Ahmed Draia of Adrar

Faculty of Art and Languages

Department of English Language and Literature

A Research Paper Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for a

Master Degree in Linguistic and Didactics

The Role of Motivation in Learning English as a Foreign

language: A Case Study of First Year Student of English

at the University of Adrar

Presented By: Supervised by:

Asma LADJAL Hidaya MOULAY OMAR

Academic Year: 2020-2021

 DEDICATION

Every challenging work needs self-effort as well as guidance of

Elders especially those who were very close to our heart

Thank you, mom and dad,

For always loving and supporting me

For teaching me to believe in myself, in good, and in my dreams

To my husband

Lovingly dedicated to my beautiful girl Sanaa

I would like also to dedicate this work to my brother Mohamed and my sister Siham for their

continuous support

Along with all hard working and respected Teachers

I
 ACKNOWLEDGMENT

All my thanks and gratitude first are to Allah, the most helpful in my studies and life.

It is a pleasure to express my deep sense of thanks and gratitude to my supervisor and guide

Mrs. Moulay Omar Hidaya, who has provided patient advice and guidance throughout the

research process, without you I could never reached this level of success,

I would like to acknowledge everyone who played a role in my academic accomplishment, all

my committee members each of whom has provided patient advice and guidance throughout the

research process.

Thank you all for your unwavering support

II
Table of contents

DEDICATION.................................................................................................................................. I

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ................................................................................................................... II

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................................... IV

LIST OF FIGURES AND CHARTS ................................................................................................... V

1.CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................... 3

INTRODUCTION.................................................................................................................................. 3
1.1.THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK ............................................................................................... 3
1.2. CONCLUSION................................................................................................. 11

2.CHAPTER TWO: MOTIVATION AND LANGUAGE LEARNING .................................................. 12

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 12

2.1. ONLINE LEARNING (ONL) ............................................................ 12

2.2. IN-PERSON LEARNING ........................................................................ 12
2.3.MOTIVATION, THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT AND THE LEARNER............................................ 13
2.4.MOTIVATION AND IN PERSON CLASSROOM/ FACE TO FACE EDUCATION .................................. 14
2.5.RESEARCH ON MOTIVATION IN L2..................................................................................... 16
2.6.MOTIVATION IN ELL....................................................................................................... 17
.9.2CONCLUSION..................................................................................................... 18

3.CHAPTER THREE: CASE STUDY OF FIRST YEAR STUDENT OF ENGLISH AT THE UNIVERSITY
ADRAR ......................................................................................................................................... 18

INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................................... 18

3.1.RESEARCH METHODOLOGY.............................................................................................. 18
3.1.1.Research setting and participants ................................................ 18
3.1.2.Research design ....................................................................... 19
3.1.3.Instrument .............................................................................. 19
3.2.FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ............................................................................................... 19
3.2.1.ANALYSIS OF THE QUESTIONNAIRE .................................................................................. 19
3.3.RESULTS........................................................................................................................ 33
3.4.GENERAL CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 34

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................................... 36

THE QUESTIONNAIRE ................................................................................................................. 38

III
List of Abbreviations

L2: second language

ONL: online learning

ELL: English Language Learning

F2F: Face to face

IV
List of Figures and Charts

Figure 1 : Gardner’s socio-educational model of motivation ..................................................6

Chart 1 : The student’s level in English language .................................................................20

Chart 2 : Learning English because it is the language of the world ....................................20
Chart 3 : Concern about having good grades rather than improving my level in English 21
Chart 4 : With or against online learning ...............................................................................22
Chart 5 : Having access to a device for learning online .........................................................22
Chart 6 : Device you use............................................................................................................23
Chart 7 : Efficiency of online learning classes ........................................................................23
Chart 8 : Preferable modules to learn in-person ....................................................................24
Chart 9 : Preferable modules to learn online .........................................................................25
Chart 10 : Enjoying your learning experience in regular classes, in online classes, in both
.....................................................................................................................................................26
Chart 11 : Easy to understand the course content ideas ........................................................27
Chart 12 : Technology motivates students to learn on their own .........................................27
Chart 13 : Focusing more effectively on my learning tasks with the assistance of my
teacher around my classmates. .................................................................................................28
Chart 14 : Focusing more effectively on my learning tasks at home ....................................28
Chart 15 : Face-to-face contact with my instructor is necessary for learning .....................29
Chart 16 : Felling in control of my learning process in face-to-face course ........................29
Chart 17 : English skills can be better improved in E-learning environment .....................30
Chart 18 : Improving listening and speaking by communicating online with English
language speakers ......................................................................................................................30
Chart 19 : Enrolling in an English language school to improve your level in English .......31
Chart 20 : Taken an online course to improve your English language skills.......................31
Chart 21 : Steps in improving your level in English ..............................................................32

V
 Abstract
The progress on foreign language learning depends on the student motivation in language

learning. The current research study the relationship between motivation and English language

learning online and in-person environment, among student of English at the University of

Adrar. A questionnaire was administrated to 30 students. Using a Descriptive statistics and

correlational analysis in order to reveal the students' foreign language motivation to learn in-

person or online. The results show that motivation provides the essential push to initiate a

successful language learning process in which maximized the language learning skills in both

online and in-person climates.

Key words: Motivation, Learning, English, online learning, in-person learning.

Résumé

La motivation est l'essence même de l'apprentissage. C‟est encore plus vrai dans les deux cas.

En effet, la motivation donne l'envie de compléter l‟apprentissage de nouvelles connaissances

pour avancer dans le processus d'apprentissage. La recherche actuelle étudie la relation entre la

motivation et l'apprentissage de l'anglais en ligne et en personne chez des étudiants en anglais à

l'Université d'Adrar. Un questionnaire a été administré à 30 étudiants. Utilisation d'une

statistique descriptive et d'une analyse corrélationnelle afin de révéler la motivation des

étudiants en langues étrangères à apprendre en personne ou en ligne. Les résultats montrent que

la motivation fournit la poussée essentielle pour initier un processus d'apprentissage des langues

réussi.

Mots Clés : Motivation, Apprentissage, Anglais, apprentissage en ligne, apprentissage en

personne.
VI
VII
 General Introduction
The study and development of language by learners have always been a fascinating and

an important topic that has drawn the attention of many scholars. The increasing use of English

language in the world makes it the lingo of technology, science, and business. It becomes the

universal medium of high education. In this regard, Cook argues,“In recent years the growth of

English has been further accelerated by starting expansion in the quantity and speed of

international communication.” (2003: 25). Since it serves as the language of globalization,

knowing English is a necessity as stated by David Crystal;“English as a global language has

proved itself to be taught and learned by people from all across the world. In many countries

English is usually taught as a second language and there is a big demand for knowledge to

speak.”(2003:22)

On the other hand, motivation is claimed as a complex variable beside others such as self-

esteem and self- confidence, inhibition and risk-taking, imitation, attitude and anxiety that might

influence learners‟ L2 achievement as well as their frequency in use. The current study

determines the role of student motivation in English language learning online and in-person.

This study aims to examine motivation in online learning environment compared to in-person

one. The participants of this research are students of first year at the department of English, at

the University of Adrar. Based on the study's specified goals we attempt to answer the

following questions:

1. What are the factors affecting students' attitudes towards learning English at the university of

Adrar?

2. What is the differences between learning online and in-person?

3. How does motivation affect students' English language development?

1
4. What challenges they face in both online and in-person learning

This present research tackles students' motivation in learning English as a foreign language

online compared to in-person (face-to-face). As well as discovering students' attitudes and

preferences in terms of English language learning at the University of Adrar and figuring out

the different challenges they face in both cases of learning.

Because of the study's hybrid character, which includes both linguistic and affective aspects of

language learning, through this research, we attempt to provide beneficial data that will pave

the way for further experiments. It helps better understand foreign language learning,

motivation, challenges and skills among students at the English Department in Adrar. In

addition to highlighting their experience in online learning which was required by the current

circumstances of the pandemic. The result will be useful for students, teachers, and material

designers. It will assist students in comprehending the interdependence of social psychological

factors that may affect their attainment and proficiency. Teachers should use the results to

recognize individual gaps in students' understanding and use of English, as well as to devise FL

teaching pedagogy that can improve students' learning motivation in both environments.

Finally, material designers could be more knowledgeable about the motivating and learning

skill demands of English learners in the EFL sense.

2
 1. Chapter One: Literature Review

Introduction

This part begins by highlighting the main concepts that influence the student performance in

foreign language learning. It also contains a brief review of the role of motivation and attitudes

in L2 learning.

1.1. Theoretical framework

1.1.1. Definition of motivation

MacIntyre et al. argue that “Motivation represents one of the most appealing, yet complex

variables used to explain individual differences in language learning” (2001, p. 462). This

clearly reflect the complexities of the idea that Gardner and Lambert first brought to light

through their studies in the late 1950‟s. Thus, Motivation has been identified as one of the most

powerful determinants of students' success or failure in school (Hidi & Harackiewicz, 2000).

Pintrich & Schunk (1996) defined it as one‟s wish and will to behave in a directed way, which

in turn initiates a series of actions to engage in particular activities. In academic context,

Motivation refers to the reason students want to attend, engage in, and put effort in learning and

achieving in school (Beck, 2004).

1.1.2. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation

The interest of the motivational framework needs to be linked to intrinsic and extrinsic

motivation. For a long time, the discussion of these concepts is extensive since they are

definitely the most popular means of describing motivation in higher education. The terms

'intrinsic and extrinsic motivation' are dating back to the1960s, although they may have been

used earlier.
3
 Intrinsic motivation is normally interpreted as motivation through interest in learning or

self-undertaking. Deci (1975:23) defined it as „… ones for which there is no apparent reward

except the activity itself. People engage in the activities for their own sake not because they

lead to an extrinsic reward'. Spaulding (1992) also states that „extrinsic motivation is as an

outward force in the form of expectation, praise and rewards powers students in English

learning‟. I.e. motivation through rewards external to the task is extrinsic. This type of

motivation is less desirable, also called, the weak form. Whereas, the intrinsic is seen as the

positive or the desirable form of motivation.

This present study's conceptual framework consists of a combination of Gardner‟s (1985)

Socio-Educational Model of motivation and socio-cognitive models of motivation (Pintrich

2003; Pintrich and Schunk 2002). These models are more applicable in explaining the role of

motivation in learning, and have been broadly used in studies about L2 motivation. Adding to

that, the self-determination theory, the goal theory and attribution theory, which are the three,

major; currently prominent; psychological theories on motivation are presented.

1.1.3. Gardner's (1985) Socio-educative Motivation Model

Studies on the social psychological understanding of second language development can be

traced back to 1959, when Gardner and Lambert highlighted the relevance of inspiration and

abilities in language learning. Canada was a hotbed for studies into the pioneering social

scientific research of Gardner and Lambert in the 1960s. Gardner (1985) to describe the

learning and motivation of second language from a socio-psychological viewpoint formalized

his well-known socio-educational paradigm later. Motivation, according to Gardner (1985),

primarily focuses on inter-group attitudes and attraction to the target language and community,

i.e. learning a second language requires student familiarizing themselves with the characteristic

4
of the other cultures, and the success of the learner depends on his/her attitude towards these

cultures.

In this frame Gardner argued that "Motivation has been the main operative focus of the

model which is defined as the L2 student‟s effort and desire to achieve the goal of learning the

language and favorable attitudes toward learning the language "(Gardner,1985). According to

Gardner, language learners‟ motivation originates from the general learner attitude, which is

developed at home and society as well, then the attitude is shaped based on the learning

situation.

The Socio-Educational Model of Motivation combines three fundamental structures;

A. Integrativeness: This concept, as mentioned by Gardner (2005, as cited in MacIntyre et

al. 2009) has two important defining features of integrativeness and motivation. In simple

terms, integrativeness refers to "how the learner relates to the target culture in various ways"

(Cook, 2008, p. 223). Put in Gardner's words (2001b), it refers to a learner's "genuine interest in

learning the second language in order to come closer to the other language community" (p. 5).

"Integrativeness, Attitudes toward the Learning Situation and Motivation form “Integrative Motivation”

(Gardner, 2001a, February, p. 13).It involves three measures:

1. Attitudes towards the target language, since it was predicted that positive attitudes

toward the community would facilitate openness while the negative would impede it.

2. Integrative orientations, which introduce the learner needs in language learning

in order to communicate, socialize; make friends with members of the other community,

because people with such interest are more open than other individuals who did not express

such goals.

5
 3. Interest in foreign languages: it was hypothesized that certain people would be

accessible to all classes, even though they were not very interested in the target language

category.

B. Attitudes towards the learning situation: refers to individuals' responses to something

related to the context in which the target language is taught or understood. There may be

differences in attitudes among classes in different environments. Attitude towards the learning

situation involves two measures, which are Evaluation of the course and Evaluation of the

teacher.

C. Motivation: it refers to the student's effort and desire to achieve the goal of learning a

language,as well as positive attitudes toward language learning. It covers a wide range of goal-

directed behavior, such as expectation and enjoyment of tasks and experiences. It includes three

dimensions:

a) Motivational intensity that is the amount of effort a person puts forward in learning a

language.

b) Desire to learn the target language, which is related to the L2 student's desire to reach a

high degree of proficiency in the target language.

c) Attitudes towards Learning the L2: which refers to the effects that learning the L2 has

on the L2 learner.

Gardner’s Socio-Educational Model of Motivation (1985 )

Integrativeness
 Attitude towards the TL group
 Integrative orientation Motivation
 Interest in foreign language
 Desire to learn
 Intensity
 Attitudes towards
Attitudes towards the learning situation learning the TL
6
 Evaluation of the course
 Evaluation of the teacher
 The combination of the three mentioned components; integrativeness, attitudes towards the

learning situation, and motivation, are referred to as integrative motivation (Gardner, 1985,

2000). I.e. The one who is motivated to learn the second/foreign language is the integrative

motivated student, who is open to identifying the other language culture, and has positive

attitudes toward the learning situation. Integrativeness and attitude toward the learning situation

are presented as two distinct items, but instead, they are linked supports for motivation. This

latter is the major affective aspect contributing to achievement in learning another language.

Masgoret & Gardner claimed "… correlation between motivation and language achievement

should be higher than the correlation of either integrativeness or attitudes towards the learning

situation with language achievement "(2003, 169). According to Gardner (2001b), based on

this model, if anyone shows high levels of Integrativeness and/or supportive Attitudes toward

the Learning Situation, but these are not connected to Motivation to Learn the Language, these

variables would not be especially strongly related to achievement.

1.1.4. Socio-cognitive models of motivation

Students' motivation in educational atmosphere results from their perceptions of the

classroom, and sometimes from their interactions with teachers, peers and others in school.

(Hardré, 2003; Pintrich& Schunk, 1996). The nature of teaching curriculum design and teacher-

student/ student-student relationships plays an essential role in the degree and nature of

motivation. Each student has a different level of motivation, as well as different personal and

social factors that affect his or her motivation. The social cognitive model does not categorize

7
students as motivated or not, instead, they believe that students can be motivated in multiple

ways and influenced by various factors and ways (Linnen brink & Pintrich, 2002).

The key factors, which play a central role in students‟ motivation, are the enjoyment of learning

or the degree to which they are intrinsically motivated, the presence of external pressure and its

influence on the learner. In addition, teachers' materials and activities relevant to student

interest and needs.

1.1.5. The Self-determination, The Attribution, and Goal Theories

The following is a list of some of the most important psychological theories that have caught

the interest of LLM scholars, as well as how they were used as a result of them. These theories

are part of the cognitive movement in psychological research that began in the 1970s.

1.1.5.1. The Self Determination Theory

The self-determination theory is one of the most influential theories in motivational

psychology (Dörnyei, 2003). According to the theory, developed by Deci and his associates,

„[t]o be self-determining means to experience a sense of choice in initiating and regulating one's

own actions‟ (Deci, Connell, & Ryan,1989:580). This is referred to as autonomy. According to

this theory, we distinguish two essential kinds of motivation, intrinsic and extrinsic. The first

one is related to the individual‟s motivation to perform a certain activity because of internal

rewards. Whereas in extrinsic motivation the individual expects an extrinsic reward such as

good grades or praise from others. The self-determination approach provides a very fascinating

look at motivation by establishing a different agenda for language instructors. Instead of

focusing on how people (such as teachers in the classroom) can motivate learners, the focus

should be on „how people can create the conditions for others to motivate themselves' (ibid).

Deci et al. (1991:342) published a series of experiments on the relevance of the self-

determination principle to educational environments, which demonstrated that self-

8
determination, as formed by intrinsic motivation and autonomy, contributes to desired

educational outcomes that benefit both students and society.

Research on LLM demonstrate that the self-reported intrinsic motivation correlates

positively, among other things, with general motivation, self-efficacy, end of training

speaking, reading proficiency, and negatively with anxiety (Ehrman, 1996).

However, the nature of a self-determination continuum is not well known. The distinction

made by Noels et.al (2000) between the various extrinsic regulations and the various intrinsic

reasons are not logically apparent. Furthermore, new recent analysis conducted within the

framework of self-determination theory suggests that such a continuum does not exist.

1.1.5.2. Goal theories

Originally, the concept of goal has replaced that of need, which was introduced by Maslow‟s

hierarchy of needs (Dörnyei, 2001).Goal theories focus on the reasons or purposes that students

perceive for achieving (Anderman & Midgley, 1998). Goals affect individuals‟ performance by

four mechanisms:

• Goals serve a directive function as they direct attention and effort

Toward goal-relevant activities and away from irrelevant activities

• Goals have an energizing function and they help individuals regulate

Their effort to the difficulty of the task

• Goals positively affect persistence.

• Goals affect action indirectly by leading to the arousal, discovery,

And/or use of task-relevant knowledge and strategies. (Locke and Latham 2002:706-7)

There are two goal theories that have been particularly influential in the study of motivation;

the goal setting theory and the goal orientation theory (ibid). Locke and Latham (1990) mainly

developed the goal setting theory within industrial and organizational psychology with frequent

9
references to workplace settings (Pagliaro, 2002). According to the theory people must have

goals to act and react. The theory suggests that goals have two aspects: internal (ideas) and

external (object). Ideas serve as guides for obtaining the goals (Locke, 1996). There are few

conclusions that Locke et. al. (1981, in Oxford &Shearin, 1994) reach after reviewing research

on goal setting. They concluded that; goal setting and performance are related; goals affect the

performance of the task, the energy expended, the strategies used and its duration and

maintenance. According to goal-setting theory, there are three major characteristics of goals:

difficulty, specificity and commitment.

The goal orientation theory, unlike the goal-setting theory, was developed in a classroom

context in order to explain children‟s learning and performance (Dörnyei, 2001:27). Based on

this theory, an individual‟s performance is closely related to his or her accepted goals. An

important contribution of the theory resides in its distinction between two types of goal

orientation (Ames & Archer, 1988; Ames, 1992): performance vs. mastery (or learning)

orientations. Dweck (1985:291) in Williams & Burden (1997:131) clarified this, „Put simply,

with performance goals, an individual aim to look smart, whereas with the learning goals, the

individual aims to becoming smarter‟.

1.1.5.3. Attribution Theory

The attribution theory of motivation was largely influential in the 1980s (Dörnyei, 2003).

The uniqueness of the theory stems from its ability to link individuals‟ achievements to past

experiences through the establishment of causal attributions as the mediating link (ibid). It

hypothesized that the reasons individuals attribute their past success or failure shape their

motivational disposition (Dörnyei, 2001).In a school environment, students tend to assign their

failure or success (locus of causality) can be attributed to a variety of factors, including: ability

and effort, luck, task difficulty, mood, family history, and assistance or others' impediment. The

10
preceding can be placed on a scale of Depending on whether the individuals view internal vs.

external factors

They blame themselves or others for their behavior. On the other hand,Locus of control

refers to people's perceptions of how much control they have over their activities. The

importance of the type of attribution is especially important in the classroom. If learners, for

example, attribute their loss on a lack of talent (an intrinsic trigger over which they have no

control), their desire to learn the language is likely to disappear entirely.If, on the other hand,

they believe that their loss is the product of their laziness or lack of effort (internal cause over

which they have control), they would be more motivated if they double their efforts.

Research in attribution theory is limited despite its importance because it does not easily

render itself to quantitative research as Dörnyei (2003) points out. He summarized the results of

many qualitative studies undertaken by Ushioda (1996a, 1996b, 1998), and Williams and

Burden (1999). The first discovered that retaining a positive self-concept and confidence in

personal potential, in the light of unfavorable encounters, are dependent on two attributional

reasons: success attributed to personal ability or other internal factors causes (e.g., sufficient

effort) and loss attributed to temporary failures that can be resolved. The latter found

differences between ages: 10-12 years old attributed success mainly to listening and

concentration, older learners mentioned a variety of reasons including ability, level of work.

1.2. Conclusion

In summary, it was found from the above analysis! that the Socio-educational Model have

been widely used to highlight the different social psychological variables that might influence

English FL/L2 learner‟s achievement. Particularly the motivational variables, which have been

11
demonstrated as having a role in facilitating FL/L2 learning. Additionally, researchers have

postulated that motivation influences directly how often students use L2 learning.

2. Chapter Two: Motivation and Language Learning

Introduction

This chapter briefly discusses the relationship between motivation and language learning in

relation to (with) the learning environment, taking into consideration the effect of the

concept on the learners' skills achievement in in-person climate.

2.1. Online Learning (ONL)

Technology and the rapidly modifying world forces for the change that led to the

explosion of the new interest in ONL. In recent years it has a significant role in the student

high education environment, in a sense that, E-learning challenges the traditional methods of

training and learning, also provides new solutions for many problems, for example. ''E-

learning can be understood as an educational process, using information and communication

technologies to create training, to distribute learning content, communication between

students and teachers and for management of studies‟‟(Wagner,2005).

2.2. In-person Learning

12
 Face to face learning is more traditional way of learning where students and teachers attend

an in-person session at the same time. Qureshi (2019) and Miles et al. (2018) contended that

F2F is a teaching/learning method that enhances the teaching/learning process through

interpersonal contact, it is the more traditional type of learning instruction and it involves the

transmission of information from the lecturer to the students (Bandara and Wijekularathna,

2017).

2.3. Motivation, the learning environment and the learner

2.3.1. Motivation to learn

Promoting learning motivation is one of the main principles for efficient education (Kim

&W. Frick, 2011). The studies have shown that there is a direct relationship between

motivation and efficacy of students in learning. The study suggested several strategies for

teachers that can be very useful in increasing language learners' external motivation and

creating a positive attitude among them towards language learning. Some of them include

creating a friendly atmosphere in the classroom, providing students with a learner-centered,

low-anxiety classroom environment; provide opportunities for students to feel a sense of

accomplishment. Adding to that, encourage students to establish their own short-term

objectives. Motivation to learn reveals that a student desires to take part in, and learn from, a

training activity (Garavan et al., 2010).

2.3.2. Motivation and online education

Paris and Turner (1994) describe motivation as '…theengineof learning‟ (p. 217).

„Motivation can influence what we learn, how we learn and when we choose to learn‟ (Schunk

and Usher, 2012), „given the important reciprocal relationship between motivation and

13
learning‟ (Brophy 2010), „It is not surprising that motivation has been actively researched

across a wide range of traditional educational settings‟ (Schunk et al. 2014). Despite this,

studies that explore motivation to learn in online contexts are limited in both number and scope,

as others have noted (Bekele 2010). The biggest challenge in online education is motivation

itself, and how to keep students engaged and motivated is common across grade levels, subject,

matter, and all types of courses. Also, anxiety, which is an emotional state in online education

affecting students‟ performance. Furthermore, promoting extrinsic motivation in online learning

is a key factor in the learner's performance. Many educators believe that eventually extrinsic

rewards lead to intrinsic motivation. Showing learners, the importance of online education in

their learning performance and progress, and providing them with a diploma or certificate after

online training. Also, offering positive feedback in public will catch their interest and make

them actively participate in their online training.

2.4. Motivation and in Person Classroom/ Face to face Education

A. The Reading Skill and Motivation

There are many definitions of reading depending on the standing point from where we look.

Baudoin et al. (1994) define reading as follows:

Reading is a complex activity that involves both word recognition, the

process of perceiving how written symbols correspond to one's spoken

language; and comprehension, the process of making sense of words,

sentences and connected paragraphs (Baudoin et al., 1994, p.i).

Guthrie and Wigfield (2000), on the other hand, defined reading motivation, as “…the

individual's personal goals, values, and beliefs with regard to the topics, processes, and

outcomes of reading” (p.405). By this definition, we can say that the individual motivation is

14
under the individuals „control because it is determined by his beliefs values and goals .the

definition also hint that motivation is a complex in which there are deferent aspects of the term.

B. The Writing Skill and Motivation

Foreign language learners attempt to reach certain goals, one of the main goals is

learning to write the language. Academic writing recognized as one of the most crucial aspects

of language academic achievement. It is also considered as the most difficult skill for EFL

students. Since it is a productive skill. The studies, which investigated the relationship between

motivation and writing ability, revealed that motivation especially the intrinsic plays a role in

the writing process.

C. The Listening Skill and Motivation

Listening is the basis of communication in any language. Motivation is one important

element that is influencing students' achievement, and when a student is learning listening

comprehension he/she must be stimulated‟‟. Littlewood, (1984) stated that „„motivation is the

crucial force which determines whether the listener embarks on a task at all‟‟. Listening

learning process needs motivation in order to improve and support the skill.

D. Student Motivation in Speaking

Speaking is the oldest and universal way for human being to express their thought and

feeling (Widdowson, 1998: 5). Motivation is the most important concept to consider when it

comes to learning to speak a language. It is the extent to which a communicator is drawn

towards or pushed away from communicating competently in a given context (Morale, et al,

2001: 38). For speaking, it is critical to first, demonstrate competence and then efficiency.

15
Motivation to speak is the degree to which a communicator is attracted to or pushed away from

speaking competently in a given subject.

2.5. Research on Motivation in L2

Motivation or the desire to learn is the most used concept in explaining the success of a

language learning. Second language (L2) refers to a language that is not the mother tongue of

the learner. Research on L2 motivation was conducted in Canada by psychologists Gardner

(1985) who stated that L2 learners with positive attitudes toward the target culture and people

will learn the target language more effectively than those who do not have such positive

attitudes. In their earlier studies, Gardner and Lambert (1959) found that the two factors most

strongly associated with learners‟ L2 achievement were aptitude and motivation. Gardner and

MacIntyre (1993) drew together the findings from many studies and developed Gardner‟s

“socio-educational model of SLA”. Motivation in this model is defined as the extent to which

the individual works or strives to learn the language because of a desire to learn the language

and the satisfaction experienced in this activity. A “motivated learner” is, therefore, defined as

one who is: (a) eager to learn the language, (b) willing to expend effort on the learning activity,

and (c) willing to sustain the learning activity (Gardner, 1985, p. 10).

Obeidat (2005) conducted a study to investigate Malaysian students' attitudes and

motivation toward Arabic, as well as the impact it has on their first language and cultural

identity their attitudes toward the Arabic course. A questionnaire comprises 38 items has been

distributed to 105 students from two different universities in the first, second, third, and fourth

academic year. The findings showed that; students are more interactively inspired to learn

Arabic as a second language. There were no major variations in the students' responses to the

two motivating dimensions related to sex, parents, Arabic proficiency, and level of study.

However, they did show gratitude for the Arabic classes.

16
 In another study, Mun (2004) investigated the relationship between learners‟ English

language proficiency and their motivational intensity and motivational orientation among

Malaysian undergraduate students at UTM University.Data obtained from a bilingual

questionnaire survey showed that learners' willingness to learn English is normal, with no

substantial variations between high, medium, and low English proficiency learners. The

findings have revealed that learners were motivated to learn the language through instrumental

encouragement at all three proficiency levels.

2.6. Motivation in ELL

English language has become one of the world‟s most spoken languages. As stated by

Bernaus (2005), numerous countries across the globe, which have their own languages, have

made the English language their second language. According to Asmah (1982) cited in Mun

(2004), English which is the “second most Language” and serves as a tool of getting

technological information (111). Its significance as a global lingua franca has always been a

major motivator in the learning and use of the language throughout the world, particularly as a

means of gaining information in science and technology. Learning English as a se foreign

language is closely related to the importance of motivation and attitude in ensuring good

language acquisition. As argued by Pit Corder, “given motivation, it is inevitable that a human

being will learn a second language if he is exposed to the language data” (Dornyei & Ushioda,

2009, 1). This argument was made four decades ago, and since then, various studies and

research have arisen to investigate the multifaceted existence of motivation and its effect on

foreign language learning.

17
 Motivation has been the focus of many studies. Researchers have often stressed its role

in learning a second language since it is a major factor determining the success and degree of

second language mastery.

In his study of advanced German students of English enrolled at England‟s University of

Reading, Lennon (1993) sees motivation as “the most important single factor influencing

continuing development in oral proficiency” (p. 41).

2.7. Conclusion

Motivation plays an essential factor in the student achievement in foreign language learning

in which directs behavior toward particular goals in order to achieve a particular climate or

environment. Motivation help in self-development of individual. If an individual is motivated,

he will have a task satisfy and achieve his personnel goals.

3. Chapter Three: case study of first year student of

English at the University Adrar

Introduction

This chapter describes the research methods that will be included in this study. The third

chapter is divided into four parts: research design, research participants, equipment, data

gathering, and data analysis. Adding to that the findings and results of the questionnaire.

3.1. Research Methodology

3.1.1. Research setting and participants

The study will be carried out at Department of English Language at the University of

Adrar. Thirty students of first year are targeted as participant, the received number is only
18
21.Their age ranges from 18-36 years old, the reason why we chose participants from this

population is their experience in ONL for the first time in the university as a new technique of

learning after years of the traditional one in the other stages.

3.1.2. Research design

This study uses a quantitative design, which is based on a statistical analysis of

questionnaire results to compare student‟s motivation of English language learning in online vs.

in-person in English department, University of Adrar.„„In this design, the researchers do not

attempt to control or manipulate the variables as in an experiment; instead they relate, using the

correlation statistic, two or more scores for each individual‟‟(Cresswell, 2008).

3.1.3. Instrument

Data collection will be done through a questionnaire, which comprises mainly one section

for measuring student‟s motivation in online vs. in-person learning. It was conducted on Google

forms i.e. participants will respond online.

3.1.4. Data collection and Analysis

The data will be gathered during the second semester of the academic year 2020/2021, in

the first week of May 2021. Online responses for will be organized in a form of chart for

multiple-choice questions. Whereas other data are used as illustrations in the discussion section.

3.2. Findings and discussion

3.2.1. Analysis of the questionnaire

Question 1: How do you describe your level in English?

19
 How do you describe your level in English?
16
14
12
10
8
14 Total
6
4 7
2
1
0
advanced begginer intermediate

Chart 1 : The results obtained from the questionnaire about the student‟s level in English language

The analysis shows that (63%) student‟s level are beginner, while (32%) of them are

intermediate. In contrast, only one participant has an advanced level in English language.

The participant is able to express simple sentences and participate in short conversation or

hesitate in classroom interactions to.

Statement 1: The reason behind choosing the English language to learned

Chart 2 : The results of the questionnaire concerning learning English because it is the language of the world

20
 The chart shows that (64.7%) of the participant want to learn English because it‟s the

language of the world, while others are against the statement „I am learning English because

it is the language of the world‟ the participants strongly agreed that they love languages

especially the English language which is their favorite one. The participant used to learn the

English language because it is the most spoken by majority of population, and understood in

almost every region in the world, while others choose to learn the English language only to

satisfy their tendencies for this language.

Chart 3 : Concern about having good grades rather than improving my level in English

The analysis shows that 57.1% of participant are concerned about having good grades only,

while other participant firmly stated that they would improve their English level by making

more efforts while learning English language. This means that the participant made it a priority

to put in the effort and work hard in order to get good grades, which is helpful in motivating

student to do their best to have good grades.

Question 2: Are you with or against online learning?

21
 Are you with or against online learning?
20
15
10
5
0
against against because we are I won't say against, With With and against
not America because sometimes it's
the only way

Chart 4 : With or against online learning

The chart introduces that 77 % of the participant are against online learning, while 9% of them

are with the new technology in education. Online learning technique is a technological

capability that facilitate the learning process, but the challenges affect the learner‟s attitude

toward the provided technique. The negative interactions with student provide a quick

challenge to solve the technical issues

Question 3: Do you have access to a device for learning online?

no
5; 23%
5; 23%
1; 4%
no, i don't have ;y
11; 50% personal device and
I share with others

Chart 5 : Having access to a device for learning online

The results show that 50% of the participants have access to a digital device for online learning,

while 23 % of them introduce that they are facing problems in using it. Twenty-three present of

the participant do not have any personnel device and they share with others only. Having access

to a device play a role in increase or decrease the student opportunity to learn online and so

affect their online learning motivation.

Question4: What device do you use?

22
 what device do you use? 19

2
1

desktop laptop smartphone

Chart 6 : Device you use

Based on the results below, 86% of the participants use a smartphone because they are

affordable and accessible in online learning. While 9 % of them are using a laptop instead and

only one participant is using a desktop computer in his/her online, learning and no one use the

tablet as a device in his learning process. Using the previous device provides easy access on the

internet everywhere that is needed in online learning and helpful in different purposes.

Question 5: How effective have online classes been for you?

how effective have online classes been for you?

41% moderately effective

59% not at all effective

Chart 7 : Efficiency of online learning classes

The graph shows that online classes are not that efficient for learning English, more than

half of the participant (59%) claimed that online learning is not at all effective. while the others

agreed that it is moderately effective in learning. In online learning, there is no face to-face

23
communication that provides more opportunities in learning, adding to that the problem of the

internet and the bad conditions especially lack of devices, which affect the learning efficiency.

Question 06: What modules do you prefer to learn in-person? For what reason.

The analysis of the data shows that the preferable modules to study in-person are varied

from one participant to the other. Fifty-four percent of the learners agreed that all the modules

are preferred to learn in-person because it is clear and easy to understand, also prefer the in

person learning in which they become more active, adding to that it is more effective instead of

online learning in which some modules are hard to study. While others prefer the study of text,

for the sake that it is nice and enjoyable in addition it is not complicated. The other participants

prefer oral expression and phonetics only because they prefer their teachers. Nine percent of the

participant choose grammar for the cause that this module is easy to deal with. The other

participant choose history, written and oral expression only because they like them and easy to

gathered.

Chart 8 : Preferable modules to learn in-person

Question 7: What module do you prefer to learn online?

24
 Chart 9 : Preferable modules to learn online

Based on the results fifty-six percent of the participant are against the online learning,

they do not prefer any module to be learned in this environment.one of the biggest problems

with online learning is the struggle with the internet and the bad conditions and low quality. No

face-to-face interaction that is needed in some modules. 37.5% of the participants choose the

oral expression, which is clear and easy to understand in such environment. Others said written

expression and social sciences, also French and literature. Such modules are easy to gather only

by listening without participating and not essential. Learning environment serves as affecting

role in learning process and learner‟s achievement. A positive environment acquire higher

motivation and vice versa in learning. The learning climate perceived as affective changeable in

student motivation.

Statement 2: You enjoy your learning experience: In regular classes /In online classes/both

25
 you enjoy your learning experience
18

16

14

12

10
Total 17
8

4
5
2

0
I enjoy both in regular classes

Chart 10 : Enjoying your learning experience in regular classes, in online classes, in both

Based on the histogram(77 %) of the participant enjoy the learning experience in regular

classes while others agreed that the two experiences online learning and in-person are enjoyable

in learning the English language. In in-person classes learners use activities that makes learning

experience fun. Students in such environment are more willing to participate and retain

information in a good way better than in online learning classes.

Statement 3: It was easy to understand the course content: In-person/ online /both classes

The remarkable from these results is that (81%) of the participant understand the course

content in-person instead of online learning, while others assumed that the course content is

understood in both in-person and online environment. No one believes that the course content is

understood in online environment. Student in classroom receive better training with the

understanding and detail explanation provides the missing items.

26
 It was easy to understand the course content
ideas
20 18

15

10
Total
4
5

0
both in-person

Chart 11 : Easy to understand the course content ideas

Statement 4: Technology motivates students to learn on their own.

technology motivates students to learn on their own

20 16
15
10 6 Total
5
0
no yes

Chart 12 : Technology motivates students to learn on their own

The graph shows that 73.7 % of the participant said yes to the idea that technology play a

role in motivating students to learn on their own, the other participants are against it.

Technology allows them to access the internet, using their smartphones, find dozens of

information about anything immediately. Learning progress, in this case, counts on the amount

of intrinsic motivation they have.

Statement 5/6: I focus more effectively on my learning tasks with the assistance of my

Teacher, around my classmates/I focus more effectively on my learning tasks while studying

alone at home

27
The analysis shows that (89 %) of the participants agree that effective learning happens in class,

with the assistance of the teacher, around their classmates. The other participants disagreed.

Learners are not in charge of their own activities and learning process with autonomy. They do

not hold the power or right to regulate their tasks and evaluate their effort. Sixty-four percent of

the learners assumed that they focus more effectively on their learning alone at home while 36

% of the participant disagree. Learners have primary responsibility for their learning and

developing self-regulated. They are able to reflect upon their learning process and ability to be

motivated and independent, in other words autonomous.

I focus more effectively on i focus more effectivelly

my learning tasks with the on my learning tasks at
assistance of my teacher home
,around my classmates.
11%

36% agree
agree
Disagree
Disagree 64%
89%

Chart 13 : Focusing more effectively on my learning tasks with the assistance of my teacher around my
classmates.

Chart14 : Focusing more effectively on my learning tasks at home

Statement 7/8: Face to face, contact with my instructor is necessary for learning/ I felt in

control of my learning process in face-to-face course.

28
 face to face contact with my I felt in control of my
instructor is necessary for learning process in face to
learning face course.

20
2; 9%
No

yes

2
20;
NO YES
91%

Chart 15 : Face-to-face contact with my instructor is necessary for learning/

Chart 16 : felling in control of my learning process in face-to-face course

The analysis shows that 91% of the participant agree on the statement „face to face,

contact with my instructor is necessary for learning‟ while others are against the idea. We can

agree that face 2 face contact is necessary for learning. Yet, sometimes the learning

environment is inappropriate, classes are crowded; the teacher is incompetent, so learners

prefer taking control of their learning without interference of teachers. Ninety-one percent of

the student are felt in control of their learning process in face-to-face course while 9% of

them are not. Face to face course allow harder concentration on the student learning because

there will be less distraction. In addition, this environment offered real-world examples with

teacher and classmates that provides better understanding and access more information.

Statement 9: English skills can be better improved in E-Learning environment.

29
 Based on the results, 54 % of the participants believe that English skills perhaps can be

better improved in E-learning environment. Thirty-two percent believe that English skills in

such environment are better improved while 14 % of them do not agreed on the statement. E -

learning course might require extensive knowledge to develop learning skills sets in order to

remain competitive in your field, and facilitate your learning process.

3; 14%
7; 32%

12; 54%

No
English skills can be better perhaps

improved in e-learning yes

environment
Chart 17 : English skills can be better improved in E-learning environment

Statement 10: I try to improve my listening and speaking skills by communicating online

with English language speakers.

yes

sometimes

never

0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Chart 18 : improving listening and speaking by communicating online with English language speakers

The analysis shows that 50 % of the Participant sometimes try to improve their listening

and speaking skills by communicating online with English language speakers, whereas, others

do communicate online with English speakers to improve their listening and speaking skills.

While only 4.5% of them are against, they never try to communicate online in English

language in order to improve their listening and speaking skills . Trying to communicate
30
online is one of the interactive activities that are designed for use to help you practice and

improve your listening and speaking skills. The force to do such is a self-motivation or a

personal drive to achieve and take up opportunities to meet goals.

Question 8: Have you ever enrolled in an English language school to improve your

level?

10; 45% No
12; 55% yes

Chart 19 : enrolling in an English language school to improve your level in English

The graph shows that 55 % of the participant have never enrolled in an English language

school to improve their level in English, while others did. Enrolling in an English language

school is a simple way or specific tool that will help you to improve your level in English and

your motivation to learn and show commitment to what you want to achieve.

Question 9: Have you ever taken an online course (on EDX/ Coursera/ Edrak) to improve

your English language skills?

Have you ever taken an online course (on EDX/ Coursera/

Edrak) to Improve your English language skills?
15 13

10 9

5 Total

0
No yes
Chart 20 : taken an online course to improve your English language skills

31
 Based on the results in the histogram 59% of the participant have not taken an online

course to improve their English skills, while 41% of them did. The participant are not

focusing on improving their abilities in the four different skill areas. Instead, their essential

focus in learning is only graduation.

Statement 11: When you want to improve your level in English, you would

when you want to improve your level in English, you would ...

5; 23%
enroll in a language school

2; 9%
find an online course of English

15; 68% learn on your own in a flexible

manner

Chart 21 : steps in improving your level in English

The analysis shows that 68 % of the participant assumed that they learn on their own in

a flexible manner in order to improve their level in English. While 23% of choose to enrol in a

language school, .the last participant agreed that they would find an online course in order to

improve their English level. Engaging in a behaviour or tasks feel a sense of choice and interest

and satisfaction, in other words the individual autonomous in learning that provides self-

motivation, which is important successful level improvement.

32
 3.3. Results

Motivation is a crucial factor in learning because motivation encourages students during

learning FL process. In the current study, the results indicate that student hade some motivation

to learn English language, since the majority of replies showed a desire to learn English

because it is the language of the world and to secure good grades. Students have positive

attitudes towards learning English at university. While comparing their learning environments

we come across two different climates in which the learning efficiency varied the replies

showed that student are against online learning for them it is not at all affective. It includes

learning over the internet, and having access to a device, which is not available for majority of

the learners, courses require more time and conditions. While the in-person learning is more

enjoyable and effective for learners. Course content better required and achieved. Besides that,

online learning requires strong self-motivation. The student would learn on their own to

improve their level in English or enrolled in an English language school. They expressed a

significant intention to learn English outside the classroom. When students have a sense of

control over their learning, they improve their autonomous motivation, which plays a

significant role in the student achievement, successes and development. The learning

environment based on the perspective of many affect the learner‟s improvement. Online and in-

person learning climates challenges influence the learning progress. According to the analysis,

the most common challenge is lack of face-to-face engagement in online learning, which is,

needed in addition the bad conditions that provides bad reputation. In addition, attention

difficulties, and keeping learners motivated. While in person, learning is more controlled,

isolated learners, anxiety associated with using technology challenge the learner‟s development

and opportunities for the way student delivered learning and success.

33
 3.4. General Conclusion

Motivation is a critical part in language learning success and real life, precisely in improving

skills. The current study investigated the student motivation in online compared to in-person

learning at the university of Adrar in doing so the socio-educational model of Gardner (1985)

and the Socio-cognitive models of motivation was developed for further understanding.

Based on the findings of this study, motivation play an essential role in online and in-person

foreign language learning, students are somewhat motivated to learn in-person instead of

online, the challenges in using the online strategy affect the learners' attitude toward such

climate in learning EFL. The second conclusion that learners would learn in their own at home I

order to improve their level in English language. That is to say, their autonomous motivation

would be improved if they control their self-directed. While some students are more satisfied

and motivated with the use of online learning as a way of teaching, others are less comfort, they

improve their engagement in face to face training and provide affective learning experience.

One of the limitations of the research is the small sample size with only 30-selected

participant it may not be representative for all the ELL in Adrar. we faced difficulty collecting

the questionnaire copies, and the students were uncooperative. A bigger sample of students may

need to be studied in the future to ensure the study's consistency. The survey was only

conducted at one university; however, for additional research, other universities from other

regions of the area might be included.

The current study's data gathering tool was mainly a survey questionnaire, which allows

researchers to deal with a big number of participants. However, due to the complexities of both

motivation and English language acquisition, it is advised that future researchers use a variety

of data collection methods, such as observation or oral interviews. This can aid researchers in

34
fully comprehending the complexities of motivation and the language acquisition process.

Researchers can develop a greater understanding of the correlation between the two by using

direct questions and observations. Furthermore, the strategy allows researchers to investigate

motivation in a given context or skill achievement.

35
 References

Brown, H. D. (1973). Affective variables in second language acquisition. Language Learning.

Clement, R, Gardner, R. C., & Smythe, P. C. (1980). Social and individual factors in second language

acquisition. Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science assistants' willingness to communicate in

the language classroom.

Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: Advances in theory,

research, and applications. Language Learning.

Elias, H., Mustaf, S. M. S., Roslan, S., & Noah, S. M. (2011). Motivational predictors of academic

performance in end year examination. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences, 29, 1179-

1188.

Filgona, Jacob &Sakiyo, John &Gwany, D &Okoronka, Augustine. (2020). Motivation in Learning.

Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies.

Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and

motivation.

Gardner, R. C. (2000). Correlation, causation, motivation, and second language acquisition.

Gardner, R. C., & Lambert, W. E. (1959). Motivational variables in second language acquisition.

Goctu, R. (2016). The Effects of Motivation on Listening Skills of ELT Students in Georgia (IBSU

Case). International Journal of English Language, Literature and Humanities, 4(5), 65-79

36
Harandi, S. R. (2015). Effects of e learning on Students‟ Motivation. Procedia-Social and Behavioral

Sciences, 181, 423-430.

Ihsan, M. D. (2016). Students‟ motivation in speaking English. JEES (Journal of English Educators

Society), 1(1).

Julien, G., &Dookwah, R. (2020). Students' Transition from Face to Face Learning to Online Learning

at Higher Education: A Case Study in Trinidad and Tobago. Educational Research and

Reviews, 15(8), 487-494.

Kember, D. (2016). Understanding the nature of motivation and motivating students through teaching

and learning in higher education.

Masgoret, A. M. & Gardner, R.C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: A

meta-analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. Language Learning, 53, 123-163

Miller, M. D. (2016). Minds Online: Teaching Effectively with Technology (Reprint ed.). Harvard

University Press.

Obeidat, M. M. (2005). "Attitudes and Motivation in second language learning»

Abdalah, o. (2016). Motivation and Willingness to Communicate Orally. adrar, english department.

Retrieved from http://www.univ-adrar.dz/:8080/xmlui/handle/123456789/2753

37
 The questionnaire

Motivation in online vs. in-person learning

This questionnaire is part of a research work to obtain information needed for the

accomplishment of a Master dissertation .It aims to collect information about student's

motivation, attitudes and challenges towards E-Learning and to face-to-face learning.

Therefore, you are kindly requested to answer the following questions by putting a tick on the

answer you think it best describes you.

Thank you for your cooperation. *Obligatoire

1. Are you: *

Une seule réponse possible.

Male

Female

2. your age: *

3. How do you describe your level in English? *

Une seule réponse possible.

38
 Beginner

Intermediate

Advanced

4. I am learning English because it is the language of the world *

Une seule réponse possible.

Yes

No

Autre:

5. I am concerned about having good grades rather than improving my level in English *

Une seule réponse possible.

Yes

No

Autre:

6. Are you with or against online learning? *

7. do you have access to a device for learning online? *

Une seuleréponse possible.

Yes
Yes, but it doesn't work well
No
No, i do not have; y personal device and I share with others

39
8. What device do you use? *

Une seule réponse possible.

Laptop

Tablet

Smartphone

Desktop

9. How effective have online classes been for you? *

Une seule réponse possible.

Not at all effective

Moderately effective

Very effective

10. What modules do you prefer to learn in-person? *

11. for what reason ?*

12. What modules do you prefer to learn online? *

40
13. For what reason?*

14. you enjoy your learning experience in: *

Une seule réponse possible.

In regular

Online classes

I enjoy both

15. It was easy to understand the course content ideas *

Une seule réponse possible.

Inperson
Online
Both

16. technology motivates students to learn on their own *

Une seule réponse possible.

Yes

No

17. I focus more effectively on my learning tasks with the assistance of my teacher, around my
classmates. *
41
 Une seule réponse possible.

Agree

Disagree

Option 3

18. I focus more effectively on my learning tasks while studying alone at home. *

Une seule réponse possible.

Agree

Disagree

19. face to face contact with my instructor is necessary for learning *

Une seule réponse possible.

Yes

no

20. I felt in control of my learning process in face-to-face course. *

Une seule réponse possible.

Yes

No

21. English skills can be better improved in E-Learning environment. *

Une seule réponse possible.

Yes

No

Perhaps
42
22. I try to improve my listening and speaking skills by communicating online with English
language speakers *

Une seule réponse possible.

Yes

Sometimes

Never

23. Have you ever enrolled in an English language school to improve your level? *

Une seule réponse possible.

Yes

No

24. Have you ever taken an online course (on EDX/ Coursera/ Edrak) to improve your English
language skills? * Une seule réponse possible.

Yes

No

25. When you want to improve your level in English, you would ... * Une seule réponse
possible.

Enroll in a language school

Find an online course of English

Learn on your own in a flexible manner

Ce contenu n'est ni rédigé, ni cautionné par Google.

43
Forms

44