EXPERIMENT NO 1

STUDY OF VARIOUS ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

Objective / Aim:-
To study basic electronic components such as Resistor, capacitors, Inductor, diodes,
transistors, integrated circuits (IC), switches, power supply.

Apparatus Required :- Various electronic components such as Resistor, capacitors, Inductor,

diodes, transistors, integrated circuits (IC), switches, power supply.

Theory:-

Resistors:-
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the
voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law. A
device used in electrical circuits to maintain a constant relation between current flow and
voltage. Resistors are used to step up or lower the voltage at different points in a circuit and
to transform a current signal into a voltage signal or vice versa, among other uses. The
electrical behaviour of a resistor obeys Ohm's law for a constant resistance; however, some
resistors are sensitive to heat, light, or other variables.
Resistors are one of the most used components in a circuit. Most are color coded, but
some have their value in Ohms and their tolerance printed on them. A multimeter that can
check resistance can also be helpful, providing the resistor is already removed from the board
(measuring it while still soldered in can give inaccurate results, due to connections with the
rest of the circuit). They are typically marked with an “R” on a circuit board.

POTENTIOMETERS
Potentiometers are variable resistors. They normally have their value marked with the
maximum value in Ohms. Smaller trimpots may use a 3-digit code where the first 2 digits are
significant, and the 3rd is the multiplier (basically the number of 0′s after the first 2 digits).
For example, code 104 = 10 followed by four 0′s = 100000 Ohms = 100K Ohms. They may
also have a letter code on them indicating the taper (which is how resistance changes in
relation to how far the potentiometer is turned). They are typically marked with an “VR” on a
circuit board.
CAPACITORS
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries
store energy via chemical reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values printed on them,
some are marked with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources listed
above for resistors can also help you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked
with an “C” on a circuit board.

INDUCTORS

An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical

component which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a
conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy
is stored in a magnetic field in the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor
changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in
current that created it.

Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values. If they are color
coded, the resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can measure
inductance will be needed. They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board.

TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling
between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the
secondary winding. This varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf)
or voltage in the secondary winding.
Transformers are normally pretty easy to identify by sight, and many have their specs printed
on them. They are typically marked with an “T” on a circuit board.

SEMICONDUCTORS

DIODES
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric
conductance, it has low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other.

Semiconductors, such as Diodes (typically marked with an “D” on a circuit board).

TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals
and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals
for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are
found embedded in integrated circuits.

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip,
or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor
material, normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from
independent components. Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment
today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other
digital home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made
possible by the low cost of producing integrated circuits.
SWITCHES
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an
electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The
most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or
more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts
can be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity
can flow between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is
nonconducting.
RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal.

Relays are typically enclosed in plastic, and many have their specs printed on them. They are
typically marked with a “K” on a circuit board.
 A1. Determining Resistor values
Resistor Colour Codes

1st digit Tolerance

2nd digit Multiplier (no. of zeros,

following 2nd digit)

Colour Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4

Black 0 0 ×1 –

Brown 1 1 ×10 1%

Red 2 2 ×100 2%

Orange 3 3 ×1000 –

Yellow 4 4 ×10000 –

Green 5 5 ×100000 0.5%

Blue 6 6 ×1000000 0.25%

Violet 7 7 ×10000000 0.1%

Grey 8 8 – –

White 9 9 – –

Gold – – ×0.1 5%

Silver – – ×0.01 10%

S. No. Colour Code Calculated Value Measured Value

Resistance measurement
Procedure
1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with ‘ ’
2. Set function to resistance measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
4. Connect the two probes’ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via jumperwires)
to make measurement
5. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
6. Take the more accurate reading.

Determine the value for the given data

Measured Value
No. Colour code Actual Value
(DMM)
1 Red, red, black

2 Red, black, orange

3 Blue, gray, green

4 10M

5 33K

A2. Determining capacitor values

Code Tolerance
C ±0.25pF
J ±5%
K ±10%
M ±20%
D ±0.5pF
 Z 80% / -20%

No. Code Number Actual Value

1 104

2 223

3 68

Result:
 EXPERIMENT No-2
Objective / Aim:-
To study measuring equipment like CRO, Function Generator and Digital multimeter and
measure voltage, frequency, and resistance.

Apparatus Required :- CRO, Function generator, Digital Multimeter, Probe,

Theory:-
An outline explanation of how an oscilloscope works can be given using the block
diagram shown below.

Fig. 1: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

Like a television screen, the screen of an oscilloscope consists of a Cathode Ray Tube. Although the
size and shape are different, the operating principle is the same.
The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode; anode, grid, X&Y-plates, and a
fluorescent screen. When the cathode is heated (by applying a small potential difference across its
terminals), it emits electrons. Having a potential difference between the cathode and the anode
(electrodes), accelerate the emitted electronstowards the anode, forming an electron beam, which passes
to fall on the screen.
When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is produced. The grid,
which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons passing through it thereby
controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y- plates are responsible for deflecting the
electron beam horizontally and vertically.
A sweep generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot Horizontally across the
screen and repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the signal. The voltage to be studied is
applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and Y voltages produce a graph showing the variation
of voltage with time.

Procedure: -

1. Turn on the Oscilloscope

2. Adjust the intensity and the focus of the trace.
3. Use the X & Y knobs to center the trace horizontally and vertically.
4. Connect the cable from Ch1 of the CRO to Function generator.
5. A signal will appear on the screen.
6. Make sure that the inner red knobs of the Volt/Div and the Time/Div are locked
clockwise.
7. Set the frequency of the generator to 100 Hz.
8. Adjust the Volt/Div and the Time/Div knobs so that you get a suitable size signal
9. Count the number of vertical squares lying within the signal, then calculate the peak to peak
value as:

Vp-p = No. vertical Div * Volt/Divs

 10. Count the number of horizontal squares lying within the one Duty Cycle, thencalculate time
value as:

Time = No.Horizontal Div * Time/Divs

11.Calculate the Frequency of signal by using the formula:

Freq = 1 /Time

Function Generator
A function generator is electronic test equipment used to generate different types of waveforms over a
wide range of frequencies. Function generators are capable of producing a variety of repetitive
waveforms, generally from the list below
Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standardsine wave
output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with astandard sinusoidal shape.

Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator toproduce. It
consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.
 Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator. It is
effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to1:1.

Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearlymoves between a
high and low point.

Saw tooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the waveform faster
or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a saw tooth.

These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot Function generators are used in thedevelopment,
test and repair of electronic equipment.
Types of Function Generator

PROCEDURE
1. Turn on the oscilloscope
2. Connect the function generator to one vertical channel of the oscilloscope using BNC
Connector
3. Select the type of wave form by pressing Function control button.
4. Set the waveform at desired frequency by adjusting Frequency variable control button.
5. Now adjust the amplitude control of the function generator to establish a 4 V peak-to-peak
(p-p)
 sinusoidal waveform on the screen.

Function Generator connected

Knobs Control Name Functions

Number
1 Power Push button switch to power ON the instrument.
2 LCD Display 20 x 4 Character bright back lit Liquid Crystal Display.
3 Frequency Used for selection of frequency range step by step.
Used for selection of Particular waveform. A total number of 6
different waveforms :
 Sine
4 Function  Square
 Triangle
 Ramp
 Pulse
 TTL are available.
5 Modulation Used for selection of Frequency Modulation.
6 Attenuation Used for Selection of 20dB or 40dB attenuation
7 Menu Used for selection of Function Generator/Frequency counter
mode.
8 Duty Cycle When pulse output function is selected, this controls the pulse
duty cycle from 15% to 85%.
9 Frequency In conjunction with frequency range, selected by frequency key
Variable on front Panel.
10 Amplitude In conjunction with attenuators (6), this varies the level of output.
Variable
This control provides DC offset. Approximately ±5VDC is
11 DC Offset superimposed on the output. Keep the control off if DC offset is
not required.
12 Output (BNC Output of 10 MHz function generator i.e. 20Vpp (Open Circuit)
connector)
External Input BNC connector for measuring the frequency of external
13 Counter (BNC signal when External Counter mode is selected by
Connector) Menu key on the LCD display.

14 Modulation Maximum modulation Input i.e. 2Vpp.

Input
Observations: -
 (A) Digital multimeter

Description Value
Measurement of line voltage (ac)
Measurement of resistance
Measurement of continuity

Measurement Using CRO

Description Value
Measurement of voltage
Measurement of Time
Calculated frequency

Function Generator

Set sine wave Hz and display in CRO

Set Triangle/ Square wave and display in CROobservation

Measurement of Voltage Sine wave Squire Wave

Result:-
 Experiment No-3 (a)

AIM: To Study the V-I characteristics of Forward Biased PN junction diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL Name of Component/Equipment Specification/Range Quantity

No
1 Regulated DC power supply 0-30V,1A 1
2 Digital Multimeter 15S 2
PN
3 Diode IN4007 1
4 Resistor 100Ω 1
5 Breadboard - 1
6 Connecting Wire - As per requirements

THEORY:
p-n junction diode Forward characteristic:
If a positive voltage is applied to the p-type side and a negative voltage to the n-type side, current can
flow (depending upon the magnitude of the applied voltage). This configuration is called "Forward
Biased"
At the p-n junction, the "built-in" electric field and the applied electric field are in opposite directions.

When these two fields add, the resultant field at the junction is smaller in magnitude than the
magnitudeof the original "built-in" electric field. This results in a thinner, less resistive depletion
region. If the applied voltage is large enough, the depletion region's resistance becomes negligible. In
silicon, this occurs at about 0.6 volts forward bias. From 0 to 0.6 volts, there is still considerable
resistance due to the depletion region. Above 0.6 volts, the depletion region's resistance is very small
and current flows virtually unimpeded.

Calculation for current limiting resistance:

V
R=
Imax
Where, V = Supply Voltage V,
Imax =Maximum current rating for diode
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
 PROCEDURE:

Forward Biased:

1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Increase voltage from the power supply from 0V to 7V in step as shown in the observation table.
4. Measure voltage across diode and current through diode
5. Note down readings in the observation table.
6. Plot and draw the V-I characteristic of forward bias on the graph.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Forward Biased:
SL.NO Supply Voltage V (Volt) Diode Voltage Vd (Volts) Diode Current Id (mA)
1 0
2 0.1
3 0.2
4 0.3
5 0.4
6 0.5
7 0.6
8 0.7
9 0.8
10 0.9
11 1.0
12 1.2
13 1.3
14 1.4
15 1.5
16 1.6
17 1.7
18 1.8
19 1.9
20 2.0
 Expected Graph:

Result:-

Precautions:-
 EXPERIMENT No-3 (b)
AIM: To Study the Reverse characteristics of Zener diode.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:

SL Name of Component/Equipment Specification/Range Quantity

No
1 Regulated power supply 0-30V,1A 1
2 Digital Multimeter 15S 2
3 Zener diode BZX83-C5V6 1
4 Resistor 1K 1
5 Breadboard - 1
6 Connecting Wire - A per the requirements

THEORY: Zener diodes are designed to operate in the breakdown region without
damage. By the varying the doping level, it is possible to produce Zener diodes
with breakdown voltage form 2V to200V
A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reversed biased. But if th reverse bias is
increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is called
breakdown voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage it. To
avoid high current, we connect a resistor is series with it. Once the diode is starts
conducting, it maintains almost constant voltage across its terminal whatever may be
the current through it. That is, it has very low dynamic resistance. Hence a Zener diode

is a P-N junction diode, specially made to work in the breakdown region. It is mainly
used in voltage regulators.
 Calculation for current limiting resistance:

V
R=
Imax

Where, V = Supply Voltage V,

Imax =Maximum current rating for Zener diode

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:

Reverse Biased:

1. Make connections as per the circuit diagram.

2. Switch on the power supply.
3. Increase voltage from the power supply from 0V to 24 V in step as shown in the
observation table.
4. Measure voltage across diode and current through diode
5. Note down readings in the observation table.
6. Plot and draw the reverse biased characteristic on the graph.

Observation Table
Reverse Biased:
SL.NO Supply Voltage V (Volts) Diode Voltage Vz (Volts) Diode Current Iz (mA)
1 0
2 1
3 2
4 3
5 4
6 5
7 6
 8 7
9 8
10 9
11 10
12 11
13 12
14 13
15 14
16 15
17 16
18 17
19 18
20 19
21 20
22 21
23 22
24 23
25 24

Expected GRAPH:

Result:-

Precautions:-