401 Networking Question bank With Answers

Faculty Name: Mrs.Khushbu Pawar

Five Marks Long Questions and Answers Including Short Notes

Q.1 What is networking? What are the goals of networking?
Answer:
 Networking: It s a collection of computers and other hardware components interconnected by
communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information.
 Goals of networking:
 Resource Sharing -it is to make all programs, data and equipment available to anyone on the network
without the regard to the physical location of the resource and the user.
 High Reliability -having alternative sources of supply. For example, all files could be replicated on two
or three machines, so if one of them is unavailable, the other copies could be available.
 Saving Money - Small computers have a much better price/performance ratio than larger ones
(Mainframes).
 Increase System Performance - as the work load increases (load balancing).
 Powerful Communication Medium - A file that was updated or modified on a network can be seen by
the other users on the network immediately.
 Security - Only authorized user can access resource in a computer network.

Q.2 Explain different applications of networking

Answer:
Home applications
There are many common uses of the computer network are as home applications. For example, you
can consider user-to-user communication, access to remote instruction, electronic commerce, and
entertainment. Another way is managing bank accounts, transferring money to some other banks,
paying bills electronically. A computer network arranges a robust connection mechanism between
users.
Business applications
The result of business application here is resource sharing. And the purpose of resource sharing is that
without moving to the physical location of the resource, all the data, plans, and tools can be shared to
any network user. Most of the companies are doing business electronically with other companies and
with other clients worldwide with the help of a computer network.
Mobile users
 The rapidly growing sectors in computer applications are mobile devices like notebook computers and
PDAs (personal digital assistants). Here mobile users/device means portable device. The computer
network is widely used in new-age technology like smartwatches, wearable devices, tablets, online
transactions, purchasing or selling products online, etc.
Access to Remote Databases
Computer networks allow us to access the Remote Database of the various applications by the end-
users. Some applications are Reservation for Hotels, Airplane Booking, Home Banking, Automated
Newspaper, Automated Library etc.
Entertainment Industry
In Entertainment industry also uses computer networks widely. Some of the Entertainment industries
are Video on demand, Multiperson real-time simulation games, movie/TV programs, etc.
Information Sharing
Using a Computer network, we can share Information over the network, and it provides Search
capabilities such as WWW. Over the network, a single information can be shared among the many
users over the internet.
Communication
Communication includes email, calls, message broadcast, electronic funds transfer system etc.
Resource Sharing
Resource sharing is an application of a computer network. Resource sharing means you can share one
Hardware and Software among multiple users. Hardware includes printers, Disks, Fax Machines, etc.
Computing devices. And Software includes Atom, Oracle VM Virtual Box, Postman, Android Studio,
etc.
Q.3) Write short notes on Broadcast and point to point networking.
Answer:
 Broadcast Network

• Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared or used by all the machines
on the network. Short messages called packets sent by any machine are received by all the others.
• Broadcast systems generally use a special code in the address field for addressing a packet to all the
concerned computers. This mode of operation is called broadcasting.
• Some broadcast systems also support transmission to a subset of the machines known as multicasting.
• Upon receiving a packet, a machine checks the address field. If the packet is addressed to it then the
packet is processed, otherwise the packet is ignored.
Point-to-point Networks

• Point to point networks consists of many connections between individual pairs of machines. To go
from the source to the destination a packet on these types of network may have to go through
intermediate computers before they reach the desired computer.
Often the packets have to follow multiple routes, of different lengths.
• Hence routing algorithms are very important in the point-to-point networks.
• An important general rule is as follows:
Small, localized networks (e.g. LAN) tend to use the broadcasting; whereas networks located over wide
geographical areas (such as WAN) use point-to-point transmission.
Q.4) Explain components of data communication

 Answer: Data communications refers to the transmission of this digital data between two or more
computers.
 It refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver.
 The device that transmits the data is known as source and the device that receives the transmitted data
is known as receiver.
A Communication system has following components:
1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures,
sound or video or any combination of these.
2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.
3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message. The location of receiver computer is
generally different from the sender computer. The distance between sender and receiver depends upon
the types of network used in between.
4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender to the
receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless
like laser, radio waves, and microwaves.
5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between the devices. Both sender and
receiver follow same protocols to communicate with each other.
Protocols performs several functions like Data sequencing, Data routing, Data formatting, Flow
control, Error control, Precedence and order of transmission, Connection establishment and
termination, Data security and Log information.

Q.5) Write a short note on protocols and standards

Answer:
Protocols:
 Protocol is a set of rules that govern data communication.
 It defines How, What and When is communicated.
 The key elements of protocol are syntax and semantics and timing.
 Syntax: It refers to the structure or format of the data.
 Semantics: How the particular pattern to be interpreted and what action to be taken based on that
interpretation.
 Timing: It refers to when data should be sent and how fast can be sent.
Standards:
 Standards are necessary to ensure that products from different manufacturers can work together as
expected.
 Data communication standards fall in two categories: de facto and de jure
De facto standard:
Standards that not been approved by an organized body but have been adopted as standards through
widespread use.
 It is a custom, convention, product or system that has achieved a dominant position by public
acceptance.
De jure standard
 Those standards that have been legislated by an officially recognized body are called “de jure
standards”.
 A standard is an agreed upon way of doing something or measuring something.
 It is concerning law.

Q.6) Explain connection oriented services and connectionless services

 Answer: There are two services given by the layers to layers above them.
 These services are :
◦ Connection Oriented Service
◦ Connectionless Services

Connection Oriented Services:

 There is a sequence of operation to be followed by the users of connection oriented service. These are :
◦ Connection is established
◦ Information is sent
◦ Connection is released
 In connection oriented service we have to establish a connection before starting the communication.
When connection is established we send the message or the information and then we release the
connection.
 Connection oriented service is more reliable than connectionless service. We can not send the message
in connection oriented service if there is an error at the receivers end.
 Example of connection oriented is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) protocol.
Connection less Services:
 It is similar to the postal services, as it carries the full address where the message (letter) is to be
carried. Each message is routed independently from source to destination. The order of message sent
can be different from the order received.
 In connectionless the data is transferred in one direction from source to destination without checking
that destination is still there or not or if it prepared to accept the message. Authentication is not needed
in this. Example of Connectionless service is UDP (User Datagram Protocol) protocol.
Q.7) Explain the types of transmission/Communication modes.

Communication between two devices can be simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex.

Simplex

In simplex mode, the communication is unidirectional, as on a one-way street. Only one of the two
devices on a link can transmit; the other can only receive.
Keyboards and traditional monitors are examples of simplex devices. The keyboard can only introduce
input; the monitor can only accept output.
The simplex mode can use the entire capacity of the channel to send data in one direction.
Half-Duplex

In half-duplex mode, each station can both transmit and receive, but not at the same time. When one
device is sending, the other can only receive, and vice versa.
The half-duplex mode is like a one-lane road with traffic allowed in both directions. When cars are
traveling in one direction, cars going the other way must wait.
In a half-duplex transmission, the entire capacity of a channel is taken over by whichever of the two
devices is transmitting at the time.

Full Duplex

In full-duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive simultaneously.

The full-duplex mode is like a two way street with traffic flowing in both directions at the same time.
One common example of full-duplex communication is the telephone network. When two people are
communicating by a telephone line, both can talk and listen at the same time.
Q.8) What is network topology ? Explain the different network topologies.
The term physical topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically: I/O or more
devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology.
There are four basic topologies possible: mesh, star, bus, and ring.

Mesh Topology
Mesh In a mesh topology, every device has a dedicated point-to-point link to every other device. The
term dedicated means that the link carries traffic only between the two devices it connects. Node 1 must
be connected to n - 1nodes, node 2 must be connected to n – 1 nodes, and finally node n must be
connected to n - 1 nodes. We need n (n - 1) physical links.
Advantages
 The use of dedicated links guarantees that each connection can carry its own data load, thus
eliminating the traffic problems that can occur when links must be shared by multiple devices.
 A mesh topology is robust. If one link becomes unusable, it does not incapacitate the entire
system.
 There is the advantage of privacy or security. When every message travels along a dedicated
line, only the intended recipient sees it.
 Point-to-point links make fault identification and fault isolation easy.
Disadvantages

 Amount of cabling and the number of I/O ports required.

 The sheer bulk of the wiring can be greater than the available space (in walls, ceilings, or
floors) can accommodate.
 The hardware required to connect each link (I/O ports and cable) can be prohibitively expensive.

Star Topology
In a star topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point link only to a central controller, usually
called a hub.

The devices are not directly linked to one another. Unlike a mesh topology, a star topology does not
allow direct traffic between devices. The controller acts as an exchange: If one device wants to send
data to another, it sends the data to the controller, which then relays the data to the other connected
device.
Advantages
 A star topology is less expensive than a mesh topology.
 In a star, each device needs only one link and one I/O port to connect it to any number of others.
This factor also makes it easy to install and reconfigure.
 Far less cabling needs to be housed, and additions, moves, and deletions involve only one
connection: between that device and the hub.

Page 4
  Other advantages include robustness. If one link fails, only that link is affected. All other links
remain active.
Disadvantages
 The dependency of the whole topology bon one single point, the hub. If the hub goes down, the
whole system is dead.
 Although a star requires far less cable than a mesh, each node must be linked to a central hub.
Bus Topology
The preceding examples all describe point-to-point connections. A bus topology, on the other hand, is
Multipoint. One long cable acts as a backbone to link all the devices in a network.

[Type Page 4
text]

Advantages
 Easy to connect/expand.
 Requires less cable length so it is cheaper.
 It is easy to use and understand.
 Decreases the installation cost.
Disadvantages
 Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
 Terminator are required at both ends of the backbone cable.
 Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.
 Only one node can transmit at a time due to which communication becomes slightly
slow.

Page 4
Ring topology

Ring Topology In a ring topology, each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection with only the
two devices on either side of it. A signal is passed along the ring in one direction, from device to
device, until it reaches its destination.

Advantages
 Easier to manage; easier to locate a defective node or cable problem.
 Well-suited for transmitting signals over long distances on a LAN.
 Handles high-volume network traffic.
 Enables reliable communication.
Disadvantages
o Expensive
o Requires more cable and network equipment at the start
o Not used as widely as bus topology
 Fewer equipment options
 Fewer options for expansion to high-speed communication
Hybrid Topology

A network can be hybrid. For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch connecting
several stations in a bus topology.

Q.9) What are the different types of networks? Explain in detail.

Today when we speak of networks, we are generally referring to two primary categories: Local area networks
(LAN) and wide-area networks (WAN).

The category into which a network falls is determined by its size.

A LAN normally covers an area less than 2 mi; a WAN can be worldwide. Networks of a size in between are
normally referred to as metropolitan area networks and span tens of miles.

A local area network (LAN) is usually privately owned and links the devices in a single office, building, or
campus. LANs are designed to allow resources to be shared between personal computers or workstations.
The resources to be shared can include hardware (e.g., a printer), software (e.g., an application program), or
data. A common example of a LAN, found in many business environments, links a workgroup of task-related
computers, for example, engineering workstations or accounting PCs.

A wide area network (WAN) provides long-distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video
information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country, a continent, or even the whole world.

A metropolitan area network (MAN) is a network with a size between a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers
the area inside a town or a city. It is designed for customers who need a high-speed connectivity, normally to
the Internet, and have endpoints spread over a city or part of city. A good example of a MAN is the part of
the telephone company network that can provide a high-speed DSL line to the customer.
Q.10) Explain Server Based LANs & Peer-to-Peer LANs
Answer:
Server based LAN:

A client-server network is also known as a network computing model. In this, we have clients and
servers. A client includes a device or a program. Using this, end users can access the web. There are
various examples of clients such as web browsers, laptops, desktops, smartphones, etc. A server
includes a program or device that replies to the clients with the services. It offers databases, files, web
pages, and shared resources based on their type.
In a client-server network, the client requests services from the server. The server reacts to client
requests by rendering the necessary service after listening to their queries. A client-server network's
key benefit is that it is safer because the server constantly controls access and security. Additionally,
making backups is simpler. However, it is not very dependable because a server failure will impair the
clients' ability to work. Additionally, the setup and maintenance costs are high.

Client-Server Network Example

The World Wide Web consortium is one of the most well-known examples of client-server
architecture. In this, internet users, people like us, act as clients requesting information from the
servers, and the servers reply by providing the precise information that was asked for.

Advantages of Client Server Network

The following are the advantages of client server network:

o The client-server network offers a good user interface, and can handle files easily.
o In a client-server network, we can share the resources easily.
o Users have the freedom to access files stored in the central storage from any location.
o The client-server network has complete control over all network processes and activities because it is a
centralised network.
o Peer -to -peer Network:

5
 This model does not distinguish between clients and servers; each node acts as both
a client and server. Every node in a peer-to-peer network has the ability to request and provide service.
A node is also called a peer.
In a peer-to-peer network, a node joins the network and begins offering services, and then asks other
nodes for services. Which node offers which service can be determined using one of two ways. The
service that a node offers is registered with a centralised lookup service. Any node that needs a service
consults the centralised lookup to determine which node offers particular facilities.
Then, communication occurs between the service-providing and service-requesting nodes. In the
alternative technique, a node that needs particular services can broadcast a message to all other nodes
that need the same service. The node with the necessary service responds to the node making the
request by giving the desired service.

Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Network

The following are the advantages of peer-to-peer networks:

o Each device linked to the peer-to-peer network exchanges resources with other network nodes.
o The setup of a peer-to-peer network is easily established with the help of specialized software.
o Between several devices, resources are exchanged without any issues.
o Peer-to-peer networks are very reliable because other systems continue to function even when a server
fails.
o Being a part of a peer-to-peer network makes it simple for nodes to share resources like a

6
 Q.11) Explain Design Issues of the layer
Answer:
 Design issues of the layers –
• Addressing
• Error Control
• Flow Control
• Multiplexing
• Routing
 Addressing – Any communication that involves two parties needs two addresses: source address and
destination address. Every layer need a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers.
 Data Transfer Modes – Data transfer can be Simplex, Half duplex, Full duplex.
 Error Control – Error detection and correction both are essential. Many error detecting and correcting
codes are known, but both ends of connection must agree on which one is being used.
 Flow Control – If sender is fast compared to receiver, issue can occurs at every layer.
 Multiplexing and De-multiplexing: If the data has to be transmitted on transmission media separately,
it is inconvenient or expensive to setup separate connection for each pair of communicating processes.
So, multiplexing is needed in the physical layer at sender end and de-multiplexing is need at the
receiver end.
 Scalability: When network gets large, new problem arises. Thus scalability is important so that
network can continue to work well when it gets large.
 Routing: When there are multiple paths between source and destination, only one route must be
chosen. This decision is made on the basis of several routing algorithms, which chooses optimized
route to the destination.
 Confidentiality and Integrity: Network security is the most important factor. Mechanisms that
provide confidentiality defend against threats like eavesdropping. Mechanisms for integrity prevent
faulty changes to messages.

Q.12) Explain the Twisted Pair Cable

Answer:
A transmission medium can be broadly defined as anything that can carry information from a source to
a destination.
For example, the transmission medium for two people having a dinner conversation is the air. The air
can also be used to convey the message in a smoke signal or semaphore. For a written message, the
transmission medium might be a mail carrier, a truck, or an airplane.
In telecommunications, transmission media can be divided into two broad categories: guided and
unguided. Guided media include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable. Unguided
medium is free space. Below Figure shows this taxonomy.

Guided Media
Guided media, which are those that provide a conduit from one device to another,
include
twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

A signal traveling along any of these media is directed and contained by the physical limits of the
medium. Twisted-pair and coaxial cable use metallic (copper) conductors that accept and transport
signals in the form of electric current.
Optical fiber is a cable that accepts and transports signals in the form of light.

Twisted-Pair Cable
 It consists of two conductors(normally copper), each with its own plastic insulation.
 One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver and the other is used only as a ground
reference.
 In addition to the signals sent by the sender on one of the wires, inference and crosstalk may affect
both wire and create unwanted signal.
 The two wires are twisted.
 If the wires are parallel, the effect of unwanted signals is not the same in both wires because they
are at different locations relative to the noise or crosstalk sources. This results in a difference at the
receiver.
 By twisting the pairs, a balance is maintained. Twisting makes it probable that both wires are
equally affected by external influence.
 It is often used at customer facilities and also over distances to carry voice as well as data
communications
 Low frequency transmission medium
 There are two types of twisted pair
 STP (shielded twisted pair) the pair is wrapped with metallic foil or braid to insulate the
pair from electromagnetic interference
 UTP (unshielded twisted pair)
each wire is insulated with plastic wrap, but the pair is encased in an outer covering

Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded twisted-pair
(UTP).
IBM has also produced a version of twisted-pair cable for its use called shielded twisted-pair (STP).
STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each pair of insulated conductors. Although
metal casing improves the quality of cable by preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier
and more expensive.

Advantages Of twisted pair cable

 It Inexpensive and readily available
 Flexible and light weight
 Easy to work with and install
Disadvantages
 Susceptibility to interference and noise
 Attenuation problem
 For analog, repeaters needed every 5-6km
 For digital, repeaters needed every 2-3km
 Relatively low bandwidth (3000Hz)
Applications
Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and data channels.
The local loop-the line that connects subscribers to the central telephone office – commonly consists of
unshielded twisted-pair cables.
The DSL lines that are used by the telephone companies to provide high-data-rate connections also use
the high-bandwidth capability of unshielded twisted-pair cables.
Q.13) Explain the coaxial cable in detail
 Like twisted pair a coaxial cable (“coax”) has two conductors that are shielded
 Used for digital transmissions in local area networks (e.g., Ethernet) and analog transmissions for
cable television
 Coax used for Cable TV supports a spectrum of 50 - 750 Mhz
 Has an inner conductor surrounded by a braided mesh
 Both conductors share a common center axial, hence the term “co-axial”
 Coaxial cables are categorized by their Radio Government(RD) rating.
 Each RG number denotes a unique set of physical specifications, including the wire gauge of the
inner conductor, the thickness and type of the inner insulator, the construction of the shield, and
the size and type of the outer casing.
Advantages:
 Broadband system—Coax has a sufficient frequency range to support multiple channels, which
allows for much greater throughput.
 Greater bandwidth—Compared to twisted-pair, coax provides greater bandwidth. Because it has
greater bandwidth per channel, it supports a mixed range of services. Voice, data, and even video
and multimedia can benefit from the enhanced capacity.
 Lower error rates—Because the inner conductor is in a Faraday shield, noise immunity is
improved, and coax has lower error rates and therefore slightly better performance than twisted-
pair.
 Greater spacing between amplifiers—Coax's cable shielding reduces noise and crosstalk, which
means amplifiers can be spaced farther apart than with twisted-pair.
Disadvantages:
 High installation costs—Installation costs in the local environment are high
 Bulky

Q. 14) Explain fibre optic cable:

 It is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals in the form of light.
 A glass or plastic core is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.
Q.15) Write short notes on unguided media
Unguided media transport electromagnetic waves without using a physical conductor. This type of
communication is often referred to as wireless communication. Signals are normally broadcast through
free space and thus are available to anyone who has a device capable of receiving them.

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways: ground propagation, sky
propagation, and line-of-sight propagation, as shown in Figure.
in ground propagation, radio waves travel through the lowest portion of the atmosphere, hugging the
earth.

In sky propagation, higher-frequency radio waves radiate upward into the ionosphere (the layer of
atmosphere where particles exist as ions) where they are reflected back to earth.
In line-or-sight propagation, very high-frequency signals are transmitted in straight lines directly from
antenna to antenna.

We can divide wireless transmission into three broad groups: radio waves, microwaves, and infrared
waves.

Radio Waves
Although there is no clear-cut demarcation between radio waves and microwaves, electromagnetic
waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally called radio waves;
waves ranging in frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called microwaves.
Radio waves, for the most part, are omni-directional. When an antenna transmits radio waves, they are
propagated in all directions. This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be
aligned.
The omni-directional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by one antenna are
susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals using the same frequency or band.
Radio waves, particularly those waves that propagate in the sky mode, can travel long distances. This
makes radio waves a good candidate for long-distance broadcasting such as AM radio.
Omni directional Antenna
Radio waves use omni directional antennas that send out signals in all directions. Based on the
wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have several types of antennas.
Applications

The omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for multicasting, in which there
is one sender but many receivers. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and
paging are examples of multicasting.

Microwaves
Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between I and 300 GHz are called microwaves. Microwaves
are unidirectional.
When an antenna transmits microwave waves, they can be narrowly focused. This means that the
sending and receiving antennas need to be aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious
advantage. A pair of antennas can be aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.
The following describes some characteristics of microwave propagation:
Microwave propagation is line-of-sight. Since the towers with the mounted antennas need to be in
direct sight of each other, towers that are far apart need to be very tall. The curvatures of the earth as
well as other blocking obstacles do not allow two short towers to communicate by using microwaves.
Repeaters are often needed for long distance communication.
Very high-frequency microwaves cannot penetrate walls. This characteristic can be a disadvantage if
receivers are inside buildings.
The microwave band is relatively wide, almost 299 GHz. Therefore wider sub bands can be assigned,
and a high data rate is possible.
Use of certain portions of the band requires permission from authorities.
 Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two types of antennas
are used for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the home.

Applications
Microwaves, due to their unidirectional properties, are very useful when unicast (one-to-one)
communication is needed between the sender and the receiver.
They are used in cellular phones, satellite networks and wireless LANs.
Infrared
◦ Uses transmitters/receivers (transceivers) that modulate noncoherent infrared light.
◦ Transceivers must be within line of sight of each other (directly or via reflection ).
◦ Unlike microwaves, infrared does not penetrate walls.
◦ Used for short range communication
◦ Remote control system
◦ Data transfer between portable devices.
◦ Suitable for high frequency short range unidirectional transmission.

Q.16) Differentiate between OSI reference model and TCP/IP model.

Sr. ISO-OSI TCP/IP

No
1 It is a 7 layer model It is a 4 Layer model.
2 It is useful in describing networks, but Protocols are specific and widely
protocols are too general. used.
3 It is a generic, protocol independent standards, It is based on standard protocols
acting as a communication gateway between around which the internet has
the network and end user. developed. It is a communication
 protocol which allows connection of
hosts over a network.

4 In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the In this model the transport layer
delivery of packets using connection oriented does not guarantees the delivery of
service. packets as it uses both TCP and
UDP protocols.
5 Follows vertical approach. Follows horizontal approach.

6 It has separate presentation and Session layer. It does not have separate
presentation and Session layer.

7 Network layer provide both connection Network layer provide only

oriented and connectionless services. connectionless service.

8 Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not
easily replaced as the technology changes. easy.

9 It defines services, interfaces and protocols In TCP/IP services, interfaces and

very clearly and makes clear distinction protocols are not clearly separated.
between them.
10 It is a reference model. It is a actual implemented model
everywhere.

11 It devised before the corresponding protocols The protocols came first and then
were invented. It means model first design and model is designed. So there was no
then protocols. problem with the protocols fitting
with this model.
12 Separate Session layer. No Session layer, characteristics are
provided by transport layer.

13 Separate Presentation layer. No Presentation layer,

characteristics are provided y
application layer.
Q.17) Write a short note on port address, physical address, logical address.
Answer:
Physical Address:
 It is also known as link address or MAC(Medium Access Control) address. It is the address of
node defined by its LAN or WAN.
 Every interface (NIC) of a communicating device usually has a unique physical address, that helps
in uniquely identifying and communicating with the interface at the physical and data link layers.
 It is included in the frame used by DLL. It is the lowest address.
 The size and format of these address vary depending on the network.
Logical Address:
 It is also known as IP address.
 They are necessary for universal communications that are independent of underlying physical
networks.
 The are not adequate in an internetworks environment where different networks can have different
address formats.
 An universal addressing system is needed in which each host can be indentified uniquely
regardless of underlying physical network.
 No two publicly addressed and visible hosts on the internet can have same IP address.
Port Address
 Once the individual machine is identified in a network, the data has to be delivered to the
appropriate process or application running in that machine.
 A single machine can have several applications running. So we need a mechanism to identify the
application to which the data has to be delivered.
 Every process is identified by a port address.
 The IP address along with the port address is called socket address.
 The transport layer does the job of process to process delivery of data.
 The port address are 16 bit ranging from 0 to 65535.
 The Internet Address Number Authority (IANA) has divided these port numbers into three ranges:
 Well-known Ports:
 Ranging from 0 to 1023 are assigned and controlled by IANA.
 Registered Ports:
 Ranging from 1024 to 49,591 can be registered with IANA to prevent duplication.
 Dynamic ports:
 Ranging from 49,152 to 65,535 are neither controlled nor registered. Hence they
can be used by any process.
Q.18) Write a note on class full and classless addressing
Classful Address
The first addressing system to be implemented as part of the Internet Protocol was Classful Addressing.
In the year 1981, the Classful addressing network architecture was first used on the Internet. The
Classful addressing system was superseded by a Classless addressing scheme with the introduction of
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) in 1993.
 The IP address comprises up of 32 bits and is split into four sections separated by dots: part 1,
part 2, part 3, and part 4.
 The IP address is made up of four parts, each of which is eight bits long (1 byte).
 Further, the 4 parts of the IP address is divided into parts: a network ID and a Host ID.
Types of Classful Address
Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D, and Class E are the five varieties of Classful addresses. In IPv4,
this classification is known as Classful addressing or IP address classes.
 The first three classes, Class A, B, and C, are used for "public addressing", in which
communication is always one-to-one between source and destination. It implies that when data is
transmitted from a source, it will only be sent to a single network host.
 The reserved categories include Class D and Class E, with Class D being utilized for multicast and
Class E being saved for future usage exclusively.
 In IPv4, the Network ID is the first part of Class A, B, and C, while the Host ID is the remaining
second portion.
 The Host ID always indicates the number of hosts or nodes in a certain network, whereas the
Network ID always identifies the network in a specific place.
 In Class A, B, and C, the address space is split into a certain number of IP address blocks. It also
specifies the maximum number of hosts in a network.
Classless Addressing
Classless Inter-Domain Routing (CIDR) is another name for classless addressing. This addressing type
aids in the more efficient allocation of IP addresses. This technique assigns a block of IP addresses
based on specified conditions when the user demands a specific amount of IP addresses. This block is
known as a "CIDR block", and it contains the necessary number of IP addresses.
When allocating a block, classless addressing is concerned with the following three rules.
 Rule 1 − The CIDR block's IP addresses must all be contiguous.
 Rule 2 − The block size must be a power of two to be attractive. Furthermore, the block's size is
equal to the number of IP addresses in the block.
 Rule 3 − The block's first IP address must be divisible by the block size.
Q.19) Explain the OSI reference model with neat diagram.(important question)
An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two different systems to communicate regardless
of their underlying architecture.
The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying hardware and software. The OSI model is not a
protocol; it is a model for understanding and designing a network architecture that is flexible, robust,
and interoperable.
Physical Layer

The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical medium. It
deals with the mechanical and electrical specifications of the interface and transmission medium.
The physical layer is also concerned with the following:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium: The physical layer defines the characteristics of
the interface between the devices and the transmission medium. It also defines the type of transmission
medium.
Representation of bits: The physical layer data consists of a stream of bits (sequence of Os or 1s) with
no interpretation. To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals--electrical or optical. The
physical layer defines the type of encoding (how Os and I s are changed tosignals).
Data rate: The transmission rate-the number of bits sent each second-is also defined by the physical
layer. In other words, the physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how long it lasts.
Synchronization of bits: The sender and receiver not only must use the same bit rate but also must be
synchronized at the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver clocks must be synchronized.
Line configuration: The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the media. In a
point-to-point configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated link. In a multipoint
configuration, a link is shared among several devices.
Physical topology: The physical topology defines how devices are connected to make a network.
Devices can be connected by using a mesh topology (every device is connected to every other device),
a star topology (devices are connected through a central device), a ring topology (each device is
connected to the next, forming a ring), a bus topology (every device is on a common link), or a hybrid
topology (this is a combination of two or more topologies).
Transmission mode: The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between two
devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can send; the other can
only receive. The simplex mode is a one-way communication. In the half-duplex mode, two devices
can send and receive, but not at the same time. In a full-duplex (or simply duplex) mode, two devices
can send and receive at the same time.
The data link layer transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission facility, to a reliable link. It makes
the physical layer appear error-free to the upper layer (network layer).

Data Link Layer

Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:

Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the network layer into
manageable data units called frames.
Physical addressing: If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the network, the data link
layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame.
If the frame is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver address is the address of
the device that connects the network to the next one.
Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less than the rate at which
data are produced in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect
and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error
 control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the frame.
Access control: When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer protocols are
necessary to determine which device has control over the link at any given time.
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a packet, possibly across

Network Layer
multiple networks (links). Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet between two
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a
systemspossibly
packet, on the same network
across (links),networks
multiple the network layer ensures
(links). Whereas thatthe
eachdata
packet gets
link from its point of
layer
oversees
origin to the delivery
its final of the packet between two systems on the same network
destination.
(links), the network layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to
itsOther
finalresponsibilities
destination. of the network layer include the following:
Other responsibilities of the network layer include the following:
Logical addressing. The physical addressing implemented by the data link layer handles the
addressing problem locally. If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems. The network layer adds a header to the
packet coming from the upper layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the
sender and receiver.
Routing. When independent networks or links are connected to create internetworks (network of
networks) or a large network, the connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the
packets to their final destination. One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism.
Transport Layer

The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message. A process is an
application program running on a host. Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination
delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any relationship between those packets.
Other responsibilities of the transport layer include the following:
Service-point addressing: Computers often run several programs at the same time. For this reason,
source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one computer to the next but also from a
specific process (running program) on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the
other. The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called a service-point address
(or port address). The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport layer gets
the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
Segmentation and reassembly: A message is divided into transmittable segments, with each segment
containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace packets that were lost in
transmission.
Connection control: The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection oriented.
A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an independent packet and delivers it to the
transport layer at the destination machine. A connection oriented transport layer makes a connection
with the transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the packets. After all the data
are transferred, the connection is terminated.
Flow control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for flow control. However,
flow control at this layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
Error control: Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error control. However,
error control at this layer is performed process-to process rather than across a single link. The sending
transport layer makes sure that the entire message arrives at the receiving transport layer without error
(damage, loss, or duplication). Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.

23
 Session Layer

The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data link, and network) are not sufficient for
some processes. The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and
synchronizes the interaction among communicating systems. The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
Specific responsibilities of the session layer include the following:
Dialog control: The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog. It allows the
communication between two processes to take place in either half duplex (one way at a time) or full-
duplex (two ways at a time) mode.
Synchronization: The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or synchronization points, to
a stream of data. For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is advisable to insert
checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged
independently. In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523, the only pages that
need to be resent after system recovery are pages 501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged
between two systems.

Presentation Layer

Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer include the following:

Translation: The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually exchanging information in
the form of character strings, numbers, and so on. The information must be changed to bit streams
before being transmitted. Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation
layer is responsible for interoperability between these different encoding methods. The presentation
layer at the sender changes the information from its sender-dependent format into a common format.
The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common format into its receiver-dependent
format.

24
Encryption: To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure privacy. Encryption
means that the sender transforms the original information another form and sends the resulting message
out over the network. Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message back to its
original form.
Compression: Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. Data
compression becomes particularly important in the transmission of multimedia such as text, audio, and
video.

Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides
user interfaces and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other types of distributed information services.
Bit Rate
Most digital signals are non periodic, and thus period and frequency are not appropriate characteristics.
Another term-bit rate is used to describe digital signals.
The bit rate is the number of bits sent in 1s, expressed in bits per second (bps).

25
Q.20) Explain the TCP/IP reference model with neat diagram (important question)
TCP/IP means Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol.
It is the network model used in the current Internet architecture as well. Protocols are set of rules which
govern every possible communication over a network. These protocols describe the movement of data
between the source and destination or the internet. These protocols offer simple naming and addressing
schemes.
TCP/IP that is Transmission Control Protocol and Internet Protocol was developed by Department of
Defence Project Research Agency (ARPA, later DARPA) as a part of a research project of network
interconnection to connect remote machines.The features that stood out during the research, which led
to making the TCP/IP reference model were:
• Support for a flexible architecture. Adding more machines to a networkwas easy.
• The overall idea was to allow one application on one computer to talk to(send data packets)
another application running on different computer.
Host-to-network layer
• Lowest layer of the all.
• Protocol is used to connect to the host, so that the packets can be sent over it.
• Varies from host to host and network to network.
It is equivalent to the combination of physical and datalink layer. Internet layer
• Selection of a packet switching network which is based on a connectionless internetwork layer
is called a internet layer.
• It is the layer which holds the whole architecture together.
• It helps the packet to travel independently to the destination.
• Order in which packets are received is different from the way they are sent.
• IP (Internet Protocol) is used in this layer.
Transport layer
• It decides if data transmission should be on parallel path or single path.
• Functions such as multiplexing, segmenting or splitting on the data is done by transport layer.
• The applications can read and write to the transport layer.
• Transport layer adds header information to the data.
• Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled more
efficiently by the network layer. Transport layer also arrange the packets to be sent, in
sequence.
Application layer
• TELNET is a two-way communication protocol which allows
connecting to a remote machine and run applications on it.
• FTP(File Transfer Protocol) is a protocol, that allows File transfer amongst computer users
connected over a network. It is reliable, simple and efficient.
• SMTP(Simple Mail Transport Protocol) is a protocol, which is used to transport electronic
mail between a source and destination, directed via a route.
• DNS(Domain Name Server) The Domain Name System (DNS) is a hierarchical decentralized
naming system for computers, services, or other resources connected to the Internet or a
private network
Q.21) Explain IEEE 802.11 Architecture
IEEE 802.11 standard, popularly known as WiFi, lays down the architecture and specifications of
wireless LANs (WLANs). WiFi or WLAN uses high-frequency radio waves instead of cables for
connecting the devices in LAN. Users connected by WLANs can move around within the area of
network coverage.
IEEE 802.11 Architecture
The components of an IEEE 802.11 architecture are as follows −
 Stations (STA) − Stations comprises of all devices and equipment that are connected to the
wireless LAN. A station can be of two types−
o Wireless Access Point (WAP) − WAPs or simply access points (AP) are generally wireless
routers that form the base stations or access.
o Client. Clients are workstations, computers, laptops, printers, smartphones, etc.
 Each station has a wireless network interface controller.
 Basic Service Set (BSS) − A basic service set is a group of stations communicating at the physical
layer level. BSS can be of two categories depending upon the mode of operation−
o Infrastructure BSS − Here, the devices communicate with other devices through access
points.
o Independent BSS − Here, the devices communicate in a peer-to-peer basis in an ad hoc
manner.
 Extended Service Set (ESS) − It is a set of all connected BSS.
 Distribution System (DS) − It connects access points in ESS.


Basic Service Set (BSS):
An independent BSS (IBSS) is an ad hoc network that contains no access points, which means
they cannot connect to any other basic service set.
 A BSS with access point is referred as an infrastructure BSS.

Extended Service Set:

An extended service set (ESS) is a set of connected BSSs. Access points in an ESS are connected
by a distribution system.
Each ESS has an ID called the SSID which is a 32-byte (maximum) character string.
An extended service set, consisting of a set of BSSs, must have a common service set identifier
(SSID). The BSSs can all work on the same or different channels. This helps to boost the signal
throughout the wireless network.
A single service set consists of all STAs receiving signals from a given AP and creates an 802.11
wireless LAN (WLAN). Each STA may receive a signal from several APs within their range.
Depending on its configuration each STA can, manually or automatically, select the network with
which to associate. And multiple APs may share the same SSID as part of an extended service set.
 Frame Format of IEEE 802.11
The main fields of a frame of wireless LANs as laid down by IEEE 802.11 are −
 Frame Control − It is a 2 bytes starting field composed of 11 subfields. It contains control
information of the frame.
 Duration − It is a 2-byte field that specifies the time period for which the frame and its
acknowledgment occupy the channel.
 Address fields − There are three 6-byte address fields containing addresses of source, immediate
destination, and final endpoint respectively.
 Sequence − It a 2 bytes field that stores the frame numbers.
 Data − This is a variable-sized field that carries the data from the upper layers. The maximum size
of the data field is 2312 bytes.
 Check Sequence − It is a 4-byte field containing error detection information.
Q.22) Explain the concept of Token ring (IEEE 802.5)

Token ring local area network (LAN) technology is a local area network protocol which resides at the
data link layer (DLL) of the OSI model. It uses a special three-byte frame called a token that travels
around the ring. Token-possession grants the possessor permission to transmit on the medium. Token
ring frames travel completely around the loop.
Stations on a token ring LAN are logically organized in a ring topology with data being transmitted
sequentially from one ring station to the next with a control token circulating around the ring
controlling access. This token passing mechanism is shared by ARCNET, token bus, and FDDI, and
has theoretical advantages over the stochastic CSMA/CD of Ethernet.
Physically, a token ring network is wired as a star, with 'hubs' and arms out to each station and the loop
going out-and-back through each.
Each station passes or repeats the special token frame around the ring to its nearest downstream
neighbor. This token-passing process is used to arbitrate access to the shared ring media. Stations that
have data frames to transmit must first acquire the token before they can transmit them. Token ring
LANs normally use differential Manchester encoding of bits on the LAN media.

Token Ring does come with a higher price tag because token ring hardware is more complex and more
expensive to manufacture. As a network technology, token ring is passing out of use because it has a
maximum speed of 16 Mbps which is slow by today's gigabit Ethernet standards.
Q.23) Explain the concept of Ethernet (MAC sublayer )(IEEE 802.3)
Answer:
The original Ethernet was created in 1976 at Xerox’s Palo Alto Research Center (PARC). Since then, it
has gone through four generations.
� The MAC sublayer governs the operation of the access method. It also frames data received from
the upper layer and passes them to the physical layer.
802.3 Ethernet MAC Frame
  Preamble - It contains 7 bytes (56 bits) of alternating 0s and 1s that alerts the receiving
system to the coming frame and enables it to synchronize its input timing. The pattern provides
only an alert and a timing pulse. The preamble is actually added at the physical layer and is not
part of the frame.
 Start frame delimiter (SFD) – It is 1 byte field (10101011) signals the beginning of the
frame. The SFD warns the station or stations that this is the last chance for synchronization.
The last 2 bits is 11 and alerts the receiver that the next field is the destination address.
 Destination address (DA) - The DA field is 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the
destination station or stations to receive the packet.
 Source address (SA) -The SA field is also 6 bytes and contains the physical address of the
sender of the packet.
 Length or type - This field is defined as a type field or length field. The original Ethernet used
this field as the type field to define the upper-layer protocol using the MAC frame. The IEEE
standard used it as the length field to define the number of bytes in the data field. Both uses are
common today.
 Data -This field carries data encapsulated from the upper-layer protocols. It is a minimum of
46 and a maximum of 1500 bytes.
 CRC - The last field contains error detection information
Carrier Sense Multiple Access
 Carrier Sense: prior to transmitting, a node first listens to the shared medium to determine
whether another node is transmitting or not.
 Collision Avoidance: if another node was heard, we wait for a period of time (usually random)
for the node to stop transmitting before listening again for a free communications channel.
 Persistent CSMA: When a station has data to send, it first listens to the channel
to see if anyone else is transmitting at that moment.
 If the channel is idle, it start transmission.
 If the channel is busy, the station waits until it becomes idle. When the station detects an idle
channel, it transmits a frame. If a collision occurs, the station waits a random amount of time
 and starts all over again.
 Non persistent CSMA: same as 1-persistent except that the station does not continually sense
the channel when it finds it busy, rather it waits a random period of time and then sense the
channel again. When the channel becomes idle it transmit.
 p-Persistent CSMA: same as Nonpersistent CSMA but the station transmit with probability p
when the channel is idle.
CSMA/CD
 To reduce the impact of collisions on the network performance, Ethernet uses an algorithm
called CSMA with Collision Detection (CSMA / CD)
 CSMA/CD is a protocol in which the station senses the carrier or channel before transmitting
frame just as in persistent and non-persistent CSMA.
 If the channel is busy, the station waits. it listens at the same time on communication media to
ensure that there is no collision with a packet sent by another station.
 In a collision, the issuer immediately cancel the sending of the package. This allowwe do not
waste time to send a packet complete if it detects a collision. After a collision, the transmitter
waits again silence and again, he continued his hold for a random number; but this time the
random number is nearly double the previous one: it is this called back-off (that is to say, the
"decline") exponential. s to limit the duration of collisions:
 . Preamble: It is seven bytes (56 bits) that provides bit synchronization. It consists of
alternating Os and 1s. The purpose is to provide alert and timing pulse. 2. Start Frame
Delimiter (SFD): It is one byte field with unique pattern: 10 10 1011. It marks the beginning
of frame.
 3. Destination Address (DA): It is six byte field that contains physical address of packet's
destination.
 4. Source Address (SA): It is also a six byte field and contains the physical address of source
or last device to forward the packet (most recent router to receiver).
 Length: This two byte field specifies the length or number of bytes in data field.
 Data: It can be of 46 to 1500 bytes, depending upon the type of frame and the length of the
information field.
 Frame Check Sequence (FCS): This for byte field contains CRC for error detection.
CSMA/CA
 CSMA/CA protocol is used in wireless networks because they cannot detect the collision so
the only solution is collision avoidance.
 CSMA/CA avoids the collisions using three basic techniques.
Interframe space
Contention window
Acknowledgement

◦ Interframe Space (IFS)

◦ Whenever the channel is found idle, the station does not transmit immediately. It waits for
a period of time called interframe space (IFS).
◦ When channel is sensed to be idle, it may be possible that same distant station may have
already started transmitting and the signal of that distant station has not yet reached other
stations.
◦ Therefore the purpose of IFS time is to allow this transmitted signal to reach other stations.
◦ If after this IFS time, the channel is still idle, the station can send, but it still needs to wait a
time equal to contention time.
◦ IFS variable can also be used to define the priority of a station or a frame.
◦ Contention Window
◦ Contention window is an amount of time divided into slots.
◦ A station that is ready to send chooses a random number of slots as its wait time.
◦ The number of slots in the window changes according to the binary exponential back-off
strategy. It means that it is set of one slot the first time and then doubles each time the
station cannot detect an idle channel after the IFS time.
◦ This is very similar to the p-persistent method except that a random outcome defines the
number of slots taken by the waiting station.
 ◦ In contention window the station needs to sense the channel after each time slot.
◦ If the station finds the channel busy, it does not restart the process. It just stops the timer &
restarts it when the channel is sensed as idle.
◦ Acknowledgement
◦ Despite all the precautions, collisions may occur and destroy the data.
◦ The positive acknowledgment and the time-out timer can help guarantee that receiver has
received the frame.
Q.24) Explain IEEE 802.4(Token Bus)
Answer:
Token Bus (IEEE 802.4) is a standard for implementing token ring over the virtual ring in LANs. The
physical media has a bus or a tree topology and uses coaxial cables. A virtual ring is created with the
nodes/stations and the token is passed from one node to the next in a sequence along this virtual ring.
Each node knows the address of its preceding station and its succeeding station. A station can only
transmit data when it has the token. The working principle of the token bus is similar to Token Ring.
Token Passing Mechanism in Token Bus
A token is a small message that circulates among the stations of a computer network providing
permission to the stations for transmission. If a station has data to transmit when it receives a token, it
sends the data and then passes the token to the next station; otherwise, it simply passes the token to the
next station. This is depicted in the following diagram −

Frame Format of Token Bus

The frame format is given by the following diagram −
The fields of a token bus frame are −
 Preamble: 1 byte for synchronization.
 Start Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the beginning of the frame.
 Frame Control: 1 byte that specifies whether this is a data frame or control frame.
 Destination Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of destination station.
 Source Address: 2-6 bytes that specifies address of source station.
 Payload: A variable length field that carries the data from the network layer.
 Checksum: 4 bytes frame check sequence for error detection.
 End Delimiter: 1 byte that marks the end of the frame.
Q.25) Explain Bluetooth architecture
Bluetooth is a wireless LAN technology designed to connect devices of different functions such as
telephones, notebooks, computer, cameras, printers and so on.
Bluetooth is a short range technology standard which allows devices to communicate in a wireless
manner.
Bluetooth works in lower distance range than in comparison to a typical wireless LAN.
A Bluetooth LAN is an ad hoc network, which means that the network is formed spontaneously,
the devices, sometimes called gadgets.
It defines two types of networks:
1. Piconet
2. Scattemet
Piconet
Piconet is a Bluetooth network that consists of one primary (master) node and seven active secondary
(slave) nodes.
Thus, piconet can have upto eight active nodes (1 master and 7 slaves) or stations within the distance of
10 meters.
There can be only one primary or master station in each piconet.
The communication between the primary and the secondary can be one-to-one or one-to-many.
 All communication is between master and a slave. Salve-slave communication is not possible.
• In addition to seven active slave station, a piconet can have upto 255 parked nodes. These parked
nodes are secondary or slave stations and cannot take part in communication until it is moved from
parked state to active state.
Scatternet:
Scattemet is formed by combining various piconets.
• A slave in one piconet can act as a master or primary in other piconet.
• Such a station or node can receive messages from the master in the first piconet and deliver the
message to its slaves in other piconet where it is acting as master. This node is also called bridge
slave.
• Thus a station can be a member of two piconets.
• A station cannot be a master in two piconets.

Q.26) Explain fast Ethernet implementation.

Fast Ethernet was designed to compete with LAN protocols such as FDDI or Fiber Channel. IEEE
created Fast Ethernet under the name 802.3u. Fast Ethernet is backward-compatible with Standard
Ethernet, but it can transmit data 10 times faster at a rate of 100 Mbps
Fast Ethernet Topology
The goals of Fast Ethernet can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 100 Mbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard Ethernet.
3. Keep the same 48-bit address.
4. Keep the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
Fast Ethernet Implementation

100Base-TX
:
100Base-TX uses two pairs of twisted-pair cable (either category 5 UTP or STP).
For this implementation, the MLT-3 scheme was selected since it has good bandwidth
performance. However, since MLT-3 is not a self-synchronous line coding scheme, 4B/5B block
coding is used to provide bit synchronization by preventing the occurrence of a long sequence of
0s and 1s.
This creates a data rate of 125 Mbps, which is fed into MLT-3 for encoding.
A 100Base-TX network can provide a data rate of 100 Mbps, but it requires the use of category 5
UTP or STP cable. This is not cost-efficient for buildings that have already been wired for voice-
grade twisted-pair
100Base-FX:
100Base-FX uses two pairs of fiber-optic cables. Optical fiber can easily handle high
bandwidth requirements by using simple encoding schemes. The designers of 100Base-FX
selected the NRZ-I encoding scheme for this implementation. However,
NRZ-I has a bit synchronization problem for long sequences of 0s (or 1s, based on the encoding).
To overcome this problem, the designers used 4B/5B block encoding as we described for 100Base-
TX. The block encoding increases the bit rate from 100 to 125 Mbps, which can easily be handled
by fiber-optic cable.
100Base-T4:
A new standard, called 100Base-T4, was designed to use category 3 or higher UTP. The
implementation uses four pairs of UTP for transmitting 100 Mbps.
One pair is reserved for transmit, one for receive, and the remaining two will switch direction as
negotiated.
Encoding/decoding in 100Base-T4 is more complicated. As this implementation uses category 3
UTP, each twisted-pair cannot easily handle more than 25 Mbaud. In this design, one pair switches
between sending and receiving.
Three pairs of UTP category 3, however, can handle only 75 Mbaud (25 Mbaud) each. We need to
use an encoding scheme that converts 100 Mbps to a 75 Mbaud signal.
8B/6T satisfies this requirement. In 8B/6T, eight data elements are encoded as six signal elements.
This means that 100 Mbps uses only (6/8) × 100 Mbps, or 75 Mbaud.
Q.27) Explain standard Ethernet implementation
Answer:
Standard Ethernet Implementation

10Base5 implementation:
The first implementation is called 10Base5, thick Ethernet, or Thicknet.
The nickname derives from the size of the cable. 10Base5 was the first Ethernet specification to
use a bus topology with an external transceiver (transmitter/receiver) connected via a tap to a
thick coaxial cable.
10 Base 5 Thin Ethernet:
The transceiver is responsible for transmitting, receiving, and detecting collisions.
The transceiver is connected to the station via a transceiver cable that provides separate paths for
sending and receiving. This means that collision can only happen in the coaxial cable.
The maximum length of the coaxial cable must not exceed 500 m, otherwise, there is excessive
degradation of the signal. If a length of more than 500 m is needed, up to five segments, each a
maximum of 500-meter, can be connected using repeaters.

10Base2 implementation:
The second implementation is called 10Base2, thin Ethernet, or Cheapernet.
10Base2 also uses a bus topology, but the cable is much thinner and more flexible. The cable can
be bent to pass very close to the stations. In this case, the transceiver is normally part of the
network interface card (NIC), which is installed inside the station.

The collision occurs in the thin coaxial cable. This implementation is more cost effective than
10Base5 because thin coaxial cable is less expensive than thick coaxial and the tee connections are
much cheaper than taps.
Installation is simpler because the thin coaxial cable is very flexible. However, the length of each
segment cannot exceed 185 m (close to 200 m) due to the high level of attenuation in thin coaxial
cable.
10Base-T implementation:
The third implementation is called 10Base-T or twisted-pair Ethernet.
 10Base-T uses a physical star topology. Two pairs of twisted cable create two paths (one for
sending and one for receiving) between the station and the hub.
Any collision here happens in the hub.
Compared to 10Base5 or 10Base2, the hub actually replaces the coaxial cable.
The maximum length of the twisted cable here is defined as 100 m, to minimize the effect of
attenuation in the twisted cable.

10Base-F implementation:
Although there are several types of optical fiber 10-Mbps Ethernet, the most common is called
10Base-F.
10Base-F uses a star topology to connect stations to a hub. The stations are connected to the hub
using two fiber-optic cables.

Q.28) Explain gigabit Ethernet implementation

Answer:
The goals of the Gigabit Ethernet design can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 1 Gbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard or Fast Ethernet.
3. Use the same 48-bit address.
4. Use the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
6. To support autonegotiation as defined in Fast Ethernet.
A main consideration in the evolution of Ethernet was to keep the MAC sublayer untouched. However,
to achieve a data rate 1 Gbps, this was no longer possible.
 Gigabit Ethernet has two distinctive approaches for medium access: half-duplex and full-duplex.
Almost all implementations of Gigabit Ethernet follow the full-duplex approach.

Full DUPLEX Mode :

In full-duplex mode, there is a central switch connected to all computers or other switches. In this
mode, each switch has buffers for each input port in which data are stored until they are
transmitted. There is no collision in this mode. This means that CSMA/CD is not used.
Lack of collision implies that the maximum length of the cable is determined by the signal
attenuation in the cable, not by the collision detection process.
Half Duplex Mode:
Gigabit Ethernet can also be used in half-duplex mode.
A switch can be replaced by a hub, which acts as the common cable in which a collision might
occur.
The half-duplex approach uses CSMA/CD. The maximum length of the network in this approach
is totally dependent on the minimum frame size. Three methods have been defined: traditional,
carrier extension, and frame bursting.

1000BASE-CX:
1000BASE-CX is an initial standard for Gigabit Ethernet connections with maximum distances of
25 meters using balanced shielded twisted pair.
The short segment length is due to very high signal transmission rate.
1000BASE-SX:
1000BASE-SX is an optical fiber Gigabit Ethernet standard for operation over multi-mode fiber
using a 770 to 860 nanometer.
In practice, with good quality fiber, optics, and terminations, 1000BASE-SX will usually work
over significantly longer distances.
This standard is highly popular for intra-building links in large office buildings.
1000BASE-LX:
1000BASE-LX is a fiber optic Gigabit Ethernet standard specified which uses a long wavelength
 between 1,270–1,355 nm.
1000BASE-LX is specified to work over a distance of up to 5 km over 10 µm single-mode fiber.
1000BASE-LX can also run over all common types of multi-mode fiber with a maximum segment
length of 550 m.
1000BASE-T:
1000BASE-T is a standard for Gigabit Ethernet over copper wiring. Each 1000BASE-T network
segment can be a maximum length of 100 meters, and must use Category 5 cable.
The data is transmitted over four copper pairs, eight bits at a time.
Q.29) Explain ten-gigabit Ethernet implementation
Answer:
The goals of the Ten-Gigabit Ethernet design can be summarized as follows:
1. Upgrade the data rate to 10 Gbps.
2. Make it compatible with Standard, Fast, and Gigabit Ethernet.
3. Use the same 48-bit address.
4. Use the same frame format.
5. Keep the same minimum and maximum frame lengths.
6. Allow the interconnection of existing LANs into a metropolitan area network (MAN)or a wide area
network (WAN).
7. Make Ethernet compatible with technologies such as Frame Relay and ATM
It operates only in full duplex mode which means there is no need for CSMA/CD.
The physical layer in Ten-Gigabit Ethernet is designed for using fiber-optic cable over long
distances. Three implementations are the most common: 10GBase-S, 10GBase-L, and
10GBase-E.
10GBase-S:
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 300 m
 Deployed using multimode fibers having 0.85μ frequency
10GBase-L:
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 10 km
 Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.3μ frequency
10GBase-E:
 Defined by IEEE 802.3ae standard
 Uses fiber optic cables
 Maximum segment length is 40 km
 Deployed using single-mode fibers having 1.5μ frequency

Q.30) Write a note on backbone networks, bus and star backbone.

Answer:
A backbone network allows several LANs to be connected.
In a backbone network, no station is directly connected to the backbone; the stations are part of a
LAN, and the backbone connects the LANs.
The backbone is itself a LAN that uses a LAN protocol such as Ethernet; each connection to the
backbone is itself another LAN.
Bus Backbone
In a bus backbone, the topology of the backbone is a bus. Bus backbones are normally used as a
distribution backbone to connect different buildings in an organization.
BUS BACKBONE NETWORKS:
Each building can comprise either a single LAN or another backbone (normally a star backbone).
A good example of a bus backbone is one that connects single- or multiple-floor buildings on a
campus.
Each single-floor building usually has a single LAN.
Each multiple-floor building has a backbone (usually a star) that connects each LAN on a floor.
A bus backbone can interconnect these LANs and backbones.

if a station in a LAN needs to send a frame to another station in the same LAN, the corresponding
bridge blocks the frame; the frame never reaches the backbone.
However, if a station needs to send a frame to a station in another LAN, the bridge passes the
frame to the backbone, which is received by the appropriate bridge and is delivered to the
destination LAN.
Each bridge connected to the backbone has a table that shows the stations on the LAN side of the
bridge.
The blocking or delivery of a frame is based on the contents of this table.
Star Backbone:
sometimes called a collapsed or switched backbone, the topology of the backbone is a star.
In this configuration, the backbone is just one switch that connects the LANs.
Note that, in this configuration, the switch does the job of the backbone and at the same time
connects the LANs.

Star backbones are mostly used as a distribution backbone inside a building.

In a multifloor building, we usually find one LAN that serves each particular floor.
A star backbone connects these LANs.
The backbone network, which is just a switch, can be installed in the basement or the first floor,
and separate cables can run from the switch to each LAN.
If the individual LANs have a physical star topology, either the hubs (or switches) can be installed
in a closet on the corresponding floor, or all can be installed close to the switch. We often find a
rack or chassis in the basement where the backbone switch and all hubs or switches are installed.
Connecting Remote LANs:
Another common application for a backbone network is to connect remote LANs.
This type of backbone network is useful when a company has several offices with LANs and needs
to connect them.
The connection can be done through bridges, sometimes called remote bridges.
The bridges act as connecting devices connecting LANs and point-to-point networks, such as
leased telephone lines or ADSL lines.
The point-to-point network in this case is considered a LAN without stations
Q.31) Write a short note on (VLAN)Virtual Local area Network.

Answer:
Below is a network with three different physical switches. The switches facilitate communication
within networks, and the Routers facilitate communication between networks.

Each switch above independently perform all the functions of a switch.

If each of these switches have 24 ports and only two are in use, then 22 ports are left wasted on
each switch. Moreover, what if you need to replicate this network elsewhere and you do not have
three physical switches to accommodate?
That is where the first major function of a VLAN comes into play: A VLAN allows you to take
one physical switch, and break it up into smaller mini-switches.

Breaking up one Physical Switch into multiple Virtual Switches

Consider each circle on the switch below as its own mini-switch (or virtual switch). Each of
these mini-switches are a collection of switch ports which operate completely independent from
the others — exactly as they would had there been three different physical switches.
Traffic flow through the single switch of this topology operates exactly as it did in the topology
 above it with three separate physical switches. The routers are configured and operate exactly as
they did above.

A station is considered part of LAN if it physically belongs to that LAN.

The VLAN technology divide a LAN into logical, instead of physical, segments.
A LAN can be divided into several logical LANs called VLAN. Each VLAN is a work group in
the organization.
VLANs logically segment switched networks based on the functions, project teams, or applications
of the organization regardless of the physical location or connections to the network. All
workstations and servers used by a particular workgroup share the same VLAN, regardless of the
physical connection or location.
The key benefits of implementing VLANs include:
Allowing network administrators to apply additional security to network communication
Making expansion and relocation of a network or a network device easier
Providing flexibility because administrators are able to configure in a centralized environment
while the devices might be located in different geographical locations
Decreasing the latency and traffic load on the network and the network devices, offering increased
performance

Q.32) Explain Different Connectivity devices (Short note on any one of it)

Answer:
  Router:
A router is a network layer hardware device that transmits data from one LAN to another if both
networks support the same set of protocols. So a router is typically connected to at least two LANs and
the internet service provider (ISP). It receives its data in the form of packets, which are data
frames with their destination address added. Router also strengthens the signals before transmitting
them. That is why it is also called repeater.
Routing Table
A router reads its routing table to decide the best available route the packet can take to reach its
destination quickly and accurately. The routing table may be of these two types
 Static − In a static routing table the routes are fed manually. So it is suitable only for very small
networks that have maximum two to three routers.
 Dynamic − In a dynamic routing table, the router communicates with other routers through
protocols to determine which routes are free. This is suited for larger networks where manual
feeding may not be feasible due to large number of routers.
 Switch:
Switch is a network device that connects other devices to Ethernet networks through twisted
pair cables. It uses packet switching technique to receive, store and forward data packets on the
network. The switch maintains a list of network addresses of all the devices connected to it.
On receiving a packet, it checks the destination address and transmits the packet to the correct port.
Before forwarding, the packets are checked for collision and other network errors. The data is
transmitted in full duplex mode
Data transmission speed in switches can be double that of other network devices like hubs used for
networking. This is because switch shares its maximum speed with all the devices connected to it. This
helps in maintaining network speed even during high traffic. In fact, higher data speeds are achieved on
networks through use of multiple switches.
 Gateway:
Gateway is a network device used to connect two or more dissimilar networks. In networking parlance,
networks that use different protocols are dissimilar networks. A gateway usually is a computer with
multiple NICs connected to different networks. A gateway can also be configured completely using
software. As networks connect to a different network through gateways, these gateways are usually
hosts or end points of the network.
Gateway uses packet switching technique to transmit data from one network to another. In this way it
is similar to a router, the only difference being router can transmit data only over networks that use
same protocols.
 Hub:
Hubs connect multiple computer networking devices together. A hub also acts as a repeater in that it
amplifies signals that deteriorate after traveling long distances over connecting cables. A hub is the
simplest in the family of network connecting devices because it connects LAN components with
identical protocols.
A hub can be used with both digital and analog data, provided its settings have been configured to
prepare for the formatting of the incoming data. For example, if the incoming data is in digital format,
the hub must pass it on as packets; however, if the incoming data is analog, then the hub passes it on in
signal form.
Hubs do not perform packet filtering or addressing functions; they just send data packets to all
connected devices. Hubs operate at the Physical layer of the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model. There are two types of hubs: simple and multiple port.
 Bridge:
Bridges are used to connect two or more hosts or network segments together. The basic role of bridges
in network architecture is storing and forwarding frames between the different segments that the bridge
connects. They use hardware Media Access Control (MAC) addresses for transferring frames. By
looking at the MAC address of the devices connected to each segment, bridges can forward the data or
block it from crossing. Bridges can also be used to connect two physical LANs into a larger logical
LAN.
Bridges work only at the Physical and Data Link layers of the OSI model. Bridges are used to divide
larger networks into smaller sections by sitting between two physical network segments and managing
the flow of data between the two.
Bridges are like hubs in many respects, including the fact that they connect LAN components with
identical protocols. However, bridges filter incoming data packets, known as frames, for addresses
before they are forwarded. As it filters the data packets, the bridge makes no modifications to the
format or content of the incoming data. The bridge filters and forwards frames on the network with the
help of a dynamic bridge table. The bridge table, which is initially empty, maintains the LAN addresses
for each computer in the LAN and the addresses of each bridge interface that connects the LAN to
other LANs. Bridges, like hubs, can be either simple or multiple port.
Bridges have mostly fallen out of favor in recent years and have been replaced by switches, which offer
more functionality. In fact, switches are sometimes referred to as “multiport bridges” because of how
they operate.
 Repeater:
A repeater is an electronic device that amplifies the signal it receives. You can think of repeater as a
device which receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level or higher power so that the signal can
cover longer distances, more than 100 meters for standard LAN cables. Repeaters work on the Physical
layer.
 Access Point:
While an access point (AP) can technically involve either a wired or wireless connection, it commonly
means a wireless device. An AP works at the second OSI layer, the Data Link layer, and it can operate
either as a bridge connecting a standard wired network to wireless devices or as a router passing data
transmissions from one access point to another.
Wireless access points (WAPs) consist of a transmitter and receiver (transceiver) device used to create
a wireless LAN (WLAN). Access points typically are separate network devices with a built-in antenna,
transmitter and adapter. APs use the wireless infrastructure network mode to provide a connection
point between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN. They also have several ports, giving you a way to
expand the network to support additional clients. Depending on the size of the network, one or more
APs might be required to provide full coverage. Additional APs are used to allow access to more
wireless clients and to expand the range of the wireless network. Each AP is limited by its transmission
range — the distance a client can be from an AP and still obtain a usable signal and data process speed.
The actual distance depends on the wireless standard, the obstructions and environmental conditions
between the client and the AP. Higher end APs have high-powered antennas, enabling them to extend
how far the wireless signal can travel.

Q.33) Explain Different types of Bridges

Answer:
 Transparent Bridge
◦ Also called learning bridge.
◦ Build a table of MAC addresses as frames arrive.
◦ Ethernet networks use transparent bridge.
◦ Duties of transparent bridge are- Filtering frames, Forwarding and blocking.
 Source Routing Bridge
◦ Used in Token Ring networks.
◦ Each station should determine the route to the destination when it wants to send a frame
and therefore include the route information in the header of frame.
◦ Address of these bridges are included in the frame.
◦ Frame contains not only the source and destination address but also the bridge addresses.
Q.34) Explain active and passive hub
Answer:

 Passive Hubs − Passive hubs connects nodes in a star configuration by collecting wiring from
nodes. They broadcast signals onto the network without amplifying or regenerating them. As they
cannot extend the distance between nodes, they limit the size of the LAN.
 Active Hubs − Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals before
broadcasting them. They have their own power supply and serves both as a repeater as well as
connecting centre. Due to their regenerating capabilities, they can extend the maximum distance
between nodes, thus increasing the size of LAN.
 Intelligent Hubs − Intelligent hubs are active hubs that provide additional network management
facilities. They can perform a variety of functions of more intelligent network devices like network
management, switching, providing flexible data rates etc.

Q.35) Explain types of repeaters

ANSWER:
Types of Repeaters
According to the types of signals that they regenerate, repeaters can be classified into two categories −
 Analog Repeaters − They can only amplify the analog signal.
 Digital Repeaters − They can reconstruct a distorted signal.
According to the types of networks that they connect, repeaters can be categorized into two types −
 Wired Repeaters − They are used in wired LANs.
 Wireless Repeaters − They are used in wireless LANs and cellular networks.
According to the domain of LANs they connect, repeaters can be divided into two categories −
 Local Repeaters − They connect LAN segments separated by small distance.
 Remote Repeaters − They connect LANs that are far from each other.
Q.36) Explain network security services.
Answer:
Message confidentiality
◦ It means that the content of a message when transmitted across a network must remain
confidential, i.e. only the intended receiver and no one else should be able to read the
message.
◦ The users; therefore, want to encrypt the message they send so that an eavesdropper on the
network will not be able to read the contents of the message.
Message Integrity
◦ It means the data must reach the destination without any adulteration i.e. exactly as it was
sent.
◦ There must be no changes during transmission, neither accidentally nor maliciously.
◦ Integrity of a message is ensured by attaching a checksum to the message.
◦ The algorithm for generating the checksum ensures that an intruder cannot alter the
checksum or the message.
Message Authentication
◦ In message authentication the receiver needs to be sure of the sender's identity i.e. the
receiver has to make sure that the actual sender is the same as claimed to be.
◦ There are different methods to check the genuineness of the sender :
● The two parties share a common secret code word. A party is required to show the
secret code word to the other for authentication.
● Authentication can be done by sending digital signature.
● A trusted third party verifies the authenticity. One such way is to use digital
certificates issued by a recognized certification authority.
Message non-reproduction
◦ Non-repudiation means that a sender must not be able to deny sending a message that it
actually sent.
◦ The burden of proof falls on the receiver.
◦ Non-reproduction is not only in respect of the ownership of the message; the receiver must
prove that the contents of the message are also the same as the sender sent.
◦ Non-repudiation is achieved by authentication and integrity mechanisms.
Entity Authentication
◦ In entity authentication (or user identification) the entity or user is verified prior to access
to the system resources
◦
Q.37) Explain types of attack
Answer:
• Attacks are typically categorized based on the action performed by the attacker. An attack, thus,
can be passive or active.
• Passive Attacks
• The main goal of a passive attack is to obtain unauthorized access to the information. For
example, actions such as intercepting and eavesdropping on the communication channel can be
regarded as passive attack.
• These actions are passive in nature, as they neither affect information nor disrupt the
communication channel. A passive attack is often seen as stealing information. The only
difference in stealing physical goods and stealing information is that theft of data still leaves the
owner in possession of that data. Passive information attack is thus more dangerous than stealing
of goods, as information theft may go unnoticed by the owner.

Active Attack:
• An active attack involves changing the information in some way by conducting some process on
the information. For example,
• Modifying the information in an unauthorized manner.
• Initiating unintended or unauthorized transmission of information.
• Alteration of authentication data such as originator name or timestamp associated with information
• Unauthorized deletion of data.
• Denial of access to information for legitimate users (denial of service).
Q.38) Define cryptography. Explain encryption and decryption
Answer:
• Cryptography is the art and science of making a cryptosystem that is capable of providing
information security.
• Cryptography deals with the actual securing of digital data. It refers to the design of mechanisms
based on mathematical algorithms that provide fundamental information security services. You can
think of cryptography as the establishment of a large toolkit containing different techniques in
security applications.
• A cryptosystem is an implementation of cryptographic techniques and their accompanying
infrastructure to provide information security services. A cryptosystem is also referred to as a
cipher system.
• Let us discuss a simple model of a cryptosystem that provides confidentiality to the information
being transmitted. This basic model is depicted in the illustration below −

• The illustration shows a sender who wants to transfer some sensitive data to a receiver in such a
way that any party intercepting or eavesdropping on the communication channel cannot extract the
data.
• The objective of this simple cryptosystem is that at the end of the process, only the sender and the
receiver will know the plaintext.
• The various components of a basic cryptosystem are as follows −
• Plaintext. It is the data to be protected during transmission.
• Encryption Algorithm. It is a mathematical process that produces a ciphertext for any given
plaintext and encryption key. It is a cryptographic algorithm that takes plaintext and an encryption
key as input and produces a ciphertext.
• Ciphertext. It is the scrambled version of the plaintext produced by the encryption algorithm
using a specific the encryption key. The ciphertext is not guarded. It flows on public channel. It
can be intercepted or compromised by anyone who has access to the communication channel.
• Decryption Algorithm, It is a mathematical process, that produces a unique plaintext for any
given ciphertext and decryption key. It is a cryptographic algorithm that takes a ciphertext and a
decryption key as input, and outputs a plaintext. The decryption algorithm essentially reverses the
encryption algorithm and is thus closely related to it.
• Encryption Key. It is a value that is known to the sender. The sender inputs the encryption key
into the encryption algorithm along with the plaintext in order to compute the ciphertext.
• Decryption Key. It is a value that is known to the receiver. The decryption key is related to the
encryption key, but is not always identical to it. The receiver inputs the decryption key into the
decryption algorithm along with the ciphertext in order to compute the plaintext.
– For a given cryptosystem, a collection of all possible decryption keys is called a key space.
– An interceptor (an attacker) is an unauthorized entity who attempts to determine the
plaintext. He can see the ciphertext and may know the decryption algorithm. He, however,
must never know the decryption key.
Q.39) Explain symmetric key and asymmetric key cryptography
Answer:
• Fundamentally, there are two types of cryptosystems based on the manner in which encryption-
decryption is carried out in the system
• Symmetric Key Encryption
• Asymmetric Key Encryption
– The main difference between these cryptosystems is the relationship between the
encryption and the decryption key. Logically, in any cryptosystem, both the keys are
closely associated. It is practically impossible to decrypt the ciphertext with the key that is
unrelated to the encryption key.
• Symmetric Key Encryption
– The encryption process where same keys are used for encrypting and decrypting the
information is known as Symmetric Key Encryption.
– The study of symmetric cryptosystems is referred to as symmetric cryptography.
Symmetric cryptosystems are also sometimes referred to as secret key cryptosystems.
– A few well-known examples of symmetric key encryption methods are − Digital
Encryption Standard (DES), Triple-DES (3DES), IDEA, and BLOWFISH.
• The salient features of cryptosystem based on symmetric key encryption are −
• Persons using symmetric key encryption must share a common key prior to exchange of
information.
• Keys are recommended to be changed regularly to prevent any attack on the system.
• A robust mechanism needs to exist to exchange the key between the communicating parties. As
keys are required to be changed regularly, this mechanism becomes expensive and cumbersome.
• In a group of n people, to enable two-party communication between any two persons, the number
of keys required for group is n × (n – 1)/2.
• Length of Key (number of bits) in this encryption is smaller and hence, process of encryption-
decryption is faster than asymmetric key encryption.
• Processing power of computer system required to run symmetric algorithm is less
Symmetric Key Encryption types
• Block Ciphers
• In this scheme, the plain binary text is processed in blocks (groups) of bits at a time; i.e. a block of
plaintext bits is selected, a series of operations is performed on this block to generate a block of
ciphertext bits. The number of bits in a block is fixed. For example, the schemes DES and AES
have block sizes of 64 and 128, respectively.
• Stream Ciphers
• In this scheme, the plaintext is processed one bit at a time i.e. one bit of plaintext is taken, and a
series of operations is performed on it to generate one bit of ciphertext. Technically, stream ciphers
are block ciphers with a block size of one bit.
Asymmetric Key Encryption
• The encryption process where different keys are used for encrypting and decrypting the
information is known as Asymmetric Key Encryption. Though the keys are different, they are
mathematically related and hence, retrieving the plaintext by decrypting ciphertext is feasible. The
 process is depicted in the following illustration −

• The salient features of this encryption scheme are as follows

• Every user in this system needs to have a pair of dissimilar keys, private key and public key. These
keys are mathematically related − when one key is used for encryption, the other can decrypt the
ciphertext back to the original plaintext.
• It requires to put the public key in public repository and the private key as a well-guarded secret.
Hence, this scheme of encryption is also called Public Key Encryption.
• Though public and private keys of the user are related, it is computationally not feasible to find
one from another. This is a strength of this scheme.
• When Host1 needs to send data to Host2, he obtains the public key of Host2 from repository,
encrypts the data, and transmits.
• Host2 uses his private key to extract the plaintext.
• Length of Keys (number of bits) in this encryption is large and hence, the process of encryption-
decryption is slower than symmetric key encryption.
• Processing power of computer system required to run asymmetric algorithm is higher
Q.40) Explain different substitution techniques
Answer:
 Simple Substitution Cipher
 It is an improvement to the Caesar Cipher. Instead of shifting the alphabets by some number, this
scheme uses some permutation of the letters in alphabet.
 For example, A.B…..Y.Z and Z.Y……B.A are two obvious permutation of all the letters in
alphabet. Permutation is nothing but a jumbled up set of alphabets.
 With 26 letters in alphabet, the possible permutations are 26! (Factorial of 26) which is equal to
 4x1026. The sender and the receiver may choose any one of these possible permutation as a
ciphertext alphabet. This permutation is the secret key of the scheme.
 Transposition Cipher
• It is another type of cipher where the order of the alphabets in the plaintext is rearranged to create
the ciphertext. The actual plaintext alphabets are not replaced.
• An example is a ‘simple columnar transposition’ cipher where the plaintext is written horizontally
with a certain alphabet width. Then the ciphertext is read vertically as shown.
• For example, the plaintext is “golden statue is in eleventh cave” and the secret random key chosen
is “five”. We arrange this text horizontally in table with number of column equal to key value. The
resulting text is shown below.

The ciphertext is obtained by reading column vertically downward from first to last column. The
ciphertext is ‘gnuneaoseenvltiltedasehetivc’.
To decrypt, the receiver prepares similar table. The number of columns is equal to key number. The
number of rows is obtained by dividing number of total ciphertext alphabets by key value and rounding
of the quotient to next integer value.
The receiver then writes the received ciphertext vertically down and from left to right column. To
obtain the text, he reads horizontally left to right and from top to bottom row.
 Polyalphabetic Cipher
– Monoalphabetic cipher is a substitution cipher in which for a given key, the cipher alphabet
for each plain alphabet is fixed throughout the encryption process. For example, if ‘A’ is
encrypted as ‘D’, for any number of occurrence in that plaintext, ‘A’ will always get
encrypted to ‘D’.
– All of the substitution ciphers we have discussed earlier in this chapter are monoalphabetic;
these ciphers are highly susceptible to cryptanalysis.
– Polyalphabetic Cipher is a substitution cipher in which the cipher alphabet for the plain
alphabet may be different at different places during the encryption process. The next two
examples, playfair and Vigenere Cipher are polyalphabetic ciphers.
 One-Time Pad:
• The circumstances are −
• The length of the keyword is same as the length of the plaintext.
• The keyword is a randomly generated string of alphabets.
• The keyword is used only once.
Q.41) Write a short note on DES
Answer:
• The Data Encryption Standard (DES) is a symmetric-key block cipher published by the National
Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST).
• DES is an implementation of a Feistel Cipher. It uses 16 round Feistel structure. The block size is
64-bit. Though, key length is 64-bit, DES has an effective key length of 56 bits, since 8 of the 64
bits of the key are not used by the encryption algorithm (function as check bits only). General
Structure of DES is depicted in the following illustration –

•
• The DES satisfies both the desired properties of block cipher. These two properties make cipher
very strong.
• Avalanche effect − A small change in plaintext results in the very great change in the ciphertext.
• Completeness − Each bit of ciphertext depends on many bits of plaintext.
• During the last few years, cryptanalysis have found some weaknesses in DES when key selected
are weak keys. These keys shall be avoided.
• DES has proved to be a very well designed block cipher. There have been no significant
cryptanalytic attacks on DES other than exhaustive key search
• Round Function
• The heart of this cipher is the DES function, f. The DES function applies a 48-bit key to the
rightmost 32 bits to produce a 32-bit output.
•
• Expansion Permutation Box − Since right input is 32-bit and round key is a 48-bit, we first need to
expand right input to 48 bits.
• XOR (Whitener). − After the expansion permutation, DES does XOR operation on the expanded
right section and the round key. The round key is used only in this operation.
• Substitution Boxes. − The S-boxes carry out the real mixing (confusion). DES uses 8 S-boxes,
each with a 6-bit input and a 4-bit output.
• Straight Permutation − The 32 bit output of S-boxes is then subjected to the straight permutation
Write a short note on 3-Key DES
Answer:
• Before using 3TDES, user first generate and distribute a 3TDES key K, which consists of three
different DES keys K1, K2 and K3. This means that the actual 3TDES key has length 3×56 = 168
bits. The encryption scheme is illustrated as follows −

• The encryption-decryption process is as follows −

• Encrypt the plaintext blocks using single DES with key K1.
• Now decrypt the output of step 1 using single DES with key K2.
• Finally, encrypt the output of step 2 using single DES with key K3.
• The output of step 3 is the ciphertext.
• Decryption of a ciphertext is a reverse process. User first decrypt using K3, then encrypt with K2,
and finally decrypt with K1.
Q.42) Write a short note on firewall and Steganography.
Answer:
Firewall:
A firewall is a system that typically sits at some point of connectivity between a site it protects and
the rest of the network.
It is usually implemented as an “appliance” or part of a router, although a “personal firewall” may
be implemented on an end user machine.
Firewall-based security depends on the firewall being the only connectivity to the site from
outside; there should be no way to bypass the firewall via other gateways, wireless connections, or
dial-up connections.
In effect, a firewall divides a network into a more-trusted zone internal to the firewall, and a less-
trusted zone external to the firewall.
This is useful if you do not want external users to access a particular host or service within your
site.
Firewalls may be used to create multiple zones of trust, such as a hierarchy of increasingly trusted
zones.
A common arrangement involves three zones of trust: the internal network; the DMZ
(“demilitarized zone”); and the rest of the Internet.
Firewalls filter based on IP, TCP, and UDP information, among other things.
They are configured with a table of addresses that characterize the packets they will, and will not,
forward.
By addresses, we mean more than just the destination’s IP address, although that is one possibility.
Generally, each entry in the table is a 4-tuple: It gives the IP address and TCP (or UDP) port
number for both the source and destination.

 Steganography
Steganography is an approach that facilitates concealing of a message that is to be kept secret inside
other message. This result is the concealment of the secret message itself.
Steganography approach can be used to images, a video file or an audio file. Generally, however,
steganography is written in characters such as hash marking, but its usage inside images is also
common. At any rate, steganography secure from pirating possess materials as well as aiding in
unauthorized viewing.
One use of steganography such as watermarking which hides copyright data within a watermark by
overlaying documents not simply detected by the naked eye. This avoids fraudulent actions and
provides copyright protected media more protection.
The main goal of steganography is to communicate securely in a completely indistinguishable manner
and to prevent drawing suspicion to the transmission of a hidden information.

Q.43) Write a short note on Copyright

Answer:
Copyright refers to the legal right of the owner of intellectual property. In simpler terms, copyright is
the right to copy. This means that the original creators of products and anyone they give authorization
to are the only ones with the exclusive right to reproduce the work.
Copyright law gives creators of original material the exclusive right to further use and duplicate that
material for a given amount of time, at which point the copyrighted item becomes public domain.
Q.44) Write a short note on network security.
Answer:
Network security is any activity designed to protect the usability and integrity of your network and
data. It includes both hardware and software technologies. Effective network security manages
access to the network. It targets a variety of threats and stops them from entering or spreading on
your network.
Network security combines multiple layers of defences at the edge and in the network. Each
network security layer implements policies and controls. Authorized users gain access to network
resources, but malicious actors are blocked from carrying out exploits and threats.
Q.45) Explain Kerckhoff’s Principle for Cryptosystem
Answer:
• In the 19th century, a Dutch cryptographer A. Kerckhoff furnished the requirements of a good
cryptosystem. Kerckhoff stated that a cryptographic system should be secure even if everything
about the system, except the key, is public knowledge. The six design principles defined by
Kerckhoff for cryptosystem are −
• The cryptosystem should be unbreakable practically, if not mathematically.
• Falling of the cryptosystem in the hands of an intruder should not lead to any compromise of the
 system, preventing any inconvenience to the user.
• The key should be easily communicable, memorable, and changeable.
• The ciphertext should be transmissible by telegraph, an unsecure channel.
• The encryption apparatus and documents should be portable and operable by a single person.
• Finally, it is necessary that the system be easy to use, requiring neither mental strain nor the
knowledge of a long series of rules to observe.
• The second rule is currently known as Kerckhoff principle. It is applied in virtually all the
contemporary encryption algorithms such as DES, AES, etc. These public algorithms are
considered to be thoroughly secure. The security of the encrypted message depends solely on the
security of the secret encryption key.
• Keeping the algorithms secret may act as a significant barrier to cryptanalysis. However, keeping
the algorithms secret is possible only when they are used in a strictly limited circle.
• In modern era, cryptography needs to cater to users who are connected to the Internet. In such
cases, using a secret algorithm is not feasible, hence Kerckhoff principles became essential
guidelines for designing algorithms in modern cryptography.
Q.46) Explain Different types of Public key algorithm
Answer:
• RSA Encryption
• suppose the sender wish to send some text message to someone whose public key is (n, e).
• The sender then represents the plaintext as a series of numbers less than n.
• To encrypt the first plaintext P, which is a number modulo n. The encryption process is simple
mathematical step as −
• C = Pe mod n In other words, the ciphertext C is equal to the plaintext P multiplied by itself e times
and then reduced modulo n. This means that C is also a number less than n.
• Returning to our Key Generation example with plaintext P = 10, we get ciphertext C −
• C = 105 mod 91
• RSA Decryption
• The decryption process for RSA is also very straightforward. Suppose that the receiver of public-
key pair (n, e) has received a ciphertext C.
• Receiver raises C to the power of his private key d. The result modulo n will be the plaintext P.
• Plaintext = Cd mod n Returning again to our numerical example, the ciphertext C = 82 would get
decrypted to number 10 using private key 29 −
• Plaintext = 8229 mod 91 = 10
Q.47) Explain Popular Hash Functions/ Write a short note on message digest/Digital signature
Answer:
Message Digest
• MD5 was most popular and widely used hash function for quite some years.
• The MD family comprises of hash functions MD2, MD4, MD5 and MD6. It was adopted as
Internet Standard RFC 1321. It is a 128-bit hash function.
• MD5 digests have been widely used in the software world to provide assurance about integrity of
transferred file. For example, file servers often provide a pre-computed MD5 checksum for the
files, so that a user can compare the checksum of the downloaded file to it.
• In 2004, collisions were found in MD5. An analytical attack was reported to be successful only in
an hour by using computer cluster. This collision attack resulted in compromised MD5 and hence
it is no longer recommended for use.
Digital Signature:
• Digital signatures are the public-key primitives of message authentication. In the physical world, it
is common to use handwritten signatures on handwritten or typed messages. They are used to bind
signatory to the message.
• Similarly, a digital signature is a technique that binds a person/entity to the digital data. This
binding can be independently verified by receiver as well as any third party.
• Digital signature is a cryptographic value that is calculated from the data and a secret key known
only by the signer.
• In real world, the receiver of message needs assurance that the message belongs to the sender and
he should not be able to repudiate the origination of that message. This requirement is very crucial
in business applications, since likelihood of a dispute over exchanged data is very high.

• The following points explain the entire process in detail −

• Each person adopting this scheme has a public-private key pair.
• Generally, the key pairs used for encryption/decryption and signing/verifying are different. The
private key used for signing is referred to as the signature key and the public key as the verification
key.
• Signer feeds data to the hash function and generates hash of data.
• Hash value and signature key are then fed to the signature algorithm which produces the digital
signature on given hash. Signature is appended to the data and then both are sent to the verifier.
• Verifier feeds the digital signature and the verification key into the verification algorithm. The
verification algorithm gives some value as output.
• Verifier also runs same hash function on received data to generate hash value.
• For verification, this hash value and output of verification algorithm are compared. Based on the
comparison result, verifier decides whether the digital signature is valid.
• Since digital signature is created by ‘private’ key of signer and no one else can have this key; the
signer cannot repudiate signing the data in future.
Digital Certificate:
• for analogy, a certificate can be considered as the ID card issued to the person. People use ID cards
such as a driver's license, passport to prove their identity. A digital certificate does the same basic
thing in the electronic world, but with one difference.
• Digital Certificates are not only issued to people but they can be issued to computers, software
packages or anything else that need to prove the identity in the electronic world.
• Digital certificates are based on the ITU standard X.509 which defines a standard certificate
format for public key certificates and certification validation. Hence digital certificates are
sometimes also referred to as X.509 certificates.
• Public key pertaining to the user client is stored in digital certificates by The Certification
Authority (CA) along with other relevant information such as client information, expiration date,
usage, issuer etc.
• CA digitally signs this entire information and includes digital signature in the certificate.
• Anyone who needs the assurance about the public key and associated information of client, he
carries out the signature validation process using CA’s public key. Successful validation assures
that the public key given in the certificate belongs to the person whose details are given in the
certificate.
Q.48) what is Attenuation?

Attenuation means a loss of energy. When a signal, simple or composite, travels through a medium, it
loses some of its energy in overcoming the resistance of the medium. That is why a wire carrying
electric signals gets warm, if not hot, after a while. Some of the electrical energy in the signal is
converted to heat. To compensate for this loss, amplifiers are used to amplify the signal.

Q.49) Explain the concept of MODEM.

• Modem is abbreviation for Modulator – Demodulator. Modems are used for data transfer from
one computer network to another computer network through telephone lines.
• The computer network works in digital mode, while analog technology is usedfor carrying
massages across phone lines.
• Modulator converts information from digital mode toanalog mode at the transmitting end and
demodulator converts the same from analog to digital at receiving end.
• The process of converting analog signals of one computer network into digital signals of
another computer network so they can be processed by a receiving computer isreferred to as
digitizing.

Modems can be of several types and they can be categorized in a number of ways.
Categorization is usually based on the following basic modem features:
• 1. Directional capacity: half duplex modem and full duplex modem.
• 2. Connection to the line: 2-wire modem and 4-wire modem.
 • 3. Transmission mode: asynchronous modem and synchronous modem. Categories of modem
• External modem
• Internal modem
Any external modem is attached to any computer has an RS-232 port.
An internal modem comes as an expansion board that can be inserted into a vacant expansion slot.
Types of modem
• Standard fax modem
• Digital cable modem
• ISDN modem
• Digital subscribes line modem
• Satellite modem
Q.50) What do you mean by Wireless LANs?

Wireless communication is one of the fastest-growing technologies. The demand for connecting
devices without the use of cables is increasing everywhere. Wireless LANs can be found on college
campuses, in office buildings, and in many public areas.
Q.51) What do you mean by ATM ?
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a standard switching
technique, designed to unify telecommunication and computer networks. It uses
asynchronous time-division multiplexing, and it encodes data into small, fixed-sized cells. This differs
from approaches such as the Internet
switched networking and small packet switched networking. It was designed for a network that must
handle both traditional high-throughput data traffic (e.g., file transfers), and real-time, low-latency
content such as voice and video. ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must
be established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins.
Q.51) Explain the concept of Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is an Internet standard for electronic mail (e-mail)
transmission across Internet Protocol (IP) networks.
SMTP is a connection-oriented, text-based protocol in which a mail sender communicates with a mail
receiver by issuing command strings and supplying necessary data over a reliable ordered data stream
channel, typically a Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) connection. An SMTP session consists of
commands originated by an SMTP client (the initiating agent, sender, or transmitter) and corresponding
responses from the SMTP server (the listening agent, or receiver) so that the session is opened, and
session parameters are exchanged. A session may include zero or more SMTP transactions. An SMTP
transaction consists of three command/reply sequences (see example below.) They are:
1. MAIL command, to establish the return address, a.k.a. Return-Path, 5321.From, mfrom, or
envelope sender. This is the address for bounce messages.
2. RCPT command, to establish a recipient of this message. This command can be issued
multiple times, one for each recipient. These addresses are also part of the envelope.
3. DATA to send the message text. This is the content of the message, as opposed to its
envelope. It consists of a message header and a message body separated by an empty line.
DATAis
actually a group of commands, and the server replies twice: once to the DATA command proper, to
acknowledge that it is ready to receive the text, and the second time after the end- of-data sequence, to
either accept or reject the entire message.
Q.52) Explain the concept of FTP
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is the standard mechanism provided by TCP/IP for copying a file from
one host to another. Although transferring files from one system to another seems simple and
straightforward, some problems must be dealt with first. For example, two systems may use different
file name conventions. Two systems may have different ways to represent text and data. Two systems
may have different directory structures. All these problems have been solved by FTP in a very simple
and elegant approach.
FTP differs from other client/server applications in that it establishes two connections between the
hosts. One connection is used for data transfer, the other for control information (commands and
responses). Separation of commands and data transfer makes FTP more
efficient. The control connection uses very simple rules of communication.
We need to transfer only a line of command or a line of response at a time. The data connection, on the
other hand, needs more complex rules due to the variety of data types transferred. However, the
difference in complexity is at the FTP level,not TCP.
For TCP, both connections are treated the same.FTP uses two well-known TCP ports: Port 21 is
 Q.53) Explain the concept of WWW .
WWW
The World Wide Web (WWW) is a repository of information linked together from points all over the
world. The WWW has a unique combination of flexibility, portability, and user-friendly features that
distinguish it from other services provided by the Internet.
Each site holds one or more documents, referred to as Web pages. Each Web page can contain a link to
other pages in the same site or at other sites. The pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers.
Client (Browser)
A variety of vendors offer commercial browsers that interpret and display a Web document, and all use
nearly the same architecture. Each browser usually consists of three parts: a controller, client protocol,
and interpreters. The controller receives input from the keyboard or the mouse and uses the client
programs to access the document. After the document has been accessed, the controller uses one of the
interpreters to display the document on the screen. The client protocol can be one of the protocols
described previously such as FTP or HTTP (described later in the chapter). The interpreter can be
HTML, Java, or JavaScript, depending on the type of document.
Server
The Web page is stored at the server. Each time a client request arrives, the corresponding document is
sent to the client. To improve efficiency, servers normally store requested files in a cache in memory;
memory is faster to access than disk. A server can also become more efficient through multithreading
or multiprocessing. In this case, a server can answer more than one request at a time.

Uniform Resource Locator

A client that wants to access a Web page needs the address. To facilitate the access of documents
distributed throughout the world, HTTP uses locators. The uniform resource locator
. (URL) is a standard for specifying any kind of information on the Internet. The URL defines four
things: protocol, host computer, port, and path.
The protocol is the client/server program used to retrieve the document. Many different protocols can
retrieve a document; among them are FTP or HTTP. The most common today is HTTP.

Protocol://host:port/path
Q.54) Explain the concept of HTTP
The Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is a protocol used mainly to access data on the
World Wide Web. HTTP functions as a combination of FTP and SMTP. It is similar to
FTP because it transfers files and uses the services of TCP. However, it is much simpler
than FTP because it uses only one TCP connection. There is no separate control
connection; only data are transferred between the client and the server.
HTTP is like SMTP because the data transferred between the client and the server look like
SMTP messages. In addition, the format of the messages is controlled by MIME-
likeheaders.
Unlike SMTP, the HTTP messages are not destined to be read by humans; they are read
and interpreted by the HTTP server and HTTP client (browser). SMTP messages are stored
and forwarded, but HTTP messages are delivered immediately. The commands from the
client to the server are embedded in a request message. The contents of the requested file
or other information are embedded in a response message. HTTP uses the services of TCP
on well-known port