types of working fluids or improve the thermal
performance of them by improving some physical properties.
3- Studying the impact of changing climate conditions on the
performance of solar heaters.
4- Using techniques to increase the heat exchange in the storage tank in
closed systems such as use phase change meterial PCM to increase the
amount of heat energy stored for cloudy times or at night.

28
Chapter two Literature review

In addition to the above, the researchers included feasibility studies for

using solar water heaters, calculating the amount of electrical energy that can
be saved and reducing environmental pollution rate, so that their use will be
more widespread and achieve sustainable economic development in the
future. Table 2.1 provides information summarizing previous research
discussed in this chapter and presenting the most important findings of the
researchers.

29
 Chapter two Literature review

Table 2.1 showing the summary of results for the literature review
Working fluid
Collector Output
No. reference Study type circulating Efficiency Useful heat other
type temperature
method
Horizontal tank
(Morrison and is better than
1 numerically FPC thermosyphon --------- ------------- ------------
Braun 1985) vertical in
thermosyphon
(Morrison,
2 Budihardjo, and numerically ETC Thermosyphon --------- ----------- 60 CO -----------
Behnia 2005)
38.4% (annual
3 (Chow et al. 2006) numerically FPC forced 904GJ (annual) 41.4Co -----------
average)
(Ucar and Inalli FPC &
4 numerically Thermosyphon ------- ---------- (40-100)Co --------
2008) ETC
(Mateus and FPC &
5 numerically forced 35%-44% ----------- (70-90)Co --------
Oliveira 2009) ETC
(Hobbi and
6 numerically FPC forced 41% ----------- ----------- -------
Siddiqui 2009)

Expensive in
(Allen et al.
7 Theoretically FPC forced ----- (1940–3520) MJ (annual) --------- the current
2010)
time

30
 Chapter two Literature review

Working fluid
Collector Output
No. reference Study type circulating Efficiency Useful heat other
type temperature
method
Results of modelling and trail field data in term percentage mean absolute
(Ayompe, Duffy, -------
FPC & errors
8 McCormack, et al. numerically forced
ETC FPC ETC FPC ETC
2011) ------
14.1% 16.8% 16.9% 18.4%

(Serale et al. Theoretically PCMs Enhanced

9 FPC forced -------- ---------
2014) & numerically from 5% to 9%

mean nessult number of SWH with a relative twisted ratio of the twisted
Tube
10 (Yao et al. 2015) numerically Thermosyphon tape (m) y=2.5m and y=4m respectively was 1.07% less and 9.29% higher ---------
collector
than normal solar water heater.

(±10%) for
(±3%) for accumulated heat
transient storage
11 (Guo et al. 2017) numerically ETC forced ------- flow accumulated over the -----------
temperature
entire heating season
distribution

Saving in annual
SWH contributed to saving
operating cost of
the traditional energy
12 (Sami et al. 2018) Theoretical FPC Thermosyphon ------------ the solar system
46% and 57% in northern
reached 51% and
and southern regions
69% respectively

31
 Chapter two Literature review

Working fluid
Collector Output
No. reference Study type circulating Efficiency Useful heat other
type temperature
method

(Naphon, Nanofluid
13 Assadamongkol, Experimental ETC forced enhanced ---------- ---------
------------
and Borirak 2008) by10.60%

Modified system
(Reindl et al. reduced (6%-
14 Experimental ------- forced --------- ---------- ----------
2008) 11%)

The maximum
temperature
Experimental
Cylindrica difference between
15 (Al-Madani 2006) Thermosyphon -------- 41.8% ----------
l SWH inside and outside
of SWH was 27.81C

Experimental Annual average Annual average

(Ayompe, Duffy, FPC & FPC ETC FPC ETC
16 forced --------- 4264€ -652€
Keever, et al. 2011) ETC 60.7
46.1% 1984 kWh 2056 kWh
%
(Yousefi et al. Experimental Nanofluid enhanced surfactant enhanced of
17 FPC forced ---------- ---------
2012) of 28.3% 15.63%.

32
 Chapter two Literature review

Working fluid
Collector Output
No. reference Study type circulating Efficiency Useful heat other
type temperature
method
18 (Gang et al. 2012) Experimental CPC forced 49% --------- 95Co -------
(Nouvelles, Experimental
19 Seminar, and CPC ----------- SWH system provided hot water of (120 L /day) ---------
Energies 2012)
Experimental
20 (Ahmad 2012) FPC forced 45% ----------

Experimental ETC
ETC with
ETC & CPC
21 (Pei et al. 2012) ETC with forced High --------- (55-95)Co --------
CPC Higher for er for
low temp. high
temp.
22 (Wayne 2012) Experimental FPC Thermos-yphon ---------- --------- -------------- ---------
Experimental thermal energy
--------- 80Co
(Fazilati and 39%
23 Solar tank forced ---------
Alemrajabi 2013) exergy efficiency o
-------- 40C
16%
(Ayompe and Experimental annual mean energy
24 ETC Thermosyphon 63.2% 70.3oC --------
Duffy 2013) produced was 20.4 MJd‐1
Experimental
24 (Mongre 2013) FPC forced 55.24 % -------- --------- --------

33
 Chapter two Literature review

Working fluid
Collector Output
No. reference Study type circulating Efficiency Useful heat other
type temperature
method
Experimental Thermosyphon Low cost (use
(Ogie, Oghogho,
the material
25 and Jesumirewhe FPC ---------- --------- 55 Co
available
2013)
locally)
Experimental Thermosyphon Low cost (use
(Sharma and o
26 FPC -------- -------- 50C material
Joshi 2013)
available locally
Experimental Thermos-yphon
(Madan and Sirse
27 FPC 65% --------- 73Co ----------
2015)

Experimental Exerg
energy
y
28 (Pandey et al. 2015) ETC forced --------- 79Co ---------
13.38
66.57%
%

(Luo et al. 2017) Experimental Solar energy

contributed by
29 ETC ------ 60% from total --------- ---------- -------
energy to heating
space
Experimental
27.8% (for
30 (Parida 2011) FPC forced unglazed solar 1.7 M Watts (for 6 hours) -------- ---------
collectors)

34
 Chapter two Literature review

Working fluid
Collector Output
No. reference Study type circulating Efficiency Useful heat other
type temperature
method
Experimental

(Lokhande and
31 FPC Thermos-yphon -------- 50CO --------
Dubey 2017)

Experimental
2432 € payback
(Bellos and
32 FPC forced 54.24% 2171 kWh (in year) ------- period reached
Tzivanidis 2018)
5.03 years

Experimental
33 (Koffi et al. 2008) FPC Thermos-yphon %58 --------- 85.5oC ------
& theoretical
Experimental water-in-glass evacuated tube system consist of 30 tubes array It has slightly less energy
(Budihardjo and
34 & numerical ETC Thermosyphon saving than two systems (3.7 m2) of flat plate collector. Moreover, the performance of ETC
Morrison 2009)
system Shows little response to the size of the tank than the FPC system.
Experimental
35 & numerical

(Li, Dai, and Experimental annual energy derived from

36 ETC Forced 40% --------- ---------
Wang 2015) & numerical the tank was 2805.3 MJ/m2
Experimental
(Yang, Wang, and
37 & numerical FPC forced an average value of COP system (3) ---------
Xiong 2017)

35
 Chapter two Literature review

Working fluid
Collector Output
No. reference Study type circulating Efficiency Useful heat other
type temperature
method
Experimental 64.93 % and 63.66 63.66 %, 65.19 °C
& numerical % obtained by obtained by
(Koholé and
38 FPC Thermos-yphon experimentation --------- experimentation -------
Tchuen 2018)
and simulation and simulation
respectively respectively
Experimental
39 (Liu et al. 2018) ETC forced ------- ---------- ------------- -------
& numerical

36
 CHAPTER THREE
THOERETICAL ANALYSIS
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

CHAPTER THREE

THOERETICAL ANALYSIS

3.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the theoretical analysis of heating load calculations as

well theoretical study of the solar heating system. The derivation of the
mathematical model that describes the operation of a flat plate collector are
presented. The representation of different heat exchangers under transient
conditions, three-dimensional, incompressible flow and heat transfer has been
solved of the collector. The proposed method for solving this model will be
presented in this chapter.

3.2 Heating Load Calculations

The heating load is the amount of heat added to the space to obtain internal
design conditions which is suit the comfort of the occupants. Heating load is
calculated to estimate capacity of the equipment required to heat the space. In
general, the heating load is almost equal to the heat loss from the building by walls,
ceilings, floors, windows, and doors, as well as air leakage through the openings of
the windows and doors. The heating load consists of sensible heat which
transmitted directly by conduction, radiation, and convection, and the latent heat
transmitted to space with the air accompanying the moisture. Calculation of the
heating load to the room has a dimension (2 * 5) m and height of 3 m, as shown in
Figure 3.1.

37
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

Fig.3.1: shows room location to be heated

There are some basic rules that are taken into consideration in heating load
calculations:

1- All heat losses are instantaneous heating loads while neglecting the effect of
heat stored in the structure of the building.
2- Internal heat sources and solar heat gain are neglected in heating load
calculations.

The following are calculations of the heating load due to thermal losses from the
various parts of the room structure, which are either sensible or latent heat
(Kharagpur 2008)[23].
38
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

a) Sensible heat transfer rate through the walls:

Heat is transmitted through the walls from the space to the outside by
conduction. It is assumed that the walls are composed of homogeneous materials,
and heat transfer is one-dimension. Two walls of the room are shared with adjacent
rooms and one common wall with an internal corridor, while the southern wall is
exposed to the outdoor. The heat transfer in the wall is neglected if it is located
between two rooms under heating.

1- Sensible heat transfer through the walls given by:

– ……….……….(3.1)

Where:

( )

b) Sensible heat transfer through the roof

The ceiling is assumed to be monolithic, and the heat is moving in one
direction. The room to be heated is located on the ground floor, and above it
is the first floor only.

– ………….……….(3.2)

Where:
.

( )
39
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

c) Sensible heat transfer through the floor

It was assumed that the floor was composed of a homogeneous material and
that the heat was moving in one direction.

– ………….……….(3.3)

Where:

( )

d) Sensible heat transfer rate through the glass:

– ………….………(3.4)

Where:

= Glass area exposed to solar radiation .

( )

= Maximum Solar Heat Gain Factor.

= Shading Coefficient.

e) Heat transfer due to infiltration

The heat transmitted by air infiltration is sensible and latent heat.

1- Sensible heat transfer due to infiltration

.………..…(3.5)

40
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

Where:

( )

= ( )

2- Latent heat transfer due to infiltration

………..(3.6)
Where:

The infiltration rate relies upon many factors such as the tightness of the
building that includes the windows, walls, and doors, as well as the prevailing wind
speed and direction. The infiltration rate is obtained by using the air change method
given by:

(m3/s) ………….(3.7)

Where:

Gross volume of the conditioned space in ( m3).

The total sensible heat calculated from following equation:

= …(3.8)

41
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

The total latent heat calculated from following equation:

= ………………..(3.9)

The total heating load of the room equals the sum of sensible and latent heat
transferred from the room.

………………..(3.10)

3.3 Energy Balance Equations Of Flat Plate Collector

In this section, we will explain the energy balance equations that describe the
thermal energy transfer between parts of a flat plate collector that operates under
transient conditions for its various components. In this model, a control volume
containing one tube and five areas (glass cover, air gap, absorber plate, the working
fluid, insulation) was taken vertically to the flow direction, as shown in Figure 3.2.

Fig. 3.2: Schematic diagram of the five areas analyzed in the flat-plate collector.
42
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

There are several heat transfers process occur between different parts of
collector as shown in Figure 3.3. The temperature of the collector depends on the
direction of the fluid flow, Taking into account the section of areas in the flow
direction . The mathematical model will be applied through the general energy
balance it will be applied to each zone of the collector in the control volume
analysis; the general energy balance is given by:

….………………… (3.11)

where:

= Change the internal energy of the system in control volume (W).

= Heat transfer outlet the system in control volume (W).

= Heat transfer inlet the system in control volume (W).

= Heat generation inside the system in control volume (W).

Fig.3.3 Heat transfers process occur between different parts of collector

43
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

The following assumptions will be considered to simplify the analysis of flat plate
solar collector:

1. Uniform mass flow rate in each tube of the collector.

……………. (3.12)

where:

= The total mass flow rate inlet the solar collector (kg/s).

= the mass flow rate in each tube (kg/s).

= number of tubes of the solar collector.

2. The heat does not move by conduction in the flow direction and the thermal
energy transferred in the flow direction by mass transfer.
3. Neglecting heat transferred from the edges of the collector.
4. Insulation and glass properties remain constant when temperature changes
(independent of temperature).
5. The thermal properties of the air gap change as the temperature changes
(dependent temperature).
6. The ambient conditions, wind speed, and sky radiation are changing with
time.
7. The side and back of the collector exposed to the same ambient temperature.
8. Consider the sky as a black body for long-wavelength radiation at an
equivalent sky temperature ( Kalogirou, 2008)[7].
9. Neglecting the effect of dust and dirt on the collector.
10. The header and riser of the collector were fixed on a sheet with parallel
tubes.
11. Consider the heat passing through the cover in one direction.

44
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

The energy balance equations of the flat plate solar collector parts as follows:

3.3.1 The Glass Cover

The glass cover is at the top of the collector and has relatively thin thickness,
which makes the temperatur uniformly distributed. Thus its thermal properties can
be considered constant. The governing equation can be derived from an energy
balance in a differential volume of thickness δ and an area of (pΔz). Convection
heat transfer occurs between the glass and the ambient air and air gap, and by
radiation between the glass and both the sky and absorber, as shown in Figure 3.4.

Therefore, equation (3.11) is written as follows:

[ ( ) ( ) ( )

Fig. 3.4: 1-D heat transfer in the glass cover

45
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

3.3.2 The Air Gap Between the Glass Cover and the Absorber

The air gap lies between the glass cover and the absorber plate, considering
an analysis of the air gap area in the control volume. The air gap has transient
thermal properties. Heat transfers by convection between air gap and both the glass
cover and the absorber, as shown in Figure 3.5.

Fig. 3.5: 1-D heat transfer in the air gap between cover and absorber

By applying the energy balance equation (3.11) is written as follows:

[ ( ) ] ……….(3.14)

3.3.3 The Absorber

The absorber plate is the central part of the solar collector. Its temperature
is high relative to other parts and assume the thermal properties are constant.
Energy balance of the control volume of the absorber region and the consideration
of the fall of solar radiation on it. Heat transfer via radiation between the absorber
and the glass cover, convection heat transfer between the absorber and the air gap,
46
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

and by conduction between the absorber and the insulation zone, as well as the heat
transfer to the working fluid via convection as shown in Figure 3.6.

Fig. 3.6: 1-D heat transfer in the absorber

By applying energy balance, equation (3.11) is as follows:

* ( )

+ ) ………………….(3.15)

3.3.4 The Working Fluid

Figure 3.7 shows the energy balance in a control volume of the working fluid in a
flat-plate solar collector. Taking in consideration the change in total energy with
time and the total heat transferred into the fluid control volume, the energy balance
under transient properties of the working fluid can be written as:
47
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

Fig. 3.7: Energy balance in a control volume of the working fluid in the flat-plate
solar collector

By applying energy balance, equation (3.11) is as follows:

………………………(3.16)

3.3.5 The insulation

The insulation part is the back of the solar collector and is directly adjacent
to the absorbent. By analyzing the insulation zone in the control volume, thermal
properties of it is constant. Conduction heat transfers occur between the absorber
and insulation, also via radiation between the insulation and the surrounding air, as
shown in Figure 3.8.

Fig. 3.8: 1-D heat transfer in the insulation

48
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

By applying energy balance, equation (3.11) is as follows:

…. (3.17)

3.4 The Useful Heat And energy Equations Balance Of Indoor

Radiator

The radiator is an essential part of the heating system, and it is a heat

exchanger that works to transfer heat from working fluid to air inside the room. The
radiator is generally composed of upper and lower manifolds connected with each
other by a set of tubes. The sides of each tube are connected to the fins as shown in
Figure3.9.

Fig. 3.9 shows the schematic diagram of radiator

49
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

The useful heat of the radiator is the amount of heat transferred from the
radiator surfaces to the room air. The useful heat increases as the difference
between the temperature of the radiator and room air are high. The useful heat of
the radiator can be calculated according to the following equation:

………………………. (3.18)

3.5 System Modeling and Simulation:

Flat plate collector is studied by 3-D numerical investigations which

performed by CFD technique and governing equations were solved by COMSOL
Multiphasic 5.3 software. In this study, the model exposed to radiation heat transfer
and convection between glass cover and side walls with the surrounding. Moreover,
conduction heat transfer in insulation base, and conduction between the absorber
plate and risers tubes are considered. The absorbed solar energy was simulated by
taking data of weather for Najaf city (31.59o N Lat., 44.19o E Long.) on January 9,
2019 which was recorded by a weather station in the laboratory. Data recorded are
ambient temperature, wind speed, and global solar irradiance that uniformly
distributed over the absorber plate.

3.5.1 Computational Domain

Numerical simulations are carried out on a model of with a 2 m2 solar water

heater flat plate collector. Due to the significant difference in the dimension of
hydraulic tube diameter (0.008 m) and absorber tube length (1.8 m), an excellent
grid distribution is needed in the cross-section of the tube. Therefore, some
assumptions on the computational domain are considered as follow:

50
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

- The heat loss by radiation from margins of the collector is ignored.

- The heat loss from the bottom base of the collector is neglected

- The flow rate in all riser tubes remains constant and is divided equally in all risers
in the collector.

- The flow field is symmetric concerning y–z plane, take one half of the riser tube,
and absorber plate on one side is considered for the simulation study.

The computational domain of the model is shown in Figure 3.10.

Fig .3.10: Schematic diagram of the CFD model

The boundary conditions are defined as:

1- At the inlet:
i. ∫ ………..……..…….(3.19)

.
When m =(0.016667/7)kg/s

ii. Inlet water temperature changes continuously with time

….……..……..…….(3.20)
51
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

2- At outlet:
i. =0 (Gage pressure) ....….…………..….(3.21)

ii. ..…..…..……..…….(3.22)

3- At the wall, the no-slip boundary condition was imposed on the walls
U=0 ....…..…..……..…….(3.23)
4- The condition "Symmetry" was assumed on the wall in the middle of the
riser tube.

Normal component of velocity equal zero un=0 ....……..……..…….(3.24)

q.n =0 ......…..……..…….(3.25)

5- Initial temperature ………………..…….(3.26)

6- Convective heat flux on outer glass cover

…....………………..(3.27)

( Kalogirou, 2008)[7] .……………….…..(3.28)

Where wind speed, which is changing with time taking values

from a weather station.

7- Heat absorber by glass cover

for glass ..……………..(3.29)

8- Heat absorbed by the absorber plate

52
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

for glass ……………..(3.30)

9- Insulation wall q.n=0 ……………..(3.31)

3.5.2 The Governing Differential Equations

Many heat transfers process occur in the solar collector, where these
processes tend to balance the heat within collector due to exposed the collector to
climatic conditions (transient conditions). The solar radiation converting into heat
in the absorber and transferring heat from the absorbent to the riser tubes by
conduction. Heat is transferred to the water inside the tubes by forced convection.
On the other hand, there are losses between the collector and the surrounding. To
evaluate the thermal performance of a flat plate collector, the equations of heat
transfer, and fluid flow should be considered. These assumptions are taken into
account incompressible, laminar, unsteady flow, and the three-dimensional
constant-properties viscous Newtonian flow inside a flat plate collector is governed
by the continuity, momentum and energy equations.. through the above
assumptions, the continuity equation may be written as (Potter and Wiggert
2008)[68]:

..……………………..(3.32)

The momentum equations in x, y, and z directions can be written as:

* + ………..(3.33)

* + ………..(3.34)

* + (3.35)

53
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

The energy equations for fluid and the structure of collector are as following:

( ) [ ]

3.6 Thermal Efficiency of Flat Plate Collectors:

The thermal efficiency of the collector is the main parameter that describes
thermal performance of it; collector performance can be envisioned by an energy
balance that shows the distribution of solar energy which turn into useful heat and
thermal losses. The solar radiation absorbed by the absorber plate and
converted into heat. The heat losses from the collector to the surrounding air by
convection heat transfer and radiation can be expressed by the heat transfer
coefficient ( ), efficiency defined as the ratio of the useful heat delivered to the
solar radiation incident on the aperture area of collector. The incident solar flux
consists of direct and diffuse radiation. While flat-plate collectors can collect both
(Deceased and Beckman n.d.)[8].

………………………..(3.37)

………………………..(3.38)

Where:

( )

(m2).

(W).

54
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

The useful heat can also be calculated from the following equation:

………………………..(3.39)

( )

3.6.1 Absorbed Solar Radiation:

To predict the thermal performance of the solar collector, it is necessary to

know the amount of solar radiation absorbed by the absorber plate. The solar
radiation that falls on the solar collector has three components: beam, diffuse, and
ground-reflected radiation. This calculation depends on the radiation model will
that used. Using the isotropic model on an hourly basis, calculating absorbed
radiation (S) ( Kalogirou 2008)[7], by multiplying each term with the appropriate
transmittance– absorptance product as follows:

* + * + ….....(3.40)

∑ …………......(3.41)

Where

= tilt angle of collector (degree).

55
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

Absorbed solar radiation S = ΙT (ατ) Ac …...…......(3.42)

3.6.2 Tilt Angle Of Flat Plate Collector

The flat plate solar collector is installed on a fixed structure in a southward

direction. It is very important to determine the angle of inclination that achieves the
highest abundance of solar radiation; the geographic latitude (L) represents the
approximate tilt angle of the collector from the horizontal plane. It has been
empirically determined that the optimal tilt angle for annual yield can be
approximated as shown in equations (3.43) and (3.44) ( Kalogirou 2008)[7]:

………………. (3.43)

for otherwise ………………. (3.44)

The city of Najaf is located in the geographical latitude (32° 1' N), Therefore,
equation (3.43) will be used to find the optimal tilt angle of the solar collector.

3.6.3 Losses Of Solar Collector:

To study the thermal performance of any thermal system it is necessary to

determine its thermal losses. In the solar collector, solar radiation falls on the
absorbent plate, which converted into thermal energy, part of it moves to the
working fluid as useful heat, and the thermal loss is transmitted by various methods
of heat transfer from the collector to the surroundings as shown in Figure 3.3.
Determination of the thermal losses of a flat solar heater collector has a single glass
56
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

cover by creating a network of thermal losses in terms of conduction, convection,

and radiation. The different thermal losses from the solar collector can be combined
into a simple thermal resistance RL as shown in Figure 3.11, which represents
thermal resistance to heat transfer from the absorber to surroundings ( Kalogirou
2008)[7], So the energy losses of the solar collector can be as follows:

……….…......(3.45)

Where:

UL=Ut+Ub+Ue ……...….......(3.46)

Where: Ut = heat transfer loss coefficient from top of the collector (W/m2 K).

Ub = heat transfer loss coefficient from bottom of the collector (W/m2 K).

Ue = heat transfer loss coefficient from edge of the collector (W/m2 K).

Fig. 3.11: Shows Thermal network for flat plate collector has single-cover in terms of (a) heat transfer by
conduction, convection, and radiation ; (b) resistance between parts of the collector; and (c) a single
collector network. ( Kalogirou 2008)[7]
57
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

3.6.3.1Calculations the Top Heat Loss Coefficient of Collector (Ut)

Heat losses from absorber plate to glass cover occur by convection and
radiation. It can use resistances network expression to represent losses. Assuming
heat losses from absorber plate to glass cover equal heat losses from glass cover to
ambient.
Qt, absorber plate to glass cover = Qt, glass cover to ambient

( )
…......(3.47)
[( ) ( ) ]

Heat transfer coefficient can be determined from nusselt number

equation After knowing the rest of the variables.

…..…......(3.48)

The value of a Nusselt number can be found according to the following

empirical equation( Kalogirou 2008)[7]:

* + , - {* + } ….......(3.49)

hince

́ ( )
………………..…......(3.50)

where

g = gravitational constant, = 9.81 m2/s.

́ = volumetric coefficient of expansion; for ideal gas, ́ = 1/T.

= Prandtl number.

l = absorber to glass cover distance (m).

58
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

ν = kinetic viscosity of air gap (m2/s).

Then

But regarding to radiation heat transfer coefficient between absorber plate

and the glass cover can be found from following equation:

( )( )
.…........(3.51)
[( ) ( ) ]

( )
( )( ) …......(3.52)

….........(3.53)
( )

1- Heat losses from glass cover to ambient by convection and radiation.

( )
( )( ) …......(3.54)

Where:

= Convection heat transfer coefficient between the glass cover and ambient

due to the wind (W/m2 K).

= Radiation heat transfer coefficient between the glass cover and ambient

(W/m2 K).

( )( ) ……….......(3.55)

…….........(3.56)

59
Chapter three Theoretical Anal ysis

…...…......(3.57)
( )

Since resistances and are in series, their resultant is given by:

….…......(3.58)

Where heat transfer from the top of the collector can be written as follows:

...…......(3.59)

60
 CHAPTER FOUR
EXPERIMENTAL WORK
Chapter Four Experimental work

CHAPTER FOUR
EXPERIMENTAL WORK

4.1 Introduction

This chapter illustrates the experimental section which will be divided into
three parts. The first part explains the construction, the equipment, and the
components of the heating system and parts of the flat plate solar heater collector.
The second part shows the measurement tools. The third part clarifies the
specifications of the practical part and the experimental procedure.

4.2 Experimental Rig

The solar heating system consists of several devices to perform certain

functions. The essential part of the system is a flat plate solar water heater it is
placed on the roof of the building. The radiator that is placed inside the room to be
heated. An electric pump that is circulating the working fluid inside the system.
The flowmeter is installed before the collector to control the flow rate and is
controlled by the valves. Hot water passes from the solar collector to the radiator
via isolated polyethylene pipelines, as shown in Figure 4.1.

Fig.4.1: Scheme of the experimental rig

61
Chapter Four Experimental work

4.2.1 Flat Plate Collector (FPC)

Figure 4.2. shows the flat plate collector which was one of the most widely
used solar water heaters. It is easy to manufacture from locally available materials,
cheap and easy to maintain and is suitable for thermal applications that require
medium or low temperatures. The solar heater is the power unit that supplies heat
energy for the selected application, where it converts solar energy into heat energy
and transfers it to the working fluid.

Fig.4.2: Flat plate collector

Figure 4.3 showed main parts of the flat plate collector (FPC).

62
Chapter Four Experimental work

Figure 4.3 Main parts of the flat plate collector

a) Glass Cover

Glass is widely used to cover solar heaters because it allows to transmit

short-wave solar radiation to exceed 90% and prevents long-wavelength
radiation emitted from it. Glass thickness (3.2mm) with low iron content has an
advantage in use because it is highly transparent. The other function of the glass
cover prevents direct contact between the surrounding air and the absorbent
plate, which reduces the losses by convection heat transfer.

b) Absorber Plate

The absorber is the essential part of the collector surrounded by

insulation from the bottom and edges covered with glass from the top. It
converts the solar radiation transmitted across the glass cover into thermal
energy. The absorber metal usually has high absorbance with excellent thermal
properties such as copper. Moreover, it is coated with a special black paint to
increase absorption for short wavelength radiation and low emittance for long-
wavelength (selective surface). Riser pipes fixed on the absorber plate by laser
welding in parallel, as shown in Figure 4.4. The welding material should be of
63
Chapter Four Experimental work

high conductivity in order to increase heat transfer from the fins to the pipes.
The absorber edges are surrounded by a rubber section (Seal section) that closes
tightly the area between the absorber plate and the glass cover and between the
insulating and absorber on the other side. It works to prevent air leakage to and
from the collector and thus will reduce thermal losses by convection.

Fig.4.4: shows riser tubes fixed on the absorber plate by laser welding

c) Headers and Risers

Water pipes are usually made of high conductivity material such as

copper. The collector contains two header tubes, the inlet header distributes the
water on the riser tubes, and the outlet header collects water from them. The
riser tubes distributed longitudinally in parallel, as shown in Figure 4.5.

Fig.4.5: Header and riser tube of collector

64
Chapter Four Experimental work

d) Insulation

The insulating material placed on the back and sides of the collector. It
reduces the thermal losses from collector to surroundings. Fiber glass is used for
thermal insulation.

e) Container or Casing

Container functions to surround all components of the solar collector and

protect them from dust and moisture. It is made from aluminum frame 2mm
thickness, and from the back, it is covered with a panel of wood.

Table 4.1 shows the specifications of the flat-plate solar collector.

Table 4.1: The specifications of the flat-plate solar collector

Specification Details
Dimension of collector (2000x1000x80) mm
Glass cover thickness 3.2 mm
Transmittance of glass 95%
Aluminum Absorber plate thickness 0.4 mm
Absorber plate absorptivity 95%
Absorber emissivity 5%
Copper header tube diameter 22 mm / 2 headers
Copper riser tube diameter 8 mm / 7 risers
Space between riser tube 110 mm
Fiber glass insulation thickness 30 mm
Fiber glass density 60 kg/m3
Air gap spacing between glass and absorber 25 mm

4.2.2 Radiator

The radiator is a heat exchanger that transmits heat from the working
fluid flowing through it to the room air to be heated. It consists of two front
and rear plates, each one contains two manifold and connect between them 30

65
Chapter Four Experimental work

sub-passages. So it contains two valves to control the flow rate of hot water, as
shown in Figure 4.6.

Fig.4.6: The indoor heating radiator

4.2.3 Electric Pump

The electric pump is located between the radiator and the solar collector at
the top of the building. The pump circulates hot water directly in a closed system
from the solar collector to the radiator.

4.2.4 Pipelines

The parts of the system are connected by polyethylene plastic pipe. Where
supplying pipe connected from the collector at the building to the radiator in the
room. There is another tube that returns working fluid from the radiator to the
collector through the electric pump. The length of the pipes supply and back is long
because of the height of the building about (8m). The long distances for the pipes
and the zigzag paths led to the appearance of two problems. The first, which caused
66
Chapter Four Experimental work

increased thermal losses, and by covering the pipes with insulating material to
minimize losses. The other problem is the difficulty of water passing through the
pipelines due to the blockage of air bubbles inside the zigzag pipes. This problem
was eliminated by using air bleeding tubes. Two valves were installed on the
supply and return pipes to control the flow rate of working fluid. Outer pipes
diameter are 0.5 inches it is covered with insulation then coiled from the outside by
thermal tapes, as shown in Figure 4.7.

Fig.4.7: shows the supply and return insulation pipes

67
Chapter Four Experimental work

4.3 Measurements Devices

Measuring devices are an important role in conducting experiments and

synthesizing results during the test period. This research experiments used several
measuring devices to connect with the components of the heating system to
measure the necessary parameters such as temperature, relative humidity, solar
radiation, fluid flow rate, and wind speed. The weather station at the college lab
was used to obtain weather conditions during the test days.

4.3.1 Temperatures

The temperatures of inlet and outlet working fluid of the solar collector and
the indoor radiator, ambient air and room air are measured to study the
performance of the heating system by changing climatic conditions during daylight
hours. The temperatures measurements of the collector is done through the use an
Applent digital thermometer type (AT-4532x) 64 channel used thermocouples type
(T) with accuracy (±1Co) as shown in Figure 4.8, connected to the seven
thermocouples. Three thermocouples are installed in three different places on the
glass cover; Two thermocouple measures the temperature of the inlet and outlet
working fluid of collector. A thermocouple is installed on the side edge, and one is
installed behind the collector. As shown in Figure 4.9.

Fig.4.8: Data logger multi-channel thermometer device

68
Chapter Four Experimental work

Fig. 4.9: Shows the thermocouple locations on the collector

Another 8 Channel Temperature Data Logger type V2 has range

( -55+125 °C) with Accuracy (±0.5°C) as shown in Figure 4.10 was used to
measure the indoor room temperature, two thermocouples to measure the inlet and
outlet water temperatures of radiator, Five thermocouples were installed in different
places on the radiator surface,

Fig.4.10: shows the data logger type V2 Channel Temperature

69
Chapter Four Experimental work

As for the measurement of ambient air temperature, it was recorded from the
weather station located in the laboratory of the Technical College in Najaf.

4.3.2 Solar Radiation

The solar radiation Pyranometer is used to measure the variation of solar

radiation during day hours. It is measured by a Tenmars device of the type (TM-
207). It is a Taiwanese industry, accuracy (±10 W/m2) as shown in Figure 4.11, and
the readings were taken every 15 minutes from sunrise to sunset in Iraq, Najaf
(31.59o N Lat., 44.19o E Long.)

Fig.4.11: The pyranometer device

4.3.4 Wind Speed

Measuring wind speed is important in knowing its impact on the thermal

performance of the solar collector. Wind speed readings were taken from the
weather station system in the laboratory inside the college, as shown in Figure 4.12.

70
Chapter Four Experimental work

Fig.4.12: The weather station system

4.3.5 Relative Humidity

Figure 4.13 shows the humidity meter (hygrometer), which measured relative
humidity inside the room to determine the change in the value during the heating
process and its effect on the comfort of the occupants.

Figure 4.13: The humidity meter (hygrometer)

71
Chapter Four Experimental work

4.3.6. Flowmeter

Flowmeter device was installed in the inlet pipe of the collector to the
measured flow rate of working fluid inlet to the solar collector, as shown in Figure
4.14. The flowmeter has a range of flow rate (0.5-4)L/min.

Fig 4.14: shows flowmeter and valve

4.4 Mechanism of The Solar Heating System of the Room

The heating space mechanism by the solar heating system takes place after
sunrise. The solar radiation falls on the solar collector and is carried out through the
glass cover. After that, the solar radiation falls on the absorber plate where the solar
radiation turns into heat energy due to the high absorbance of the absorbed metal,
where it leads to a temperature rise of it. The heat then transfer by convection from
the absorber to the working fluid, causing a temperature rise of it. The working
fluid is circulated from the collector to the radiator via electric pump inside
insulated pipes at the recommended flow rate of the solar collector. Then the hot
water enters the radiator where the hot water passing through the upper manifold
tube of the radiator; then it divided into vertical smaller passages. The hot water
72
Chapter Four Experimental work

then collects in the bottom manifold pipe to return to the collector. Heat transfer by
convection occurs between hot water and radiator surface, and thus a thermal
exchange occurs between the radiator surface and the room air via free convective
heat transfer and by radiation between radiator surface and the walls of the room. In
this process, the room air temperature gradually increases from the initial
temperature until it reaches the interior design temperature reaches or below them.
Room to be heated has a length of 5 m, a width of 2 m, and a height of 3 m, with
one window on the south side with a distance of (1.2*2) m. It contains two doors to
have dimensions of (1.3*2) m and the other (1*2) m. Table 4.2 showing the heat
transfer coefficient of for room parts.

Table 4.2: showing the coefficient of heat transfer (U) for room parts(Nicklas et al.
2016)[69].

Item coefficient of heat transfer (U) [W/(m2 .°C)]

Roof 0.61
Walls 0.68
Windows glass 3.8
Floor 0.03

4.6 The aspects that examined the experimental work

Many factors that affect the performance of the solar heating system, in this
work will be suggest to study the impact of weather conditions and the effect of
working fluid type.

73
Chapter Four Experimental work

4.6.1 Study impact of the weather condition on the performance solar heating
system

The effect of weather conditions on the thermal performance of a solar

heating system was examined. Tested on certain days in three different months to
know the performance of the system during varying periods in climatic conditions.
This procedure gives a right conception of testing the system during winter and to
assess the economic viability of the system over the long term.

4.6.2 Study impact of working fluid type on the performance solar heating
system
The type of working fluid has an important effect on improving the thermal
performance of a solar heating system. This test aims to reach the best working
fluid that enhances the capacity and efficiency of the system and get the best
desired result. In this study, water and ethylene glycol-water mixture and engine oil
grade (10W-30) were tested because they are considered to be an available fluid
with high heat transfer capacity.
These working fluids have different physical properties that make them show
different behavior in the test, Tables 4.3, 4.4, and 4.5 it illustrated the physical
properties of water and ethylene glycol-water mixture (50-50)% and engine oil.

Table 4.3 Physical properties of liquid Water ( Kalogirou 2008) [7]

( )
0 1002.28 4.2178 1.788*10-6 0.552
20 1000.52 4.1818 1.006*10-6 0.597
40 994.59 4.1784 0.658*10-6 0.628
60 985.46 4.1843 0.478*10-6 0.651
80 974.08 4.1964 0.364*10-6 0.668
100 960.63 4.2161 0.294*10-6 0.680
74
Chapter Four Experimental work

Table 4.4 Physical properties of ethylene glycol-water mixture(50-50)%

(Propylene and Transfer n.d.)[70]

( )
0 1053.9 3.455 18.28 0.327
20 1044.0 3.532 6.62 0.341
40 1032.1 3.609 3.10 0.353
60 1018.2 3.686 1.75 0.362
80 1002.2 3.763 1.12 0.367
100 984.1 3.841 0.79 0.370

Table 4.5 Physical properties of engine oil grade (10W-30)(Alghamdi 2018)[71]

( )
0 908 1.76 12.23 0.149
20 896 1.83 2.170 0.146
40 884 1.91 0.486 0.144
60 872 1.99 0.141 0.141
80 860 2.08 0.053 0.139
100 848 2.16 0.025 0.137

4.7 Experimental Procedure

The Steps for conducting the experimental work:

1. After connecting the parts of the experimental model with measuring devices,

which are:
a) Two data loggers were used, one is connected with the solar collector and the
other is associated with the radiator. The calibration between the thermocouples
and the mercury standard thermometer was performed and create the calibration
curve, and the calibration equation was found as in Appendix A.
b) Relative humidity probe: The relative humidity meter was placed inside the
room to be heated, and readings were taken every 15 minutes.
75
Chapter Four Experimental work

c) Solar radiation sensor: The solar radiation sensor is placed in the same tilt
angle of the solar collector and readings are taken every 15 minutes.
d) Wind speed measuring: Wind speed measurements were taken from the
weather station at the college, and the readings were taken every 10 minutes.
e) Flow rate measuring: Flow rate measurement was taken one time and remain
constant through the period test.
2. Most measuring devices would be run to record data from (9:00 am)

until (17:00pm) periodically.

3. The thermometer will record the data automatically, while the other devices,

the data would be recorded every 15 minutes manually, like solar radiation
and relative humidity except wind speed taken for ten minutes.
4. All experiments were conducted at the Technical Engineering College in

Najaf, Iraq on months January, February and March, 2019 to study the effect
of different climatic conditions on the performance of the solar collector.

76
CHAPTER FIVE

RESULTS ANS
DISCUSSIONS
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

CHAPTER FIVE

RESULTS ANS DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Introduction

This chapter presents the results of the theoretical and experimental studies
that performed during three months (January, February, and March) 2019 of the
outlet fluid temperature of the collector, useful heat, and efficiency of the solar
collector, and inlet fluid temperature and useful heat of the indoor radiator. The
study included the effect of several parameters on the thermal performance of the
solar collector, such as type of working fluid, volume flow rate, and weather
conditions. and heating load calculation for the room and finally energy-saving
analysis and costs.

5.2 Numerical results

Numerical results were done by using COMSOL multiphysics ver. 5.3

software tool. Simulation studies are necessary to verify the results with previous
studies and present experimental results which study the effect of changing flow
rate, working fluid type, and weather conditions on performance of a flat plate
collector (FPC).

5.2.1 Validation Model

The theoretical study of this work was validated by compared with previous
studies. (Ekramian et al. 2014) [23] presented his work numerically and compared
with experimental results presented by (Cruz-Peragon et al. 2012) [37] for same
parameters and conditions which performed on a flat plate solar collector contains

77
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

15 riser tubes. Solar incident irradiation was constant at a value of 936.8 W/m2.
Inlet water temperature, ambient temperature, and water mass flow rate remains
constant has values 31˚C, 23.2˚C and 6.42 kg/h respectively. The thickness of glass
cover and absorber plate are 4mm and 2mm, respectively. The inner diameter of
risers was 10mm, and distance between risers was 30 mm with riser‟s length of
450mm. Numerical results of E. Ekramian showed that the percentage mean
absolute errors between the experimental and numerical results is about 5.5%. In
our work, a numerical study conducted on the same solar collector and operation
condition presented by Cruz-Peragon. Numerical results were obtained more
accurate and approximate to experimental results, and the percentage mean
absolute errors of experimental data to numerical results is about 0.062%. As
shown in Figure 5.1.

Fig. 5.1: Comparison between experimental and numerical temperature

78
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

5.2.2 Effect of the volume flow rate on the performance of a flat plate solar
collector

The studies of the effect of variation volume flow rate of working fluid on
the thermal performance of solar collector were conducted by using water as
working fluid on volume flow rate values (30, 40, 60) L/hr. The weather conditions
were chosen on January 9,2019 in each simulation studies which remain same at
each variation of volume flow rate in the simulation studies. weather parameters
data taken from experimental data recorded from the weather station. Figure
5.2.(a),(b) shows time variation of solar irradiance, ambient temperature, and wind
speed on January 9, 2019. The inlet water temperature of the collector was taken
from experimental data on the same day, as shown in Figure 5.2 (b). The weather
conditions on January 9, 2019 were a clear sky day. The solar radiation was within
the average limits and reached the highest of 987W/m². The ambient air
temperature has low in the early morning time and gradually increased until it
stabilized at about 17˚C. Wind speed was active most of the test time ranged from
(1.8-4)m/s.

The numerical results for different volume flow rates indicated there is a clear
difference in the outlet water temperature values Tout and the temperature difference
between outlet and inlet water of collector ∆T, as shown in Figure 5.3 (a),(b). The
numerical results under flow rate (30,40,60) L/h gave the highest Tout during the
test time were 66.3˚C, 60˚C, 53.7˚C, respectively. While the highest ∆T during the
Test time was 22.17˚C, 17.16˚C, 9.8˚C, respectively. The results showed that the
Tout and ∆T values increase when the flow rate of the working fluid decreases and
vice versa. About the useful heat, there was a convergence in the results in tests
when volume flow rate (30,40) L/hr while there was a significant difference when
volume flow rate was 60 L/hr liters as shown in Figure 5.3 (c). The useful heat

79
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

values during tests in volume flow values (30, 40, 60) L/hr were 773W, 798W, and
684W respectively.

Fig.5.2: Hourly variation for several quantities on 9/1/2019 of (a) Solar irradiance
and ambient temperature, (b) Inlet water temperatures and wind speed.
80
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

Fig. 5.3 hourly variation of (a) Outlet water temperatures of a collector

(b) temperatures difference between outlet and inlet of water to the collector
(c) Useful heat of collector. (on January 9, 2019)
81
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

5.2.3 Effect of the working fluid type on the performance of a flat plate solar
collector

Numerical simulation was conducted to study the effect of the use of various
working fluids which are water, ethylene glycol-Water mixture and engine oil
grade (10W-30) on the thermal performance of the flat plate collector. study aims
to predict the best working fluid to transfer heat from the collector . The same input
data of weather conditions on January 9, 2019 are adopted in all studies. The time
variation of the weather conditions parameters indicated in Figure 5.2 (a),(b). The
inlet working fluid temperature to the solar collector was constant during the test
time and was 20 Co. The working fluid flow rate was 60L/hr in all numerical
studies. Figure 5.4 (a),(b) shows time variation of Tout and ∆T for different
working fluids. Where the highest Tout was 41.94˚C recorded in engine oil test. The
ethylene glycol-Water mixture test gave the highest temperature of 38.71˚C while
the highest temperature recorded in the water test 31.7˚C. The highest ∆T when the
engine oil test was 21.94˚C. In the ethylene glycol-Water mixture test, the highest
∆T was 18.71˚C. The water test achieved the lowest ∆T from the rest of the fluids
and was 11.7˚C.

For useful heat, the results gave a different behavior than in the Tout and
∆T. The results showed that the highest values of useful heat for engine oil,
ethylene glycol-Water mixture, and water tests were 727W, 1149W and 819W,
respectively as shown in Figure 5.4(c). It was observed that the engine oil, although
achieved higher Tout and ∆T, but it gave less useful heat compared to other fluids
because the specific heat of engine oil is more lower than the specific heat of water
and ethylene glycol-water mixture. It noted that the ethylene glycol-water mixture
is the effective fluid that is transferring the highest amount of heat compared to
other fluids at specific test conditions.

82
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

Fig.5.4: time variation of (a) Outlet working fluids temperatures (b) Temperature
difference for the fluid inside and outside of collector (c) useful heat of collector
83
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

5.2.4 Effect of the weather condition on the performance of a flat plate solar
collector

Studying the effect of weather condition on flat plat solar collector by

numerical simulation are presented. Climate conditions were chosen for three
different days in Najaf city, Iraq. Test days were January 9, February 28 and
March19, 2019. Figure 5.5 (a),(b),(c),(d),(e),(f) show the time variation of
parameter of weather condition in these days. It was observed that on January 9,
2019 the weather was clear sky day and stable irradiative regime. The wind speed
was relatively high, with a significant decrease in ambient air temperature. On
February 28, 2019, the weather was clear sky day and stable irradiative regime,
and in the afternoon the weather was partly cloudy for intermittent periods, and the
wind speed was relatively moderate with a decrease in ambient air temperature. On
March19, 2019, the weather was nearly clear sky day and stable irradiative regime,
and the wind speed was relatively low, while the ambient temperature was
moderate most of the time.

Water was selected as a working fluid in all numerical studies and inlet
temperature of it taken constant value which was 20˚C. The water volume flow
rate was constant has value 60L/hr in all studies. It is noted that outlet water
temperatures are directly affected by changes in the rate of solar radiation, There is
an obvious similarity between the variation of outlet water temperature Tout and the
difference between the inlet and outlet water temperatures of collector ∆T, on the
one hand, and solar irradiance falling on the collector, on the other hand.

Figure 5.6 (b) showed there was matching in variation between Tout and
∆T during test days; also it noted gap in Tout and ∆T on February 28, 2019 near the
back mimics the short period with the cloud shadow. The results of the simulation
indicate that the lowest Tout was on January 9, 2019 because the solar radiation in

84
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

this day less than other days and also the relatively high wind speed contributed to
increasing the thermal losses of the collector. While Tout on February 28 and
March19, 2019 was higher than the Tout on January 9, 2019 because these days
were characterized by relatively high radiation rates and low wind speed and Tout
were close at most times because of the relative convergence in the climatic
conditions in them. The highest Tout for January 9, February 28, and March 19,
2019 were 31.7Co, 34.3˚C and 34.95˚C respectively. While the highest ∆T were
11.7˚C, 14.37˚C and 14.95˚C respectively as shown in Figure5.6 (a),(b),(c). As for
the useful heat, the maximum values of them are 819W, 1003W and 1043W
respectively, as shown in Figure5.6 (d),(e),(f).

85
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

Fig. 5.5: Time variation of solar irradiance and ambient temperature of (a) on 9/1/2019 ; (b) on 28/2/2019 ;(c) on
19/3/2019. and Inlet water temperatures to collector and wind speed (d) on 9/1/2019 ; (e) on 28/2/2019 ;(f) on
19/3/2019.

86
Chapter Five Results and Discussion

Fig.5.6: Hourly variation of outlet water temperatures and temperatures difference between outlet and inlet water of the
collector (a) on 9/1/2019 (b) on 28/2/2019 (c) on 19/3/2019. And useful heat of solar collector (d) on 9/1/2019 (e) on
28/2/2019 (f) on 19/3/2019.

87
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

5.3 Experimental results

The solar heating system was tested on several days in winter months in
Najaf city. The effect of climatic conditions and testing various operating fluids on
the thermal performance of a solar heating system was studied.

5.3.1 Comparison between numerical and experimental results of a flat plate

solar collector

A comparative study was carried out between the numerical and the
experimental results of the thermal performance of a flat plate solar collector.
Numerical studies were conducted during the same days of the experimental tests,
which conducted in three days in three different months in winter season of the city
of Najaf, Iraq. Various working fluids have been tested in those days to find which
is more effective fluid in the thermal performance of the collector. The numerical
study conducted in same data used in experimental work such as; weather
conditions parameters data for these days, The working fluid type and fluid volume
flow rate, which is described in Table 5. Figure 5.5 (a),(b),(c),(d),(e),(f) shows
several quantities of solar radiation, ambient air temperature and wind speed,
Figure 5.7 showed time variation of inlet water temperature of collector for the
three test days.

Table 5.1 shows the details on the tests data

Test no. test date working fluid type volume flow rate
(L/hr)

(1) 9/1/2019 water 60

(2) 28/2/2019 Ethylene glycol-Water 60
(3) 19/3/2019 Engine oil 120

88
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig.5.7: Time variation of Inlet fluids temperatures to a collector during days test

Three-day simulation studies using three different working fluids were

computed. In this comparison, the focus will be on computing outlet fluid
temperatures of the collector Tout and the difference between experimental and
numerical temperatures, which is an indicator of the amount of error. By studying
the simulation results to evaluate the thermal performance of the solar collector for
the three days and comparing them with the experimental results during the similar
days, it was found that there is acceptable agreement between numerical and
experimental results and acceptable accuracy in most tests.

On January 9, 2019 test, The working fluid used was water with a volume
flow rate of 60 L/hr. It is noted that the time variation of experimental and
numerical temperatures Tout was almost identical, and this indicates the high
accuracy in solving the numerical study. Time variation of the difference between

89
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

experimental and numerical temperatures was ranged between (1.2 to -2.8)˚C as

shown in Figure 5.8(a)

In the February 28, 2019 test, Ethylene glycol-Water was used as a working
fluid with a volume flow rate of 60L/hr .The computed and measured temperatures
were usually convergence and spread slightly in a few times, as shown in Figure
5.8(b) The difference between experimental and numerical temperatures ranged
from (4.8 to -6.85) ˚C.

Finally, on March 19, 2019, the engine oil used as a working fluid, and the
volume flow rate was 120 L/hr. The hourly variation of numerical and experimental
temperatures was identical before noontime and then slightly diverged in the
afternoon, as shown in Figure 5.8(c), the difference between experimental and
numerical temperatures ranged from (7 to -6)˚C.

90
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

(a)

(b)

(c)

Fig. 5.8 shows time variation of experimental and numerical Tout of collector and
difference between experimental and numerical temperatures of (a) on January 9,
2019(b) on February 28, 2019 (c) on March 19, 2019.
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

5.3.2 Effect of the weather condition on the performance of a flat plate solar
collector

Experimental tests were conducted to study the effect of the weather

conditions on the performance of the flat plate collector solar water heater. Four
different days were selected to done these tests, which on (January 9,20) and
(February 20,24), 2019. The weather data were recorded during test days from the
weather station system and portable measuring instruments, where it recorded the
solar radiation, wind speed, and ambient air temperatures. Figure 5.9 shows solar
radiation during test days. Figure 5.10 and Figure 5.11 show the hourly variation of
wind speed and ambient air temperatures during the test days.

Fig.5.9: Hourly variation in solar irradiance during testing days

92
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig. 5.10: Hourly variation of wind speed during testing days

Fig.5.11: Hourly variation of ambient air temperatures during testing days

93
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

The heating system was tested in most days from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm. the
working fluid used was water. The volume flow rate was 60L/hr in all days, except
on 20 January, the volume flow rate was 30 L/hr. Figure5.12 shows time variation
of outlet water temperatures Tout and the temperature difference between outlet and
inlet water ∆T of solar collector. There is a remarkable similarity between the
variation of Tout and ∆T on the one hand and variation of solar radiation on the
other hand. The results showed the Tout was convergent on January 20 and
February 20,24, 2019 between the hour 12:30 and 13:30 pm, where the highest Tout
for these days was 64.6˚C,64.7˚C, and 64.5˚C Respectively. On February
20,24,2019 variation in Tout were close because variation in solar radiation was
convergent. While on February 20, 2019 variation in Tout was close to the previous
two days, although the solar radiation was significantly less, because of the volume
flow rate was lower than the previous two days. While on January 9, 2019 the
highest Tout was 57.1˚C. It was noted that time variation of ∆T for days on January
9 and February 20,24, 2019, were almost identical in values during most hours of
the day and reached the highest value of 12.7˚C, 13.9˚C, and 13.8 ˚C respectively.
While on 20 December 2019, ∆T was twice as high as the other days and its
greatest value was 24.5˚C, This is a big difference in temperature because the
volume flow rate of working fluid in this day was lower than other days, which was
30L/hr while the volume flow rate in other days was 60L/hr. This difference is
beneficial to compare solar heaters and represents an indicator of the thermal
performance of the solar heater.

From above, it was noted that the most important climatic factors that affect
the change of water temperature are solar radiation, which is the source of thermal
energy in the solar collector. The ambient air temperature and wind speed
contribute to increase and decrease the thermal losses of a collector.

94
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig.5.12: Hourly variation of (a) outlet water temperatures (b) temperature

difference between outlet and inlet water of the solar collector during testing days

95
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Figure 5.13 shows hourly variation of useful heat of the flat plate solar heater
collector calculated from the experimental data of the temperature recorded for the
water inlet and outlet of the solar collector. The hourly variation of useful heat of a
flat plate collector during the test days on January 9,20 and February 20,24, 2019
reached the highest values during the test period are 886.3W, 854.85W, 956.1W
and 963.1W respectively. The useful heat is directly affected by changes in solar
radiation during the test time because they are produced by the heat generated in
the absorbent part inside the solar collector due to solar radiation falling on it minus
the thermal losses from the collector.

Fig.5.13: Shows hourly variation of the useful heat of the collector

during testing days

96
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Figure 5.14 shows the time variation of the thermal efficiency of the flat
plate solar collector during the four test days. The thermal efficiency values of the
solar collector were calculated for the test days on January 9,20 and February
20,24, 2019, and highest values reached 50.52%, 47.37%, 47.39%, 46.78%
respectively.

The highest thermal efficiency value recorded on January 9, 2019 reached

50.52 %. Although the solar radiation rate was lower than other days, The wind
speed rate was higher, and the ambient air temperature was lower than the rest of
the test days. Because the thermal losses on January 9, 2019 were less than the
other days and this can be deduced from knowing the difference between the
average temperature of the glass cover of the collector and the temperature of the
surrounding air where it reached its value of 5.8˚C at 1:00 pm. While the value of
this difference reached 17.4 ˚C at 1:00 pm on February 24, 2019. This difference
in temperature contributes to increased thermal losses by convective heat transfer
and radiation between collector and surroundings., This shows that the thermal
losses on February 24, 2019 were high and contributed to reducing the efficiency of
the collector even though the weather conditions were better. In any case, the
thermal efficiency of the solar heater was convergent in values , and all were below
50%. This gives an essential indication that thermal losses in the collector are large
and exceed half of the input energy, and this is a disadvantage of flat plate solar
collector.

97
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig.5.14: shows the thermal efficiency of the flat plate solar collector during the
test days.

5.3.3 Effect of the weather condition on the performance of the indoor

radiator

The performance of the radiator inside the room is directly affected by

changes in weather conditions parameters because its work is directly related to the
solar collector. Figure 5.15 shows the time variation of inlet water temperature Ti of
the radiator during the four test days.

It was noted that the highest Ti during the test days was 57.4˚C at 12:55 pm
on February 20, 2019, and the lowest temperature of 51.6˚C at 1:02 pm on January
9, 2019. Figure 5.16 shows time variation of the temperature difference of inlet and
outlet water of radiator ∆T, The results showed convergence in ∆T for the days of
January 9, 2019, and February 20,24, 2019, the highest values are were 8.5˚C,
9.7˚C, and 9.3˚C, respectively.

98
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig. 5.15: shows the inlet water temperature of the radiator during the test days

Fig.5.16: Shows hourly variation of the temperature difference

of the outlet and inlet water of the radiator during testing days.
99
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

While on January 20, 2019 the highest ∆T was reached 15.3˚C at 12.21pm,
The reason that the flow rate of the working fluid was 30L/hr while in other days
was 60L/hr, where the slower flow allows for more considerable heat exchange
time, which makes the temperature difference for working fluid inlet and outlet is
higher and vice versa.

Figure 5.17 shows the useful heat of the radiator during the four test days;
Results showed that the useful heat for the test days on January 9,20 and February
20,24, 2019 were somewhat convergent during the day, and the highest values
during the days of the test are 593.15 W, 533.84W, 587.3W, 571.33W respectively.
It was noted that the useful heat on January 20, 2019 was lower most of the time
compared to other days, although the test of this day achieved the highest Ti and
∆T, due to the system operation with volume flow rate of 30 L/hr, which is
considered slow relatively. While other days was 60 L/hr in, This significant
difference in volume flow rate overcame the increase in temperature to achieve
higher useful heat.

Fig.5.17: Shows hourly variation of the useful heat of the radiator during the test
days.
100
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

5.3.4 Effect of the weather condition on the heating load of the room

Heating load calculations were carried out for the room to be heated during
the four test days. These calculations require knowing the internal conditions of the
room as well as weather conditions for all test days. One of the basic parameters for
performing heating load calculations is dry bulb temperature and relative humidity
or wet bulb temperature inside and outside the room. Internal design conditions
should be suitable for the health and comfort of occupants in the room, which has
been considered the dry-bulb temperature of 25 and relative humidity 50%. As
for outside conditions, weather condition parameter is continually changing as they
relate to weather changes. Weather condition data were recorded from weather
station during the test days, Figure 5.11 showed the hourly variation of ambient air
temperatures, which represent dry bulb temperature during testing days. Figure
5.18 shows the hourly variation of outdoor relative humidity values during periods
of the test days. The recorded data showed that the relative humidity rates are high
at the beginning of the morning and then gradually decrease during daylight hours.

Fig. 5.18 Shows the hourly variation of outdoor relative humidity values during
hours for test days.
101
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Relative humidity data is necessary for heating load calculations. They can
be used to extract the moisture content values from the psychometric chart in the
air and thus calculate the amount of latent heat, which is a component of the
heating load, as explained in Chapter three. Increase the amount of relative
humidity contributes to increase the amount of latent heat and thus increase the
heating load and vice versa. Figure 5.19 shows the time variation of heating load
values of the room during the test days. The results showed the most significant
values of the heating load on January 9, 20 and February 20, 24, 2019, was
1718W, 1434W, 1535W, and 1218W respectively at 9:00 am. While the average
heating load during the test periods for the above days was 1302W, 1191W, 1158W
and 1117W respectively. These results showed that the heating load required for
the room is at the highest value in the first morning hours and then decrease
gradually until it reaches the lowest value at midday. In afternoon, the heating load
begins to escalate slightly. This is because the heating load is directly affected by
variation in solar radiation rates during the day, which are weak at sunrise and
gradually increase at midday and then decrease to the lowest value at sunset, as
shown in Figure5.8.

Fig.5.19: Shows hourly variation of the heating load of room during the test days
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

They are accompanying the heating process, continuously changing the

internal conditions of the room, where the heat energy transmitted from the radiator
to the room space contribute to raise the air temperature and reduce the relative
humidity inside the room. The results showed that the heating process achieved a
relatively acceptable result in covering part of the heating load required. Figure
5.20 shows the time variation of the room's internal conditions (room temperature
Tindoor and relative humidity Rhindoor) as well as ambient temperature Tamb during the
heating process. During the test days on January 9, 20 and February 20, 24, 2019.
The results indicate the similarity in a variation of room temperature and ambient
air temperature. Recorded data showed that the relative humidity decreases
between 44% and 32% in most days. Any increase in room air temperature was
accompanied by a decrease in relative humidity in the heating process. As for
highest room temperatures during the test hours were 21.19 ˚C, 22.9 ˚C, 23.04 ˚C,
and 23.86 ˚C, respectively. It was found that the last three days of the test achieved
the highest temperature of the room is about 23˚C, which means the system
produced thermal energy near the required heating load in the midday period.
While on January 9, 2019, the room temperature reached the highest value of 21.19
˚C. Because the weather was cold compared to the other days, and the solar
radiation rates were lower, in general, it had been observed that the heating system
warm the space weakly at the beginning of the morning and near sunset and does
not provide the minimum required design conditions in these periods. Because the
solar heating system gives useful heat less more from required due to weak solar
radiation in sunrise and sunset times. while it reaches peak value in the middle of
the day, although the solar heating system did not give heat energy equal to the
load required during the four days of tests, it contributed to increasing the room
temperature within acceptable limits in some times. Based on the above, In the
period time between 11:00 am, and 4:00 pm, The solar heating system can work at

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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

the highest possible performance and cover an essential part of the desired heating
load.

Fig.5.20: Hourly variation of Tindoor, Tamb, and Rhindoor during the testing day
(a) on 9/1/2019 (b) on 20/1/2019 (c) on 20/2/2019 (d) on 24/2/2019

5.3.5 Effect of using different working fluids on the performance of the flat
plate solar collector

The thermal efficiency of the solar collector can be improved through several
variables, including the geometric shape, type of material, and the working fluid
type. Working fluid has an important role in improving thermal efficiency. The

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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

amount of heat transferred in the solar collector varies from fluid to another
because they have different thermal properties.

Three types of working fluids were tested in three different days. The water
was tested on January 9, 2019 and the Ethylene glycol-Water mixture (50%-50%)
on February 28, 2019 and oil engine grade (10W-30) on March 19, 2019. Tests of
ethylene glycol-Water and water were performed at a volume flow rate of 60 L/hr,
while the engine oil test conducted at 120L/hr.

In the beginning, we must clarify the weather conditions during the test days.
Figure 5.5 show time variation of solar radiation, ambient air temperatures, and
wind speed during days test. Figure 5.21 shows the time variation of outlet fluid
temperatures of collector Tout during testing different working fluid in different
days. The results showed that the experimentally recorded data of Tout to use water,
ethylene-glycol-water, and engine oil which have different physical properties they
gave significant differences in the outlet fluid temperature of collector. The highest
Tout was recorded by using engine oil reached of 75.5˚C at 12:03 pm on March 19,
2109. As for the test of Ethylene glycol-Water mixture, the highest temperature
reached 64.8˚C at 12:38 pm on February 28, 2019. Finally, the water test showed
that the lowest fluid temperature, which reached highest temperature of 57.1˚C at
12:58 pm on January 9, 2019. There is a clear difference in temperatures of
different fluids, Although the tests was done on different days. The working fluid
has an important effect in the performance of the solar heater collector, and the
engine oil has the highest ability to heat transfer from the collector then coming
ethylene glycol-water mixture and at last water. Figure5.22 Shows hourly variation
of temperature difference of outlet and inlet fluid of collector ∆T during testing
different working fluids in different days.

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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig.5.21: Hourly variation of the outlet fluid temperatures of the

solar collector during testing days

Fig.5.22: Shows an hourly variation of temperature difference of outlet and

inlet fluid of collector during testing days
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

The engine oil showed a high ability to transfer heat from the collector and
reached the highest value of ∆T to 23.5 at 11:40 am on March 19, 2019, while
the ethylene glycol-Water mixture test showed that the highest temperature
difference was 16.3 on February 28, 2019 at 12:02 pm. Finally, water was less
fluid that gave the ability to transfer thermal energy, where the highest temperature
difference was 12.7 on January 9, 2019 at 11:53 am.

Figure 5.23 shows the time variation of useful heat of the solar collector
during the use of different working fluids on different days. The results showed that
the engine oil gave the highest value of useful heat from other fluids, which
reached 1562.6W at 11:39 am on March 19, 2019. For Ethylene glycol-water
mixture, the highest useful heat was 1001.3W at 12:04 pm on February 28, 2019.
As for water, the highest useful heat was 886.24W at 11:53 am on January 9, 2019.
The variation of useful heat for working fluids tests of a solar collector is due to
different physical properties such as density, viscosity, thermal conductivity, and
specific heat. However, the most important characteristics of the increase the heat
exchange is the specific heat, The engine oil, has the lowest specific heat of
1.99[kJ/kg.c] at 50 , while the specific heat of ethylene-glycol-water mixture and
water were 3.686[kJ/kg.c] and 4180[kJ/kg.c] respectively,. Heat transfer increases
as the specific heat of the working fluid are low and vice versa, This gives
preference to engine oil in the increasing of heat exchange and extract as much
useful heat as possible from collector.

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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig.5.23: Shows an hourly variation of the useful heat of collector during testing
different working fluids in different days.

Figure 5.24 shows the time variation of the thermal efficiency of a flat plate
solar collector during testing different working fluids in different days. Where the
results showed that the solar collector achieve the highest efficiency when the
working fluid used is engine oil which reached of 66% on March 19, 2019. When
Ethylene glycol-water tested the efficiency of the solar collector reached 58% on
February 28, 2019. The water test recorded the lowest efficiency of the solar
collector, reaching 50.5% on January 9, 2019. There is a clear difference in thermal
efficiencies of the solar collector when testing different working fluids. The reason
of difference in thermal efficiencies because each fluid has a certain heat
transferability. Whenever the fluid contributes to transfer more amount of useful
heat, this reduces the amount of losses and vice versa. This different behavior leads
to different thermal efficiencies. From above, it is concluded that the engine oil
achieved better possesses a high capacity in the transfer of thermal energy and was
utilized from its thermal properties in the possibility of increasing the volume of
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

flow rate by twice compared to other fluids. This feature gives it an advantage in
increasing the amount of useful heat and efficiency of the solar collector.

Fig.5.24: shows the thermal efficiency of the flat plate solar collector during testing
different working fluids in different days.

5.3.6 Effect of using different working fluids on the performance of the indoor
radiator

The effect of working fluids on the indoor radiator performance was studied
by utilizing its thermal properties in increasing the heat exchange between the fluid
and the surface of the radiator and increasing the useful temperature of the radiator.
Three types of working fluids were tested in three different days. Figure 5.25 shows
time variation of inlet working fluid temperature of radiator Ti during test different
working fluid in different days.

Results indicated that the highest Ti during the period test was when using
engine oil as the working fluid and reached 63.5˚C. Also, with respect ethylene
glycol-Water mixture and water, Ti was 57.8 ˚C and 51.6 ˚C respectively.
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig. 5.25: shows time variation of inlet working fluid temperature of the radiator
during test different working fluid in different days

Figure 5.26 Shows spectral images taken by a thermal camera showing a

temperature distribution in the radiator using different working fluids. Working
fluid affects the temperature distribution in the radiator surface. The white areas
represent the highest temperatures in the color spectrum and then gradient until
they reach the violet color, which represents the lowest amount of temperature. In
the oil test, it was observed the high temperatures located in higher radiator surface
and take more space compared to the temperatures distribution with other fluid
tests. The large area of high temperature gives benefit in increasing the heat transfer
from the radiator surface and vice versa. While in ethylene glycol-water mixture
and water tests, the high-temperature distribution area in the radiator surface was
less than the oil test and its position was concentrated on the side and bottom of the
radiator with an advantage of ethylene glycol-water mixture. This difference in
temperature distribution is due to the different flow rate of oil was higher than other

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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

fluids in addition to it has better thermal properties relative to other fluids. These
advantages of oil make it the best fluid in transferring heat from the radiator surface
to room air.

(a) (b) (c)

Figure 5.26 Temperature distribution of the radiator surface is constructed by
infrared imaging using various working fluids (a) water (b) Ethylene glycol-Water
mixture (c) Engine oil

Figure 5.27 shows time variation of temperatures difference between inlet

and outlet fluid of radiator ∆T. It is noted that the engine oil test gave the highest
∆T and reached a maximum value of 16.85 ˚C at 11:27 am on March 19, 2019.
While the highest value when using ethylene glycol-Water was 10.4 ˚C at 12:21 pm
on February 28, 2019. Finally, its highest value when using water was 8.5 ˚C at
1:03 pm on January, 2019.

Figure 5.28 shows the useful heat of the radiator using various working
fluids during different days. The results indicated that the highest value of useful
heat of the radiator when the engine oil was used as working fluid which reached
1031W. At 11:14 am on March 19, 2019. For ethylene glycol-Water mixture was
the highest value of useful heat 639W at 12:19 pm on February 28, 2018. Finally,

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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

water gave the lowest value of the useful heat of the radiator, which reached 593W
at 1:02 pm on January 9, 2019. It is noted that testing the engine oil in the heating
system achieved an amount of useful heat more higher than the other fluids, for two
reasons, the first reason because the engine oil has a better thermal properties of
water and ethylene glycol-water mixture especially the property of the specific
heat, which is less than other fluids, This gives it a preference in the process of heat
exchange. The second reason is that the oil tested at a volume flow rate of 120L/hr
while the other fluids were tested at a volume flow rate of 60 L/hr. The engine oil
tested at high volume flow rate due to it has ability to increase the heat exchange
process in high volume flow rate. Also high solar radiation rates allow it to raise
the volume flow rate with increasing the heat transfer. Finally, the high viscosity of
the oil requires pumping it at a high flow rate to overcome flow losses and pressure
drop.

Fig.5. 27 shows time variation temperatures difference between inlet and outlet
fluid of radiator during test different working fluid in different days.
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Figure 5.28 shows the useful heat of the radiator using various working fluids
during different days
5.3.7 Effect of using different working fluids in the solar heating system on the
room heating

The effect of the use of different working fluids in different days on

enhancement heating system was examined, and utilized from the thermal
characteristics of some working fluids were used to improve the thermal
performance of the heating system. And increase the heat exchange in the solar
collector and radiator to determine the best working fluid, which gives the highest
useful heat and improves the efficiency of the heating system. Moreover, it makes
the most of the useful heat obtained from solar energy to cover as much as possible
the amount of heating required or part of it. In the beginning, we should review the
calculations of heating loads during the working fluids tests. Figure5.5 showed an
hourly variation of ambient air temperatures during testing days, which represent
dry bulb temperature during testing days Figure 5.29 shows the hourly variation of
relative humidity values during daylight hours for test days.

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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig. 5.29 shows the hourly variation of outdoor relative humidity values during test
days.

The recorded experimental data showed that the relative humidity rates are
high at the beginning of the morning and then gradually decrease during daylight
hours. The results showed that there is a sufficient difference in the relative
humidity values during the test days and recorded the highest value on 28/2/2019
about 97%. On 9/1/2019, the highest value was 87%, and finally, on 19/3/2019 the
value was relatively low and recorded the highest value of 57%, all these results
recorded at time 9:00 am.

Figure 5.30 shows the heating load values of the room calculated during the
test days. These results showed that the heating load required to warm the room is
at the highest value in the first morning hours in all days and then decrease
gradually until reaches the lowest value during the midday, after which the value
begins to increase relatively little until the time of sunset. This is because the
heating load is directly affected by the change in solar radiation rates during the

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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

day. Whose values are weak at sunrise and gradually increase until reach peak level
at midday and then decrease to the lowest value at sunset, as shown in Figure5.5.

Fig.5.30: Shows hourly variation of the heating load of room during the test days

The results of heating load calculations showed that on January 9, 2019 the
heating load reached the highest value of 1718W. While on February 28, 2019 and
March 19, 2019, were 1390W and 1449W respectively. All these readings were at
9:00 pm.

The experimental results showed that working fluids could improve the
performance of the solar heating system and it contributes to increasing thermal
energy provided to heating space by benefit from the advantages of the physical-
thermal properties of the working fluids on the one hand. Besides testing these
fluids at the optimum volume flow rate in the solar heating system on the other
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

hand. It is necessary to note testing fluids at different times makes a results

comparison inaccurate. To be an accurate and realistic comparison, all fluids must
be tested in one day under similar conditions. However, the working fluids can be
evaluated and predict the most adequate fluids, even if they were tested on different
days, especially after we found some similarities in weather conditions in oil and
ethylene glycol-water mixtures tests. In addition to observing significant
differences in the improvement of heat exchange, this gives a good impression on
the evaluation of different working fluids. Figure 5.28 shows that the oil test gave a
useful heat of the radiator more higher than other fluids, taking advantage of its
thermal properties and high flow rate and this gives it an advantage on other fluids,
despite the disadvantages of high viscosity and freezing. Figure 5.31 shows the
time variation of the room's internal conditions (room temperature T indoor and
relative humidity Rhindoor) during the heating process as well as ambient
temperature Tamb during test days. The experimental data showed that the
maximum room temperature during days on January 9, 2019, February 28, 2019
and March 19, 2019 was 21.19˚C, 22.27˚C and 24.4˚C, respectively. The relative
humidity was reduced during the heating process, and the values ranged during the
days of the test between (46%-30%).

It is observed early in the morning and near sunset that the heat energy
provided to the room by the solar heating system is weak, and the room
temperature is much lower than the indoor design temperature while in the period
between 11:00 am and 4:00 pm there is a relative convergence between room
temperature and the indoor design temperature. Figure 5.31 shows that the solar
heating system in the oil test contributed to the heating space to the limits close of
the design conditions and achieved thermal energy close to the required heating
load. It also achieved the highest difference between room air temperature and
ambient air temperature reached 5.2˚C. While in the ethylene-glycol-water mixture

116
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

test, the system contributed to heating space to a lesser degree than the oil test and
achieved an acceptable amount of thermal energy to heat the room, and the highest
difference between room air temperature and the ambient air temperature was
3.95˚C as shown in Figure 5.31 (b). Finally, the system in the test of water achieved
the least amount of space heating was the highest difference between room air
temperature, and ambient air temperature was 3.5˚C as shown in Figure 5.31 (a).

117
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig.5.31: Hourly variation of indoor and ambient temperatures and indoor relative
humidity on (a) January 9, 2019 (b) February 28, 2019 (c) March 19, 2019

118
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

5.3.4 Losses calculation in the pipelines

In each thermal system, thermal losses cannot be eliminated, but the

heat lost amount can be reduced by using traditional insulating materials and
modern insulation techniques. In our work, there are two types of losses that occur
in the solar heating system; the first is the losses in the flat plate collector. These
losses occur because of convection and radiation heat transfer from the collector to
the surrounding air. The second is the pipeline losses that will be highlighted in our
account. The outlet and inlet pipelines to the collector which are connected from
the other side to the radiator. It was covered with insulation has a thickness of 0.5
cm and was wrapped from the outside with a thermal tape resistant to weather
conditions. Figure 5.32 shows the time variation of the thermal losses in all the
pipelines of the system during the four-day test, and the working fluid used was
water. The system tested in all days was under a volume flow rate of 60 L/hr,
except on January 20, 2019 was 30 L/hr. By observing the results, there was a
convergence in the rate of thermal losses on January 9, 2019 and February 24, 2019
and recorded lowest losses which ranged from 150W to 300W in most times. On
February 20, 2019, the time variation of the losses was semi identical with the
previous two days in the afternoon period and divergence which increased in the
afternoon. The losses were volatile, especially in the afternoon and ranged between
100W to 500W. Finally, on 20/1/2019 the losses were high compared to the rest of
the days, and the reason was that the volume flow rate it was 30L/hr, which is
relatively slow resulting in increased heat exchange time in pipelines resulting
raised of fluid temperature to a higher amount than other tests causing an increase
in losses. Figure 5.33 shows the time variation of thermal losses by testing various
working fluids on different days, Note that there is a convergence in the variation
time of losses on January 9, 2019 and February 28, 2019 and reached the highest
value of 396W and 357W respectively, with the observation that there is fluctuation
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

in the value of losses during periods of intermittent time on February 28, 2019 to
reach the highest value of more than 450, the reason for this is the appearance of
clouds shading on the collector during that period causing increased losses rapidly.

Fig. 5.32: shows the thermal losses in all the pipelines of the system during the
four-day test

Figure 5.33: shows the time variation of thermal losses by testing various
working fluids on different days.
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Finally, the heating system achieved fewer losses compared to the previous
two days in the test on March 19, 2019 using the working fluid engine oil, and the
average value of losses is 124W because the volume flow rate was high in the test
of this day and reached 120L/hr, which made the heat exchange time fast, this
reduced the losses on the this day. While in the previous two days, it was 60L/hr
that led to losses at higher rates.

Figure 5.34 shows the rates of thermal losses in the pipelines compared to
the useful heat generated by the collector. The highest losses were observed on
January 20, 2019, where the flow of the working fluid was 30L/hr while the lowest
losses were on March 19, 2019 where the volume flow rate was 120 L/hr, It is clear
that the volume flow rate has an essential impact on pipeline losses.

Figure 5.34 shows the ratios of thermal losses in the pipeline compared to the
useful heat generated by the collector.
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

5.4 Energy saving and cost calculations

The cumulative useful heat of the solar system during test days was
calculated and compared with the cumulative space heating load for the purpose of
economic analysis. The useful heat of the system represents the amount of energy
saved. Figure 5.35 shows a comparison of the cumulative quantities of the heating
load and useful heat from the solar system for the test days.

Fig. 5.35: shows a comparison of the cumulative quantities of the useful heating
and heating load from the solar heating system for the test days

It is noticeable from the results that the heating load in January is higher than other
months where the cumulative load during test hours for January 9, 2019 was
37,383kW and gradually decreased during February and March. The highest
heating load recorded on February 20, 2019 was 33,181kW. On March 19, 2019
less heating load was recorded 27,521kW. This difference in the heating load

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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

during the months is due to the different weather conditions during these months,
January was the coldest month compared to others in Najaf city. February was also
cold in most days, but to lesser extent than January. While in March the weather
was cold at the beginning of the month and then the weather seemed to tend to
moderate. Useful heat calculations of the solar heating system during the test days
showed that there was convergence in the results in January and February, where
the average cumulative amount of useful heat was 12,174kW and 12,661kW
respectively. While March recorded the highest useful heat on March 19, 2019 was
23,941kW. Figure 5.36 shows the ratio of useful heat of the solar system to the
required heating load during the test days. The results indicate that the solar heating
system contributed to heating the room with different percentages of the total
heating load during the test days. The rate of heating in January was 34% of the
total required load, while the rate of heating in February was 39.5%. Finally, in
March it was 86%.

Fig. 5.36: shows the ratio of useful heat to the required heating load
123
CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

The calculation of the cost of energy saved as a result of the use of the solar
heating system is very important to assess the economic feasibility of it and also in
calculating the payback period for the cost of the initial investment. Costs were
calculated according to the pricing of the Iraqi ministry of electricity and were
calculated according to the average category cost of power unit (35 IQD/ unit). It
should be a consideration that the calculation of costs must be along the length of
the winter months in order to obtain a more realistic economic study. So the
average energy saved for test days during each month is assumed to be the amount
of energy saved per day during that month. This hypothesis will allow the
calculation of costs for each test days as well as for each month as shown in
Figure 5.37(a) It was found that the average cost saved during most days about 970
IQD/day, except on 19/3/2019 was the cost saved 1860 IQD/day. The calculation
of the cost of energy saved for each month according to the hypothesis of
calculating the rate of energy saving for the test days was as shown in Figure 5.38
(b). Where the saving costs were convergence for January and February were
28,400 IQD and 29,550 IQD, respectively, while the cost of March 55,860 IQD. As
a result, the period of use of this system during these three months and can add
December and part of November to cold months in weather of Iraq; this reduces
the payback period of the system after which the cost savings become profits
compared to the cost to use of traditional systems. The payback period can be
computed, which represents the ratio of the investment cost on energy saved during
a year. The cost savings were calculated during the winter season amounting to
114,000 IQD, while the investment cost was 600,000 IQD. The payback period is
therefore 5.2 years. Note that the initial cost is not high in these systems types.
Many low-income customers can purchase them, although the payback period is
relatively medium period. It is concluded that this solar system achieves economic
feasibility by relying on a free and available energy source, cheap and easy to
install and maintain and provide electricity or fossil fuels by 33% to 45%.
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CHAPTER FIVE Results and Discussion

Fig. 5.37 calculates the cost of energy savings (a) during test days (b) during the
months

125
 CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
Chapter Six Conclusion and Recommendations

CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

6.1 Conclusion
The present study aims to evaluate the thermal and economic performance of
an active solar heating system for heating space in Najaf, Iraq. A solar system uses
flat plate collector solar water heater to provide hot water. The effect of some
parameters on the thermal performance of a flat plate collector was studied
numerically and experimentally.

The most important conclusions that can be drawn from the present study are
as follow:

6.1.1 Numerical study

1. The results showed the optimum value of volume flow rate of the working
fluid in solar collector was 40 L/hr.
2. The study effect of the working fluid type used in the solar collector at the
same flow rate showed that the engine oil achieved the highest outlet fluid
temperature while the ethylene glycol-water mixture achieve highest useful
heat and efficiency.
3. Study the effect of climate parameters on the thermal performance of
collector showed that increasing the solar radiation rates has a significant
impact on increasing the thermal energy of the solar water heater. While the
thermal losses of collector are directly proportional to the wind speed and
inversely with the ambient air temperature.

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Chapter Six Conclusion and Recommendations

6.1.2 Experimental study

1. There was a good agreement between the numerical and experimental results
in studying the volume flow rate effect of, working fluid type, and weather
conditions.
2. January recorded the highest heating load than February and March.
3. Engine oil achieved the highest amount of useful heat compared to water and
ethylene glycol-water mixture, especially when the flow rate was high, but it
has some disadvantages in operation such as freezing at low temperature, as
well the difficulty of flow within the system because it has a high viscosity.
4. The solar heating system has contributed to saving electric power at a rate of
34% of the total energy required for room heating at the test days in January.
Whereas in February, was 39.5%. While in March, the system saved by 86%.
5. The economic study showed that the average saving cost of 38000
IDQ/month while the payback period was 5.2 years.

6.2 Recommendations

The present work can be extended through the development and

modification of an experimental rig to improve the thermal performance of the
heating system and extend the periods time operation of the system. The following
improvements could be performed in four main areas:

1. Studying the thermal and economic performance of a hybrid system by

added an auxiliary electric heater to the system to cover the entire required
heat load.
2. Study the effect of using a thermal storage tank to the heating system to
extend the operation period of the system. The thermal storage capacity can

127
Chapter Six Conclusion and Recommendations

also be increased by using phase change material PCM to covering the

cloudy periods and night.
3. Study the effect of using the active solar system consist from array of solar
water heater to cover the entire load required for heating, and connected it
with an automatic operating controller.
4. Study the thermal performance of a hybrid domestic heating system
consisting of an active solar system that produces hot water and passive
system Trombe wall and a direct gain window.

128
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Appendix A
Calibration
 Appendix A
Calibration

1. Calibration
The relationship between the value of the input to the measurement system
and the system‟s indicated output value is established during the calibration of the
measurement system. The wind velocity, the rate of humidity, solar radiation and
temperature were measured in this work. In this research, the anemometer is used
to measure wind velocity; the digital Pyranometer is used to measure the solar
radiation, Thermocouples are used to measure temperatures. Also, the digital
hygrometer is used to measure the relative humidity. Since these devises are easy to
handle and have acceptable accuracy in measuring. The accurate measurements can
be checked by calibrating the equipment at standard conditions or by comparing
with other suitable measurement devices. The calibrated gauges must be matched
to the correct measuring devices.

2. Thermocouple Calibration
Thermocouples are the most widely used temperature sensors in test and
development work. Therefore sometimes will be spent during the following
subsection to explain their function and what precautions were undertaken to
ensure their accuracy for the experiments carried out for this study. During the
experimentation carried, T-type thermocouples were used due to the suitability of
temperature range and highest accuracy amongst the different thermocouple types.
Thermocouple calibration consists of recording the temperature, measured, and
indication by a standardized thermometer, both in a constant temperature bath. For
thermocouples with fiberglass insulation, a sample thermocouple is calibrated. All
other thermocouples were calibrated combined. Figures (A.1 – A.4) presents the
relation between the thermometer results with standard mercury thermometer (zero
degree centigrade of the mixture of ice and water).These results are used to
calibrate the thermometer device. Results of the calibration can be found below.

Fig. A.1 Calibration of thermocouple (Tin)

Fig. A.2 Calibration of thermocouple (Tout)

Fig. A.3 Calibration of thermocouple (Ti)

Fig. A.4 Calibration of thermocouple (To)

3. Flowmeter calibration
Figure A.18 shows the flowmeter calibration.

Fig. A.5 shows the flowmeter calibration

4. Hygrometers Calibration
Figure A.18 shows the relation between two types of hygrometers.
Results of the calibration can be found below.

Fig. A.6 Calibration of Hygrometers

 Appendix B
Data of Experimental Work
 Appendix B
Data of Experimental Work
Table 1-B Data of experimental work of solar radiation, ambient temperature and
wind speed for day (9-1-2019).

Time (hr) Solar radiation (W/m2) Ambient temperature (oC) Wind speed (m/s)
09:00 530 9.8 1.8
10:00 752 11.3 2.7
11:00 907 13.2 3.1
12:00 967 15.9 3.6
01:00 961 17 2.7
02:00 839 17.2 3.6
03:00 675 17.2 3.4
04:00 420 17.5 2.7
05:00 95 16.2 2.2

Table 2-B Data of experimental work of solar radiation, ambient temperature and
wind speed for day (20-1-2019).

Time (hr) Solar radiation Ambient temperature (oC) Wind speed (m/s)
(W/m2)
09:00 500 13.68 4.5
10:00 853 15.96 2.7
11:00 875 16.66 3.6
12:00 985 17.76 2.7
01:00 980 17.82 2.2
02:00 860 17.64 2.4
03:00 684 17.16 2.2

Table 3-B Data of experimental work of solar radiation, ambient temperature and
wind speed for day (20-2-2019).

Time (hr) Solar radiation Ambient temperature (oC) Wind speed (m/s)
(W/m2)
09:00 720 12 0
10:00 793 14.4 0.4
11:00 1002 16.5 0.45
12:00 1103 17.9 0
01:00 1071 18.6 0.4
02:00 967 19.3 1.3
03:00 767 18.4 1.8
04:00 517 19.4 0.9
05:00 159 17.6 0.75
 Table 4-B Data of experimental work of solar radiation, ambient temperature and
wind speed for day (24-2-2019).

Time (hr) Solar radiation Ambient temperature (oC) Wind speed (m/s)
(W/m2)
09:00 591 16.5 3.1
10:00 722 17.6 2.2
11:00 999 18.4 2.7
12:00 1080 18.1 2.2
01:00 1095 18.4 1.8
02:00 966 18.3 1.3
03:00 745 18.3 1.4
04:00 506 17.4 0.9
05:00 186 16.6 0.4

Table 5-B Data of experimental work of solar radiation, ambient temperature and
wind speed for day (28-2-2019).

Time (hr) Solar radiation Ambient temperature (oC) Wind speed (m/s)
(W/m2)
09:00 688 14.63 0
10:00 840 15.26 0
11:00 1051 16.16 0.4
12:00 1177 17.61 0.5
01:00 1162 17.79 0.9
02:00 1077 17.85 0.4
03:00 887 17.16 0.9
04:00 601 17.34 1.3
05:00 246 16.52 0.9

Table 6-B Data of experimental work of solar radiation, ambient temperature and
wind speed for day (19-3-2019).

Time (hr) Solar radiation Ambient temperature (oC) Wind speed (m/s)
(W/m2)
10:00 1015 16 0.4
11:00 1175 17.3 0.45
12:00 1224 19 0.4
01:00 1206 19.4 0.5
02:00 1083 19.3 0.9
03:00 901 18.5 0.4
04:00 619 18.3 0.4
05:00 271 17.8 1.3
 Appendix C
Publish Papers from Thesis
 The 4th Scientific International Conference Najaf 2019

Experimental Study of the Performance of A Flat

Plate Solar Water Heater
Dhafer Manea H. Al-Shamkhee, Assaad Alsahlani
Mohammed Jasim O. alghurabe
Engineering Technical College / Najaf, Al-Furat Al-
Construction committee-Najaf Governorate Awsat Technical University
Najaf city, Iraq Najaf city, Iraq
[email protected]
[email protected] [email protected]

Abstract__ Flat Plate collector is the most common type of solar

water heater, due to its low price, easy installation, and long life.
The efficiency of a solar collector is key to evaluating its I. INTRODUCTION
performance in thermal facilities, especially applications
requiring low or medium temperatures. The most important The economic growth in countries and the increase in
factors affecting the efficiency of the solar collector are the population have led to increasing the demand for energy.
weather conditions, the design of the collector, the type of work Currently, the need for energy is primarily met by fossil fuels,
fluid used. A Flat plate collector tested experimentally in solar which it source of toxic gases that pollute the environment, So
heating system worked by direct flow and closed system to that could run out shortly. Leading to a threat to energy
heating space in Najaf, Iraq (32° 1' N / 44° 19' E). Experimental availability in countries around the world. This has made
results showed that the overall daily efficiency of the collector many countries to diversify energy sources. The most
reached 37.16%. Moreover, the maximum temperature of hot important of these sources are renewable energy because it is
water for collector reached 57.1oC sustainable, clean, and can contribute to reducing
environmental pollution. A large amount of energy is used for
heating in buildings and produce hot water for household use.
Keywords: flat plate collector, an experimental test, solar
Solar water heaters can supply much of the heat energy
radiation required especially in-home uses. One of the most important
types of solar water heaters is flat plate collectors because
Nomenclature they are characterized to be easy in manufacturing, cheap
costs, easy installation, and low maintenance costs. The
Qu useful work (W/m2) researchers have developed flat plate collectors to improve
their performance and efficiency through the geometrical
solar irradiation (W/m2) design of the collector, enhancement of the thermal properties
of working fluid and studied the impact of weather changes on
η efficiency of the collector its performance. Solar water heaters convert solar radiation
falling on the absorber into thermal energy and then the heat is
Ac collector area (m2) transferred to the working fluid inside the tubes then hot water
is kept in the thermal storage tank. With flat-plate collectors
Tin inlet water temperature ( ) are extensively studied theoretically and experimentally over
the past several decades. For instance:
Tout outlet water temperature ( ) (Morrison and Braun 1985) Studied the performance of the
thermosyphon approach of solar water heaters for the model
S absorbed solar radiation (W/m2) of two type tank: horizontal and vertical numerically.
Numerical results showed a discrepancy in the results
UL overall heat loss coefficient based on (W/m2 K) obtained from two locations. They noticed that when the
thermosyphon operates at its best performance, it can provide
Tpm plate temperature ( ) enough hot water for daily use. Moreover, the horizontal tank
system is better than the vertical tank system in the same
Ta ambient temperature ( ) operating conditions.
(Chow et al. 2006) Evaluated the daily production of
Tm Average temperature of the water inside and outside of the domestic hot water DHW in high- rise virtual building in
Hong Kong by fixing central solar water heaters SWH in the
collector
south and west vertical facades of the building. The economic
feasibility study was carried out in terms of technical and cost
aspects. The results of the numerical model reported that the
evaluated annual thermal energy produced was 904GJ, and the

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 The 4th Scientific International Conference Najaf 2019

thermal efficiency of solar water heater collector was 38.4% Based on previous studies, The research aims to study the
and average annual hot water temperature achieved was 41.4C thermal performance of flat solar collector experimentally in
.payback period was 9.2 years and this period can be less if Najaf, Iraq, and to calculate the useful energy and efficiency
energy saving for air cooling is taken into consideration of solar collector.
contribute solar collector by blocking the solar radiation on The collector efficiency is defined as the ratio of the useful
building facades. energy delivered to the energy incident on the collector
(Hobbi and Siddiqui 2009) studied the performance of solar aperture area as shown in equation (1). The incident solar flux
water heaters with an indirect forced flow rate to provided consists of direct and diffuse radiation. While flat-plate
domestic hot water for a single-family house in Montreal, collectors can collect both as following.
Canada using flat plate collector and evaluated by simulation
using TRNSYS software tool to analysis all main design
parameters for system and collector and determined the
optimum value for its. Moreover, consider the solar fraction While the heat energy extracted from the collector or the
was the optimization parameter. The simulation results useful heat can be calculated from equation (2).
explained that the rapid increases of solar fraction and
collector efficiency when circulation rate increases. Moreover, [ ( )]
the system can produce 83–97% in summer and 30–62% in
winter from hot water needs. Moreover, found the collector The overall daily efficiency of the collector can be
non-selective coated locally made can provide 54% from calculated from the equation (3)
annual water heating demands which obtained by solar
energy. ∑
(Serale et al. 2014) Proposed an enhancement for thermal ∑
performance of flat plate collector which produce limited
temperature. Thermal enhancement can be achieved by using
latent heat. Which can be obtained by fitted slurry phase
change material PCS with water and surfactants and heat II. Validation works
carried the fluid are evaluated. This study suggested that
conceptual proposals to an integrated solar thermal system E. Ekramian[7] presented his work numerically and
with slurry PCMs were presented, and a prototypal system compared the work with experimental results presented by
based on n-eicosane PCS was developed. This leads to giving Cruz-Peragon[8] for identical parameters and conditions.
the system thermo-physical and rheological properties and Where in this study, the flat plate solar collector contains 15
material behavior that interest flat-plate solar thermal riser tubes. Solar incident irradiation was 936.8 W/m2. Water
collectors. To interface possible problems to use of PCSs as inlet temperature, ambient temperature, and water flow rate
HTF such as clogging in pipes, high-pressure drop, some are 31˚C, 23.2 ˚C and 6.42 kg/h. Respectively. The thickness
sedimentation in the storage tank and capsule rupture as a of the glass cover and absorber are 4mm and 2mm,
result to pumping work, suitable design solution was taken. respectively. The inner diameter of risers was 10 mm, and the
(Sami et al. 2018) Investigated the energetic and economic distance between risers was 30 mm with riser‟s length of 450
possibility of the integration of flat plate collector solar water mm. Numerical results of E. Ekramian. The study showed that
heaters system with high energy performance housing. They the average relative error between the experimental and
choose four houses in different locations to have a distinct numerical results is about 5.5%. In our work, a numerical
climatic zone in Algeria to study this case. The evaluation of study was conducted on the solar collector and operation
this study based on calculations depending on using the F- condition used by Cruz-Peragon et al. [8]. Where the
Chart method with monthly weather station data numerical results were obtained more accurate and
characterizing each region. The study focused on finding the approximate to the experimental results, and the average
optimum solar collector area, which minimized the cost of relative error ratio of experimental data to numerical results is
installation in versus economic and energetic aspects. The about 0.062%. as shown in Figure (1)
results showed that the SWH contributed to saving the
traditional energy reach to 46% and 57% in northern and
southern regions respectively and in the same time-saving in
the annual operating cost of the solar system reached 51% and
69% respectively.
(Yousefi et al. 2012) Evaluated the effect of nanofluid
(Al2O3-water) as an absorbing medium to enhance the
thermal efficiency of a flat plate collector. Nanofluid tested
with a mass concentration of 0.2% and 0.4 %, With or without
used surfactant Triton X-100, Nanoparticle has diameter 15
nm and circulation rate varied (1-3) L/min. Experiments
showed that the thermal efficiency of FPC system
enhancement reached 28.3% by using nanofluid 0.2 wt%
Al2O3 in comparison with water base fluid and maximum Fig. (1) Comparison between experimental and numerical
improvement efficiency by use surfactant was 15.63%. temperature

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 The 4th Scientific International Conference Najaf 2019

III. Experimental work Fig. (3) Flat plate collector

A. System Description
The experimental work consists of several parts, as shown .collector. The last part is the radiator with dimensions
in Figure (2). The central part is the solar water heater flat (100x60) cm, which is placed inside the laboratory as shown
plate collector which is installed at the roof of the college in Figure (4). Hot water is transferred between the collector
building as shown in Figure (3). The specifications of the flat- and the radiator by polyethylene pipes surrounded by
plate solar collector indicated in table I. Parts of the collector insulating material, and valves control flow rate inside the
surrounded by an aluminum structure. This system is working system.
by forced convection by circulation working fluid in the
system by using electrical 0.5 hp bump. Flowmeter installed
before the collector to measure water flow rate input to the

Fig. (4) Indoor radiator

A data logger as shown in figure (5) with seven

thermocouples type (T) is connected to different locations in
the collector to record temperatures of inlet and outlet water
by two thermocouples fixed inside pipes, three thermocouples
fixed in the top, bottom and centre of glass, two
thermocouples for edge and back of collector. The ambient
temperature recorded from the weather station of laboratory
and Solar irradiation measured by the solar radiation sensor.

Fig. (2) scheme of the experimental rig

Table I. The Specifications of the Flat-Plate Solar Collector
Specification details
Dimension of collector (2000x1000x80)mm
Glass cover thickness 3.2 mm
Aluminum Absorber plate thickness 0.7 mm
Header tube diameter 22mm / 2 headers
Riser tube diameter 8mm / 7 risers
glass wool insulation thickness 30 mm

Fig. (5) Show data logger and solar irradiation sensor

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 The 4th Scientific International Conference Najaf 2019

B. Testing method
The solar collector is experimentally investigated at AL-
Furat AL-Awsat University/ Engineering Technical College in
Najaf, Iraq (32° 1' N / 44° 19' E). The collator is installed
facing the south with a Tilt angle of 320. Experiments are
conducted on 9 January 2019 from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm.
During this period, solar radiation falls on the solar heater
collector, where solar radiation was passed through the glass
cover and falls on the absorber plate, which it converts the
solar radiation into thermal energy causing temperature rise.
Conductive heat transfer occurs between absorber plate and
tubes, and heat transfer from tubes to working fluid by
convection. Hot water comes out of the collector and passes
through the pipelines to input indoor radiator. The heat is Fig. (7)Hourly variation of the wind speed on 9/1/2019
transferred from the hot radiator surface to the indoor room by
the convection and radiation causing indoor temperature rise Flat plate collector tested experimentally under
and heating the room. The electric pump then pumps the outlet
variable climatic parameters, and also the inlet water
water from the radiator into flow meter then return to the solar
collector. System tested underflow rate 60L/hr. Several factors temperature of collector was continuously changing because
affect the efficiency of the collector such as the ambient the working fluid in the system flows in a closed system. The
temperature, wind speed and the intensity of solar radiation outlet water of the collector comes out at high temperature and
which can study their effect on performance of collector. then returns to it at a lower temperature. Due to the loss of
part of its thermal energy in space heating. By repeating this
IV. Results and discussions process the inlet water temperature of the collector will
The experiments are performed from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm on change continuously. The system tested with the mass flow
9 Jan 2019 in Najaf city. At first, we review the weather rate of water of 60L/hr. The performance of flat plate collector
conditions on this day. Figure (6) showed time variation of depends mainly on solar radiation absorbed by the collector.
solar radiation and ambient temperature during test period On the contrary, an increase in wind speed causes an increase
where the maximum solar irradiance reach of 987W/m2, as for in heat losses by convection and reduces the efficiency of the
the ambient temperature was low at the first time and reached collector. Figure (8) show the time variation in the inlet and
9.8Co then it increased until it reached 17.5The highest outlet water temperature of the collector through from 9:00 am
temperature difference was recorded at 12.5 . Figure (7) to 5:00 pm, The outlet temperature of collector increase when
showed time variation of the wind speed which ranged from solar irradiance increase and vice versa. It has been noted that
(1.8 to 4) m/s. increasing wind speed contributes to increased thermal losses
and reduces the outlet water temperature of the collector. The
maximum temperature recorded was 57.1 oC at 12:58 pm.,
Figure (9) shows the time variation of the temperature
difference between the outlet and inlet of the collector, The
highest temperature difference recorded was 12.5The highest
temperature difference was recorded at 12.5 oC.

Fig. (6)Hourly variation in solar irradiance and ambient temperature on

9/1/2019
Fig. (8) hourly variation of inlet and outlet temperature of
collector

4
 The 4th Scientific International Conference Najaf 2019

Fig. (11) Hourly variation of efficiency of the collector from 9:00 am to5:00
pm on 1 Jan 2019

Collector efficiency is not always a good indicator of

overall collector performance. On any given day, a solar
collector can operate over a wide range of efficiencies as solar
radiation, ambient temperature, and heat transfer fluid
temperature change. Figure (12) showed an efficiency curve
between the instantaneous efficiency and the temperature
difference between the average water temperature and the
ambient temperature divided on solar irradiance.

Fig. (9) Hourly variation for the difference between outlet and inlet
temperature of the collector

Figure (10) showed the time variation of useful heat

of collector which represents the generated heat in absorber as
a result of falling solar radiation minus heat loss by
convection and radiation form collector. Useful heat can be
calculated from the recorded temperature of the water inside
and out from a collector at each specific time. Maximum
instantly value of useful heat was 886W.

V. Conclusion
The thermal performance of the flat plate solar
collector is studied experimentally under weather conditions
of Najaf, Iraq. During cold weather conditions on 9/1/2019.
The thermal energy extracted from the solar collector has been
used for space heating. This study focused on the effect of
climate parameters changes on the efficiency of the collector
and concluded the study to the following:
• Najaf city characterized by its geographical location with
high solar radiation rates, which encourages the use of solar
water heaters for household use and heating space.
Fig. (10) hourly variation of useful heat of collector from 9:00 am to 5:00 pm • The maximum temperature of hot water for collector reached
on 1 January 2019 57.1oC.
• The overall daily efficiency of the collector reached 37.16%,
Figure (11) showed the time variation of the While the highest value for instant efficiency was 50.44%.
efficiency of collector which represents the ratio of useful heat • The maximum value of instantly useful heat of solar
of collector to solar irradiance falling on the area of the collector was 886W and the daily amount of useful heat
collector in the specified time. The maximum value of reached 3355.734KW, This amount of energy contributes to
instantly efficiency reached 50.44% at 1:27 pm. saving of electricity consumption and achieves the economic
feasibility of the use of flat plate solar water heaters.

References

References

[1] G. L. Morrison and J. E. Braun, “System modelling and operation

characteristics of thermosyphon solar water heaters,” Sol. Energy,
vol. 34, no. 4–5, pp. 389–405, 1985.

[2] T. T. Chow, K. F. Fong, A. L. S. Chan, and Z. Lin, “Potential

application of a centralized solar water-heating system for a high-
Fig. (12) Show a typical collector efficiency curve rise residential building in Hong Kong,” Appl. Energy, vol. 83, no.
1, pp. 42–54, 2006.
5
 The 4th Scientific International Conference Najaf 2019

[3] A. Hobbi and K. Siddiqui, “Optimal design of a forced circulation on the efficiency of flat-plate solar collectors,” Renew. Energy, vol.
solar water heating system for a residential unit in cold climate 39, no. 1, pp. 293–298, 2012.
using TRNSYS,” Sol. Energy, vol. 83, no. 5, pp. 700–714, 2009.
[7] E. Ekramian, S.Gh. Etemad, M. Haghshenasfard, " Numerical
[4] G. Serale, Y. Cascone, A. Capozzoli, E. Fabrizio, and M. Perino, Analysis of Heat Transfer Performance of Flat Plate Solar
“Potentialities of a low temperature solar heating system based on Collectors", Journal of Fluid Flow, Heat and Mass Transfer
slurry phase change materials (PCS),” Energy Procedia, vol. 62, pp. Volume 1, Year 2014
355–363, 2014.

[5] S. Sami, D. Semmar, A. Hamid, R. Mecheri, and M. Yaiche, [8] Cruz-Peragon, F., Palomar, J.M., Casanovab, P.J., Dorado, M.P.,
“Viability of integrating Solar Water Heating systems into High Manzano-Agugliaro, F., (2012). Characterisation of solar flat
Energy Performance housing in Algeria,” Energy, vol. 149, pp. plate collectors .Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 16,
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[6] T. Yousefi, F. Veysi, E. Shojaeizadeh, and S. Zinadini, “An
experimental investigation on the effect of Al2O3-H2O nanofluid

6
 ‫الملخص‬
‫فً هذا العمل ‪ ،‬تم استخدام سخانات المٌاه بالطاقة الشمسٌة لتدفئة حٌز الغرفة عن‬
‫طرٌق تمرٌر السائل الساخن من مجمع الطاقة الشمسٌة إلى الرادٌتر داخل الغرفة‪ٌ .‬هدف هذا‬
‫العمل إلى توفٌر الطاقة الكهربائٌة وتوفٌر الكلف المالٌة وتقلٌل التلوث البٌئً ‪ .‬أجرٌت دراسة‬
‫عددٌة وتجرٌبٌة لتقٌٌم األداء الحراري لنظام التدفئة الشمسٌة‪ .‬أجرٌت اختبارات تجرٌبٌة لتدفئة‬
‫غرفة مساحتها ‪01‬م‪ 3‬باستخدام سخانات المٌاه بالطاقة الشمسٌة المسطحة (‪ )FPC‬فً الكلٌة‬
‫التقنٌة الهندسٌة ‪ /‬جامعة الفرات االوسط التقنٌة فً وحدة أبحاث الطاقة البدٌلة والمتجددة فً‬
‫النجف ‪ /‬العراق (‪ 20.131‬شماالا ‪ ،‬طول ‪ 11.031‬شر اقا) فً غضون ثالثة أشهر (كانون‬
‫الثانً‪ ،‬شباط‪ ،‬اذار) ‪ .3103‬العوامل التً تمت دراسة تأثٌرها هً (األحوال الجوٌة ‪ ،‬ونوع‬
‫مائع العمل ‪ ،‬والتحلٌل االقتصادي للنظام)‪ .‬الدراسات العددٌة تمت بواسطة برنامج المحاكاة‬
‫‪ COMSOL 5.3‬لتحلٌل األداء الحراري لسخان المٌاه بالطاقة الشمسٌة المسطح ‪ ،‬حٌث تمت‬
‫دراسة تأثٌر (معدل تدفق الحجمً‪ ،‬نوع السائل العمل‪ ،‬وظروف الطقس)‪ .‬أظهرت النتائج‬
‫العددٌة أن معدل التدفق الحجمً األمثل كان ‪ 11‬لتر‪/‬ساعة‪ .‬وحقق خلٌط اإلٌثلٌن كلٌكول‪-‬الماء‬
‫أعلى كمٌة من الطاقة الحرارٌة والكفاءة بالمقارنة مع الموائع األخرى بنفس معدل التدفق‬
‫الحجمً‪ .‬أظهرت النتائج التجرٌبٌة أن استخدام زٌت المحرك نوع (‪ )10W-30‬كمائع عمل‬
‫ٌعطً أعلى كمٌة من الطاقة الحرارٌة والكفاءة عند معدل التدفق الحجمً العالً مقارنة‬
‫بالسوائل األخرى‪ .‬ساهم نظام التسخٌن الشمسً فً توفٌر الطاقة الكهربائٌة بمعدل ‪ ٪21‬من‬
‫إجمالً الطاقة الالزمة لتسخٌن الغرفة فً أٌام االختبار فً كانون االول‪ .‬اما فً شباط واذار‬
‫فكانت ‪ ٪ 23.1‬و ‪ ٪ 68‬على التوالً‪ .‬أظهر التحلٌل االقتصادي الستخدام أنظمة التدفئة أن‬
‫متوسط الكلفة المدخرة كانت ‪ 26111‬دٌنار عراقً‪/‬الشهر‪ .‬فً حٌن أن فترة استرداد كلفة‬
‫االستثمار االولً لمنظومة التدفئة الشمسٌة كانت ‪ 1.3‬سنة‪ .‬النتائج العددٌة كانت متوافقة مع‬
‫النتائج التجرٌبٌة وكان نسبة الخطأ األقصى ال تتجاوز(‪ )٪6‬بٌن النتائج النظرٌة والتجرٌبٌة‪.‬‬
 ‫جمهورية العراق‬
‫وزارة التعليم العالي والبحث العلمي‬
‫جامعة الفرات االوسط التقنية‬
‫الكلية التقنية الهندسية – نجف‬

‫دراسة عددية وتجريبية الستخدام سخان الماء‬

‫بالطاقة الشمسية في تدفئة الحيز‬

‫رسالت‬

‫هقدهت اىل قسن هندست حقنُاث هُكاًُك القىي‬

‫كجشء هي هخطلباث ًُل درجت املاجسخري يف حقنُاث احلزارَاث‬

‫يف هندست حقنُاث هُكاًُك القىي‬

‫حقدم هبا‬

‫محــــمد جاســـــم عبـــــيد‬

‫اشراف‬
‫الذكتور اسعذ عواد السهالني‬ ‫الذكتور ظافر مانع الشمخي‬

‫كانون الثاني ‪0202‬‬