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10 Basics of Building Materials

The document discusses building materials and their life cycles. It defines building materials and explains their importance for construction. It also describes the three phases of a building material's life cycle: pre-building, building, and post-building phases. The document emphasizes using materials efficiently and reducing environmental impacts throughout the life cycle.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
59 views127 pages

10 Basics of Building Materials

The document discusses building materials and their life cycles. It defines building materials and explains their importance for construction. It also describes the three phases of a building material's life cycle: pre-building, building, and post-building phases. The document emphasizes using materials efficiently and reducing environmental impacts throughout the life cycle.

Uploaded by

harshad
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Moderné vzdelávanie pre vedomostnú spoločnosť/

Projekt je spolufinancovaný zo zdrojov EÚ

BASICS OF BUILDING MATERIALS

Stavebná fakulta

doc. Ing. Alena Sičáková, PhD.


Táto publikácia vznikla za finančnej podpory z Európskeho sociálneho fondu
v rámci Operačného programu VZDELÁVANIE.

Prioritná os 1 Reforma vzdelávania a odbornej prípravy


Opatrenie 1.2 Vysoké školy a výskum a vývoj ako motory rozvoja
vedomostnej spoločnosti.

Názov projektu: Balík prvkov pre skvalitnenie a inováciu vzdelávania na


TUKE

ITMS 2611020070

Názov: Basics of Building Materials


Autor: doc. Ing. Alena Sičáková, PhD.
Vydavateľ: Technická univerzita v Košiciach
Rok: 2015
Vydanie: prvé
Rozsah: 127 strán

Rukopis neprešiel jazykovou úpravou.


Za odbornú a obsahovú stránku zodpovedá autor.
PREFACE

This publication is prepared to support study of Building materials, or other related subjects on Faculty
of Civil Engineering in Košice. The aim is to become familiar with the basic building materials used in
today's buildings.
The first chapter deals with the structure of the building materials. After studying this chapter, students
will be able to identify and describe the types of structures and materials, as well as classify materials
according to the structure.
The second chapter is devoted to the properties of construction materials. It is crucial in the context of
courses at this level of teaching; knowledge of it is applied to knowledge of all kinds of building
materials.
Other chapters then deal with the raw material base for production of building materials (including
secondary raw materials), and then production, properties and applications of standard groups of
building materials.
Learning skills are necessary inputs for the study in all study programs in higher grades.
1 INTRODUCTION

1.1 General aspects of building materials


Material Science is a field of engineering that encompasses the spectrum of materials types and how
to use them in manufacturing. The goal of all materials science is to empower scientists and
engineers to make informed choices about the design, selection and use of materials for specific
applications.

A materials scientist or engineer must:


- understand the properties associated with the various classes of materials
- know why these properties exist and how they may be altered to make a material more
suitable for a given application
- be able to measure important properties of materials and how those properties will impact
performance
- consider the long-term effects of using a material on the environment

Building material (construction material) is a matter with available physical and chemical properties
for building purposes.
Notice:
When you think of building materials, don't confuse yourself with building products. These are two
different things altogether. Building products are things like doors and windows that are made from
different materials to use in the making of supporting structure to a building.

Building materials are the material foundation for all the construction engineering. Building materials
industry is one of the important basic industries of a lot of national economies. The varieties,
specifications and qualities of building materials are directly related to the applicability, artistry and
durability of buildings.

The application of building materials in the projects must possess the following characteristics: the
function (properties) required by projects, the durability proper for the environmental conditions, the
rich resources to meet the needs of construction, and low price. Present formation and development of
material science and engineering had contributed to not only the improvement of building materials in
function and quality, but also the varieties. Some new building materials with special functions came
into being, such as high heat-resistant, corrosion resistant, and impermeable materials. In the second
th
half of 20 century, building materials evolved towards light, high-strength and functional direction. The
most preferred function is presented by durability and long life-time of materials.

As a choice of great variety of materials, builder needs to know their exact technical parameters for
responsible application in construction. They can only be obtained through laboratory or in-situ tests,
performed under specific conditions prescribed by the standards. Testing of materials is therefore an
integral part of research and development phase.
Life-cycle phases and environmental relations of building materials

The path taken by a material from its initial formation until its ultimate disposal is called a life cycle. All
products begin with the harvesting of raw materials, followed by their conservation to products through
a series of manufacturing steps, and ultimately their sale to user. Historically, the goals of a materials
scientist ended here, but the product itself was not finished. After the useful life of a material passes, it
must be recycled, reused, or discarded. The life cycle of a material includes the entire time from the
harvesting of the raw material until the ultimate disposal of product.
These three life-cycle phases relate to the flow of materials through the life of the building:

a) Pre-Building Phase
The Pre-Building Phase describes the production and delivery process of a material up to, but not
including, the point of installation. This includes discovering raw materials in nature as well as
extracting, manufacturing, packaging, and transportation to a building site. This phase has the most
potential for causing environmental damage. Understanding the environmental impacts in the pre-
building phase will lead to the wise selection of building materials. Raw material procurement
methods, the manufacturing process itself, and the distance from the manufacturing location to the
building site all have environmental consequences. An awareness of the origins of building materials
is crucial to an understanding of their collective environmental impact when expressed in the form of a
building.

The basic ingredients for building products, whether for concrete walls or roofing membranes, are
obtained by mining or harvesting natural resources. The extraction of raw materials, whether from
renewable or finite sources, is in itself a source of severe ecological damage. The results of clear-
cutting forests and strip-mining once-pristine landscapes have been well documented.

b) Building Phase
The Building Phase refers to a building material’s useful life. This phase begins at the point of the
material’s assembly into a structure, includes the maintenance and repair of the material, and extends
throughout the life of the material within or as part of the building.

c) Post-Building Phase
The Post-Building Phase refers to the building materials when their usefulness in a building has
expired. At this point, a material may be reused in its entirety, have its components recycled back into
other products, or be discarded. The re-use or recyclation of the materials is more preferred approach,
because of environmental reasons.

Building materials, from their resource extractions through manufacturing, use and disposal have
become a major component of the total human effects on global ecosystems. Because all
manufactured building materials industries are raw material and energy consumers, and produce
some degree of waste, they are important targets worldwide for efficiency improvements and
environmental pollution reductions.

Resource Efficiency can be accomplished by utilizing materials that meet the following criteria:
• Recycled content: Products with identifiable recycled content, including postindustrial content
with a preference for postconsumer content. For production of new building material, it is
possible to use wastes/by-products from different sources, usually divided to:
a) construction and demolition waste (C&DW): recycled concrete aggregate, recycled
masonry aggregate…)
b) waste from other industrial activities and processes (fly-ash, blast furnace slag…)
c) selected municipal waste (glass cullet, plastic debris…)
• Natural, plentiful or renewable: Materials harvested from sustainably managed sources and
preferably have an independent certification (e.g., certified wood).
• Resource efficient manufacturing process: Products manufactured with resource-efficient
processes including reducing energy consumption, minimizing waste (recycled, recyclable and
or source reduced product packaging), and reducing greenhouse gases.
• Locally available: Building materials, components, and systems found locally or regionally
saving energy and resources in transportation to the project site.
• Salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured: Includes saving a material from disposal and
renovating, repairing, restoring, or generally improving the appearance, performance, quality,
functionality, or value of a product.
• Reusable or recyclable: Select materials that can be easily dismantled and reused or
recycled at the end of their useful life.
• Recycled or recyclable product packaging: Products enclosed in recycled content or
recyclable packaging.
• Durable: Materials that are longer lasting or are comparable to conventional products with
long life expectancies.
Difference between „traditional“ and environmental friendly extraction and disposal of materials, using
C&DW, is given in Fig. 1.1

Figure 1.1: Traditional and environmental friendly extraction and disposal of materials
(Source: Green Building Materials. http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/greenbuilding/materials/)
1.2 General classification of building materials
For the sake of better overview, study, application and description, building materials are arranged into
the groups and they are classified from different angles.

Classification according to the chemical components:


• inorganic: metals (steel, iron, aluminium, copper …. and alloys
non-metallic: natural stone, clay, concrete, glass, ceramics
• organic: timber, plastics, rubber …
• combined: concrete with wood dust, polymer concrete

Classification according to the treating level:


• non treated natural and waste raw materials - sand, gravel, clay, slag, fly ash
• treated raw materials – crushed and graded gravel, timber, worked stone
• half-finished materials – lime, gypsum, cement
• composite materials – mortar, concrete
• final materials produced in a factory – ceramic units, glass plates, insulates, plastics…

Classification according to the utilization/function:


• Structural: load-bearing materials
• Functional: fill-in, protective and insulating materials, materials for interior accessories,
materials for installations (water, gas, electric, sewage piping), decorative materials

Classification according to the origin:


• Natural materials or materials produced from natural sources
• Secondary raw materials: re-used by-products, wastes or recycled materials (fly-ash, blast
furnace slag, glass cullet, scrap tyres …)

2 STRUCTURE OF BUILDING MATERIALS

Structure refers to the arrangement of a material's components from an atomic to a macro scale.
Understanding the structure of a substance is a key to understanding the state or condition of a
material, information which is then correlated with the processing of the material in tandem with its
properties. Understanding these relationships is an intrinsic part of materials science engineering, as it
allows engineers to manipulate the properties of a material.

2.1 Matter definition and classification

Matter has many definitions, but the most common is that it is any substance which has mass and
occupies space. All physical objects are composed of matter, in the form of atoms, which are in turn
composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Every possible kind of matter possesses a unique set of intensive properties that distinguishes it from every
other kind of matter. In other words, intensive properties serve to characterize matter.
States of matter: one of the ways in which matter can interact with itself to form a homogeneous phase.
• Solid - a solid has a definite shape and volume
• Liquid - a liquid has a definite volume, but can change shape
• Gas - the shape and volume of a gas can change
Matter may be considered as (see Fig. 2.1):
• Pure substance - usually refers to a sample of matter that has a distinct set of properties that
are common to all other samples of that substance. A pure substance is one whose intensive
properties are the same in any purified sample of that same substance. It can be a element (pure
substance consisting of one type of atom) or compound (pure chemical substance consisting of two
or more different chemical elements that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical
reactions)
• Mixture - in contrast, is composed of two or more substances, and it can exhibit a wide range
of properties depending on the relative amounts of the components present in the mixture. It can be
prepared or separated by physical processes.
− Homogeneous mixture (from the Greek homo = same) – called also single-phase,
can be thought of as being uniform and continuous – it possesses uniform intensive properties
throughout its volume, whereas
− Heterogeneous mixture (hetero = different) - a sample of matter can contain more
than a single phase; it also implies non-uniformity and discontinuity
Notice: Phase is a region of space, throughout which all physical properties of a material are
essentially uniform. A simple description is that a phase is a region of material that is chemically
uniform, physically distinct, and (often) mechanically separable.

Figure 2.1: Classification of matter


(Source: http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/31_matter/matter.html)
2.2 Solid matters
Most of building materials fall to solid state of matter. In the solid phase the molecules are closely bound
to one another by molecular forces. A solid holds its shape and the volume of a solid is fixed by the
shape of the solid. Solids are generally divided into the two classes -crystalline, and noncrystalline
(amorphous). Crystalline solids have a very high degree of order in a periodic atomic arrangement.
Practically all metals and many other minerals, such as common table salt (sodium chloride), belong to
this class. Noncrystalline solids are those in which atoms and molecules are not organized in a definite
lattice pattern. They include glasses, plastics, and gels.
Lot of building materials occurs in the form of both compact mixtures and reinforced
materials – they are formed from distinctly different matters – phases and fall into the group of
composite materials.
A structural composite is a material system consisting of two or more phase on a macroscopic scale,
whose mechanical performance and properties are designed to be superior to those of the constituent
materials acting independently. One of the phases is usually discontinuous, stiffer, and stronger and
is called filler or reinforcement, whereas the less stiff and weaker phase is continuous and is called
binder or matrix (Fig. 2.2). Because of chemical interactions or other processing effects, an additional
phase, called interphase, exists between the reinforcement and the matrix. The process of combining
is a physical practice rather than a chemical one, so the composite materials feature the combined
properties of their ingredient materials.
Phase is a region of matter that possesses uniform intensive properties throughout its volume. A
simple description is that a phase is a region of material that is chemically uniform, physically distinct,
and (often) mechanically separable. It is a homogeneous area of composite material.

Figure 2.2: Phases of a composite material


[Source: ISHAI, O. Engineering Mechanics of Composite Materials.
http://www.globalspec.com/reference/60655/203279/chapter-1-introduction]

Phases of the composite system have different roles that depend on the type and application of the
composite material.
The matrix material surrounds and supports other constituents by keeping their relative positions,
protecting both the reinforcement and whole the composite from environment effects/deterioration; as
well as transferring the loading to reinforcement. The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-
bearing capacity of a composite structure.
Transfer stresses between the fibers:
• provide a barrier against an adverse environment
• protect the surface of the fibers from mechanical abrasion
• determine inter-laminar shear strength
• determine damage tolerance of composites
• determine in-plane shear strength
• determine the processibility of composites
• determine heat resistance of composites

The reinforcement material imparts special physical properties, such as electrical and mechanical, to
improve the matrix properties. It provides some stiffening and strenghtening of the material, as well
as control of cracks rise and development.

Typical reinforcement is of fiber shape and it can be arranged as follows:


− one-way: long fibres, wires, thin bars …
− two-way: plates, sheets, grids, mats
− confining: reinforce scattering in whole volume uniformly – steel or polypropylene short
fibres …
The properties of final composite materials depend on the properties of individual constituents, on their
mutual ratio, their structural arrangement, but on various defects (cracks), too.
Porous materials: materials with pores inside a solid phase. The skeletal portion of the
material is often called the "matrix" or "frame". The pores are typically filled with a fluid (liquid or gas).
All building materials content some amount of pores practically. Many natural substances such as
rocks and soil, biological tissues (e.g. bones, wood, cork), and man made materials such as concretes
and ceramics have to be considered as media having some portion of pores and then their important
properties can only be rationalized by considering them to be porous media.
But, we can mark as porous materials only that ones, where pores work significant part of
microstructure, or where pores are created purposely with the aim of control some properties (see Fig.
2.3).

Figure 2.3: Typical porous building material – aerated concrete


Heterogeneous solid materials may occur in two possible arrangements (see Fig. 2.4):
− Isotropic: Having uniform properties in all orientations. The measured properties of an
isotropic material are independent of the axis of testing.
− Anisotropic: Not isotropic; having mechanical and/or physical properties which vary
systematically, dependent on direction.

Isotropic Anisotropic

Figure 2.4: Isotropic and anisotropic arrangements of solid materials

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. Define homogeneous and heterogeneous mixtures.
2. Define solid matters and microstructure of compact mixes.
3. Define isotropic and anisotropic arrangement of materials.

3 PROPERTIES OF BUILDING MATERIALS

In the civil engineering, building materials play different roles, so they should possess corresponding
properties. For example, structural materials should have good mechanical characteristics; water-
insulating materials should be impermeable and water-resistant; wall material should be heat-
insulating and sound-absorbing. In addition, building materials should be durable, considering actual
environment they are situated. External factors affecting the materials are mainly rain, sun and frost,
but very often also more aggressive media, such as sewage water, or de-icing salts. For assurance of
right function and long life time of building structures, there is necessary to choose the appropriate
materials. It can be done only by the perfect knowledge of their properties.
Every material dispose of various properties, there are mutual relations between them. Changing one
of them means, that change of the other one becomes. Properties of materials strongly depend on
both the chemical composition, and the structure (micro/macro; homogeneity/heterogeneity;
isotropy/anisotropy).
Material properties create also the base for the quality evaluation.
The properties of materials are determined by tests, carried out exactly in accordance with appropriate
standard.
3.1 Physical properties
Outside appearance
This is important mainly for unit type of materials (bricks, linings, precast units…).
Attributes to be evaluated: gloss, colourity, shape regularity, sharpness of edges and corners, surface
roughness, planeness of surphases and accuracy of dimensions.

Density (solid density)

Dry mass per unit volume (without pores and voids, only volume of solid):

ρ=
m
Vs
[
kg.m −3 ] m – the mass [kg]

Vs – the solid volume [m ]


3

Density is typical property of liquids and metals; when find it for majority of solid materials, it is
necessary to eliminate the pores, for example by very fine grinding.

Apparent density
Dry mass per unit volume under national conditions (including pores, voids and holes):

ρ =
0
m
V0
[
kg .m −3 ] m – the mass [kg]

V0 – the volume under national conditions [m ]


3

The values of apparent density of some typical building materials are given in Tab. 3.1.
Notice:
Apparent density is very importatnt technical parameter, because of giving us the indirect information
3
about porosity and next relating properties. Generally, the lower is a mass of 1m of material, the
higher is the porosity. Then, the lower is the strength and the higher is heat insulation, water
absorption …

Bulk density
Property of particulate materials (sand, gravel). It is the mass of many particles of the material divided
by the volume they occupy. The volume includes the space between particles as well as the space
inside of individual particles - the pores.
Bulk density is not an intrinsic property of a material; it can change depending on how the material is
handled. For example, grain poured in cylinder will have a particular bulk density; if the cylinder is
disturbed, the grain particles will move and settle closer together, resulting in a higher bulk density.
For this reason, the bulk density of aggregates is usually reported both as "freely settled" and "tapped"
density (where the tapped density refers to the bulk density of the aggregate after a specified
compaction process, usually involving vibration of the container.)
ρb =
m
Vb
[
kg.m −3 ] m – the mass [kg]

Vb – the bulk volume [m ]


3

Solidity

- refers to the degree how the volume of a material is packed with solid substances, which is the ratio
of the solid volume to the total volume.

ρ0
.100[%] .100[%]
VS
S= S=
V0 ρ

Porosity

- refers to the degree how the volume of a material is packed with pores. Measure of the void spaces
in a material, it is measured as a fraction, between 0–1, or as a percentage between 0–100%.
ρ0
P = (1 − ).100[%]
ρ
S + P = 100 %

Porosity and characteristics of pores (size, connectivity, distribution…) affect the properties of
materials greatly. Properties affected by porosity: apparent density, water absorption, frost
resistance, strenght, thermal conductivity …
The values of porosity of some typical building materials are given in Tab. 3.1

Table 3.1: Apparent density and porosity of some common building materials
Materials Apparent density Porosity
[kg.m ] [%]
-3

granite 2 600 – 2 700 0-0,3


limestone 2 000 – 2 600 0,5-3,0
dirt, clay 1 150 – 2 000 -
ordinary concrete 2 200 – 2 600 5-20
lightweight concrete 900 – 2 000 60-70
bricks 1 700 – 1 900 20-40
wood 600 – 900 55-75
steel 7 850 -
aluminium 2 700 -
glass 2 500 -
Voids ratio

- typical property for loose, grain materials (aggregate). The ratio of voids volume (voids
between the individual grains of bulk material) and bulk volume of material.

 ρ 
VR = 1 − b .100[%]
 ρ0 
Specific surface area

- property of very fine grain materials (cement) – it defines the fineness of grinding
2 -1
Definition: sum total of surface areas of all grains in unit amount of material [cm . g ]

3.2 Hydro-properties
Moisture (humidity)
- amount of water within the material in actual time and actual environment. The natural state of
porous system filling by water. Free and constrained water (by physical forces).
Moisture depends on: porosity (open, close). It is not constant value, but variable one depending on
the humidity of environment. An example how water is bonded toporous material (aggregate) is given
in Fig. 3.1.
mw – the mass of wet material [g]

.100[%]
mw − md md – the mass of dry material [g]
w=
md

Properties affected: thermal conductivity

Water absorption capacity

- ability of materials to absorb the certain amount of water, when materials are exposed to water.
Maximal amount of water, which material is able to absorb. It is constant value for actual material.
Water absorption depends on: porosity. For normal materials, the higher the porosity is, the stronger
the water absorption is.
ms – the mass of saturated material [g]
.100[%]
ms − md
WA = md – the mass of dry material [g]
md

Properties affected: the water absorption will have a negative impact on materials´nature. Saturated
material will have a lower strenght, worse frost resistance and thermal insulation ability.

Impermeability

- ability of material to prevent a penetration of water acting under press. It is usually expressed by
various coefficients, which reflect the rate of water flowing in a material under defined pressure of
water in defined time.
Impermeability depends on: porosity and character of pores, structure defects – cracks
It is an important property of materials for water constructions, dams, reservoirs, tubes, roofings...

3.3 Mechanical properties


Strength
- ability of material to resist the external forces (load). It is the greatest stress that a substance can
bear under external forces without destruction. When the limit of strength is reached, materials are
crushed. According to different forms of external forces (see Fig. 3.2), the stregth includes these basic
types of strengths: compressive strength, tensile strength, shear strength and bending (flexural)
strength.

F F F
F

l
F F
F

Compressive resistance Tensile resistance Shear resistance Bending resistance

Figure 3.2: The stress states of a material

The tensile strength, compressive and shear strength can be defined by following formula:

F - the largest force of a specimen when it is destructed [N]


R = [MPa ]
F 2
A – the force bearing area of a specimen [mm ]
A
The bend (flexural) strength of specimen with rectangular cross-section, when it is supported at both
ends and a load converges in the middle, is given by the equation:

R=
3Fl
[MPa] F - the largest force of a specimen when it is destructed [N]
2bh 2
l - the distance between two supporting ends [mm]
b – the width of the cross-section [mm]
h - the height of the cross-section [mm]

Strength depends on: composition of material and microstructure – porosity, defects, moisture. The
bigger the porosity is, the smaller the strength will be. The strength is also concerned with testing
conditions, such as the amount and shape of structural element, loading speed, or surface and water
content.

Specific strength: is a material strength divided by its apparent density. It is an important index for
measuring the high-strength and lightweight materials. The higher specific strength is, the higher
strength and lighter weight the material is.

Elasticity and Plasticity

Generally, elasticity is ability of the material to get original form after unloading. Such materials are so
called elastic. Plasticity means, the material has not an ability to get original form after unloading.
Material stays in changed form and is so called plastic.

Elasticity is the property of material to deform with external forces and return to its original shape
when the stress is removed. External loading (stress) causes the deformation of solid materials.
Materials change their shape and dimensions (strain).
Within the range of elastic deformation, the ratio of stress (σ ) and strain (ε ) is a constant (E), which is
known as modulus of elasticity. It is theoretical stress, whereat the relative strain = 1. It is the
mathematical description of an object's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently)
when a force is applied to it. It states if the material is more stiff or elastic. Stiff material has higher
modulus; material with lower modulus is elastic. The bigger E is, the more difficultly the material
deforms.

σ
E= [MPa, GPa ]
ε
Strain is usually expressed as the change of dimension, for example length.
Relative elongation:
∆ l – the change of length
∆l
ε= l0 - the original length
l0
Plasticity describes the deformation of a matertial undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in
response to external forces.
Among building materials, there are no pure elastic materials. Some materials only have elastic
deformation if the stress is not large, but plastic deformation will happen to them when the stress is
beyond a limit.
Stress–strain curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between stress, derived from
measuring the load applied on the sample, and strain, derived from measuring the deformation of the
sample, i.e. elongation, compression, or distortion. The nature of the curve varies from material to
material.
Hook´s law describes the principle of elastic deformations: the principle that the stress imposed on a
solid is directly proportional to the strain produced, within the elastic limit.
For ideal elastic material the modulus of elasticity is constant and the function is linear:

σ
σ
E= = constant
ε

ε
The stress-strain curve can also be used to qualitatively describe and classify the material. Typical
regions that can be observed in a stress-strain curve are:
1. elastic region,
2. yielding,
3. strain hardening,
4. necking and failure.
A stress-strain curve with each region identified is shown in Fig. 3.3.

Figure 3.3: Various regions and points on the stress-straine curve


(Source: http://dolbow.cee.duke.edu/TENSILE/tutorial/node4.html)
Hardness

- ability of materials to prevent the surface damage causing by point load or by scratch. It can be
finded by various techniques, the best known are:
- surface scrutching test by Mohs hardness scale
- Brinell test (HB)
- Vickers test (HV)
- Rockwell test (HR)
All of them are based on indentation of harder body into the material to be tested.

3.4 Thermal properties

Thermal conductivity

- ability of material to conduce the heat. This is an important parameter for assurance of indoor
temperature is required.
It is expressed by: Thermal conductivity coefficient λ [W.m .K ] - a heat rate transmitted by material
-1 -1

2
with 1m of length and 1m of cross section area at 1 K of heat gradient (difference of temperature).
The best heat conductors are metals.
-1 -1 -
Good thermal insulating materials have λ< 0,35 W.m .K , high effective insulations have λ< 0,1 W. m
1 -1
.K .
Thermal conductivity depends on: composition and structure, porosity, moisture
Values of thermal conductivity coefficients of some typical building materials are given in Tab: 3.2.

Table 3.2: Thermal conductivity coefficients of several common building materials

λ [W.m .K ]
-1 -1
Building material

Metals 58 and more

Solid stone 2,8 – 4,0

Ordinary concrete 1,28 – 1,5

Lightweight concrete 0,11-1,25

Glass 0,76

Brick 0,4 – 0,8

Timber 0,18 – 0,22

Foam glass 0,038 – 0,048

Suber (cork tree) 0,035 – 0,07

Glass wool 0,03 – 0,08


Fire resistance
Fire resistance is the property of a substance not to burn in case of contacting with fire in the air.
Materials can be divided into several groups according to their reaction to fire:
• Non-combustible material – A non-combustible material is a substance that will not ignite,
burn, support combustion, or release flammable vapours when subject to fire or heat, in the form in
which it is used and under conditions anticipated.
• Combustible material – will ignite, burn, support combustion, or release flammable vapours
immediately when contacting with fire. Wood is by far the most common combustible material used for
structural purposes in building construction
• Fire Retardant – are the ones that are hard to be burned when contacting with fire and stop
burning or slightly flaming immediately when leaving fire.
In construction, the selection of non-combustible materials or fire retardant materials depends on fire-
resistant levels of buildings and the parts where materials are used. Fire prevention should be dealt
with when combustible materials are used.

3.5 Acoustic properties


Vibrations in the air and in materials carry sound through a room. When these vibrations hit a flat, hard
surface, they rebound into the room, causing an echo. When sound waves hit a surface that is
susceptible to vibration, the material in the wall transfers the sound into the next room rather than
stopping or reflecting it. Thus, a solid concrete room will be prone to echoes while a room framed with
wood and sheathed with drywall will not be soundproof.
Sound spreads faster through solid materials with higher apparent density and is well reflected. Sound
is transmitted worse through porous materials with lower apparent density and is well absorbed.
Acoustic properties depends on: porosity
Regarding acoustic properties, we can find some basic parameters:
• The “Transmission loss” (TL) is resistance of the material towards sound cross, in the case the
sound spreads by air. It is a value given in decibels (dB), which is determined by measuring
sound pressure levels at a given certain frequency in the source and receiving rooms. Resistance
of the material towards sound cross, in the case the sound is activated by walking, impacts, and
is transmitted by structure is so called Impact transmission loss.
• The "Sound Transmission Coefficient" (t) is a mathematical ratio dependent on the specific
frequency of sound. It is the ratio of transmitted (W t) to incident sound energy (W i) at an interface
in a sound medium and it is used to determine the Transmission Loss. The relationship between
the sound transmission coefficient (t) and the Transmission Loss (TL) is; TL = 10 log (1/ t).

Wt
t=
Wi
ABSORBER (soft acoustic material) BARRIER (hard acoustic material)

Fig. 3.4: The principle of acoustic absorbers and barriers


(Source: http://www.industrialnoisecontrol.com/noise-control-products.htm)

• The "Noise Reduction Coefficient" (NRC) is a measure of how much sound is absorbed by a
particular material, and is derived from the measured Sound Absorption Coefficients. It is a
single-number index determined in a lab test and used for rating how absorptive a particular
material is. Values range from zero (perfectly reflective) to 1 (perfectly absorptive). NRC values
fore some common building materials are given in Tab.: 3.3.

Table 3.3: Noise Reduction Coefficients (NRC) for Common Building Materials
(Source: http://www.acoustics.com/101.asp)

Material NRC

Brick, painted .00 - .02

Brick, unpainted .00 - .05

Carpet, indoor-outdoor .15 - .20

Concrete (smooth), painted .00 - .05

Concrete (smooth), unpainted .00 - .20

Concrete (block), painted .05

Concrete (block), unpainted .05 - .35

Cork, floor tiles (3/4" thick) .10 - .15

Glass .05 - .10

Gypsum .05

Linoleum on Concrete .00 - .05

Marble .00
Plaster .05

Plywood .10 - .15

Polyurethane Foam (1" thick, open cell, reticulated) .30

Steel .00 - .10

Terrazzo .00

Wood .05 - .15

3.6 Durability
Durability describes the resistance of materials against the complex of exterior actions. In the process
of usage, materials are subjected to physical, chemical, biological and mechanical factors.
- Physical actions: weather – alternative temperatures (freeze-thaw cycles), alternative humidity
(wet-dry cycles), sun shine. These can cause an expansion or conctraction of materials, then
they will be destroyed gradually by the long-term and repeated actions.
- Chemical actions: aggressive water (acid, alkali, salt solutions, sewage water), gas, CO2.
These can cause the changes in composition of materials and destroy them.
- Biological actions: insects, fungi, mildew. These can molder or rot materials, such as the
decomposition of wood.
- Mechanical actions: manner and type of stress, abrasion. These can cause cracs, loss of
stability and destruction of material.
Durability depends on: kind of these factors and on the own internal properties of the material.
Durability is time till the material resists these factors and at the same time, satisfy the function
required in construction it is embedded. It is a comprehensive property of materials. Materials of
different compositions and structures have different degree of durability.
One of very frequent action over the European conditions are freeze-thaw cycles, that is why the frost
resistance of materials are very important parameter of materials´durability.
It is described as the ability of saturated material to withstand freeze-thaw cycles without being
destroyed and its strength doers not decrease seriously. If water presented in porous system freeze,
its volume increase (9%) and cause internal strain – it leeds to damage of microstructure and defects
of constructions.
Frost resistance depends on: internal and external factors. The internal factors are the composition,
structures, porosity, the characteristics of pores, strength, water resistance… The external factors are
the water filling degree within a materials´pores, freezing temperature, freezing speed, freeze-thaw
frequency …

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. Define and explain each of given properties of building materials.
4 ROCKS AND NATURAL STONE
Stone is natural, hard substance formed from minerals and earth material which are present in rocks.
Rock is the portion of the earth´s crust having no definite shape and structure.
Rock is naturally occurring solid material consisting of one or more minerals. Minerals are
solid, naturally occurring chemical elements or compounds that are homogenous, meaning
they have a definite chemical composition and a very regular arrangement of atoms.
The major factors affecting the suitability and use of stone fall under two broad, but
overlapping categories: physical and structural properties and aesthetic qualities. The
three factors of building stone that most influence their selection by architects for aesthetic
reasons are pattern, texture, and colour. Consideration also should be given to costs,
availability, weathering characteristics, physical properties, and size and thickness limitations.
Stone patterns are highly varied, and they provide special features that make building stone
a unique material. Texture is varied, ranging from coarse fragments to fine grains and
crystalline structures. Texture also varies with the hardness of minerals composing the stone.
Pattern, texture, and colour all are affected by how the stone is fabricated and finished.
Granites tend to hold their colour and pattern, while limestone colour and pattern changes
with exposure. Textures may range from rough and flamed finishes to honed or polished
surfaces.
Natural stone is applicable for construction purposes after some mechanical processing (adaptation) –
grinding, sizing, sorting, surface treatment ...

Ways of utilisation:
- directly as building material (facing stone, paving blocks, crushed stone for road base...)
- as the component of building materials (concrete)
- as the raw for other building materials manufacturing (glass, rock wool...)

4.1 Classification of rocks


According to geological origin:
- igneous (magmatic)
- sedimentary
- metamorphic
Basic processes of rocks formation are given in Fig. 4.1.
Figure 4.1: Cycle of rocks formation
(Source: http://liparanormalinvestigators.com/rocks.shtml)

Igneous

Igneous rocks are rocks formed from a molten or partly molten material called magma.
Magma forms deep underground when rock that was once solid melts. Overlying rock
presses down on the magma, and the less dense magma rises through cracks in the rock.
As magma moves upward, it cools and solidifies. Magma that solidifies underground usually cools
slowly, allowing large crystals to form. Magma that reaches Earth’s surface is called lava. Lava
loses heat to the atmosphere or ocean very quickly and therefore solidifies very rapidly,
forming very small crystals or glass.
Igneous rocks commonly contain the minerals feldspar, quartz, mica, pyroxene, amphibole,
and olivine. Igneous rocks are named according to which minerals they contain. Rocks rich in
feldspar and quartz are called felsic; rocks rich in pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine, which all
contain magnesium and iron, are called mafic. Common and important igneous rocks are
granite, rhyolite, gabbro, and basalt. Granite and rhyolite are felsic; gabbro and basalt are mafic.
Granite has large crystals of quartz and feldspar. Rhyolite is the small-grained equivalent of granite.
Gabbro has large crystals of pyroxene and olivine. Basalt is the most common volcanic rock.
General properties: high strength, low water absorption, very good frost resistance, resistance
against wearing, low thermal insulating ability
Typical kinds: granite, syenite, dolerite, basalt
Utilisation: facing stone, paving blocks, crushed stone for road and railway base, stairs, curbstones

Sedimentary

Sedimentary rock forms when loose sediment, or rock fragments, hardens. Geologists place
sedimentary rocks into three broad categories:
- clastic rocks, which form from clasts, or broken fragments, of pre-existing rocks and
minerals
- chemical rocks, which form when minerals precipitate, or solidify, from a solution,
usually seawater or lake water; and
- organic rocks, which form from accumulations of animal and plant remains. It is
common for sedimentary rocks to contain all three types of sediment. Most fossils are
found in sedimentary rocks because the processes that form igneous and
metamorphic rocks prevent fossilization or would likely destroy fossils.
General properties compared with magmatic ones: higher porosity and water absorption, lower
strength, durability and easier workability
The most common types of clastic rocks are sandstone and shale (also known as
mudrock). Sandstone is made from sand, and shale is made from mud. Sand and mud form
when physical or chemical processes break down and destroy existing rocks. The sand and
mud are carried by wind, rivers, ocean currents, and glaciers, which deposit the sediment
when the wind or water slows down or where the glacier ends. Sand usually forms dunes in
deserts, or sandbars, riverbeds, beaches, and near-shore marine deposits. Mud particles are
smaller than sand particles, so they tend to stay in the wind or water longer and are
deposited only in very still environments, such as lake beds and the ocean floor.
Sedimentary rock forms when layers of sand and mud accumulate. As the sediment accumulates,
the weight of the layers of sediment presses down and compacts the layers underneath. The
sediments become cemented together into a hard rock when minerals (most commonly quartz
or calcite) precipitate, or harden, from water in the spaces between grains of sediment,
binding the grains together. Sediment is usually deposited in layers, and compaction and
cementation preserve these layers, called beds, in the resulting sedimentary rock.
Utilisation: facing stone, paving blocks, curbstones.
When sediments remain incoherent, these materials are in grainy form: sand, gravel, dirt, clay, kaolin
(white clay).
Utilisation: concrete, mortar, earthworks, bricks, porcelain, linings; quartz sand for glass production
The most common types of chemical rocks are called evaporates because they form by
evaporation of seawater or lake water. The elements dissolved in the water crystallize to
form minerals such as gypsum and halite. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is used to manufacture
plaster and wallboard; halite is used as table salt.
The most common organic rock is limestone. Many marine animals, such as corals and
shellfish, have skeletons or shells made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). When these animals
die, their skeletons sink to the seafloor and accumulate to form large beds of calcium
carbonate. As more and more layers form, their weight compresses and cements the layers
at the bottom, forming limestone. Details of the skeletons and shells are often preserved in
the limestone as fossils.
Utilisation: limestone (CaCO3) for lime production; magnesite (MgCO3) for fire resistant products;
dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3) for lime or glass production.
Figure 4.2: An example of sedimentary rock
(Source: http://lifeasahuman.com/2012/feature/off-season-in-the-annapolis-
valley/attachment/dscn3194_resize/)

Metamorphic

Metamorphic rock forms when pre-existing rock undergoes mineralogical and structural
changes resulting from high temperatures and pressures. These changes occur in the rock
while it remains solid (without melting), because each mineral is stable only over a specific
range of temperature and pressure. If a mineral is heated or compressed beyond its stability
range, it breaks down and forms another mineral.
In a metamorphic rock, one mineral assemblage changes to another when its atoms move
about in the solid state and recombine to form new minerals. This change from one mineral
assemblage to another is called metamorphism. As temperature and pressure increase, the
rock gains energy, which fuels the chemical reactions that cause metamorphism. As
temperature and pressure decrease, the rock cools; often, it does not have enough energy to
change back to a low-temperature and low-pressure mineral assemblage. In a sense, the
rock is stuck in a state that is characteristic of its earlier high-temperature and high-pressure
environment. Thus, metamorphic rocks carry with them information about the history of
temperatures and pressures to which they were subjected.
Compositional layering, or bands of different minerals, can also occur and cause foliation.
Properties: typical property is foliation and that is why the strength along the layers is lower than
across the layers.
Utilisation: they are utilised seldom in building industry, because of easy destruction to thin and flat
pieces and very heterogeneous properties.
Important kinds: they can be found in the Tab. 4.1. Metamorphosed limestone - marble is considered
one of most valuable building materials. It is easily dressed to a smooth surface and polished. It
resists frost and moisture well, but like all limestones it does not withstand fire. Marble can
be obtained in many colours, some of which are white, gray, red, blue, green, and black.
One of the most important characteristics of marble is that it is easy to carve; the finer the
grains of the stone, the more suitable it is for this purpose.
Table 4.1: Examples of transformation of rocks
(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/ulrick04/bt-building-stones)

According to chemical composition:


Rocks may be further classified as silicious, calcareous, and argillaceous, according to the chemical
composition of the earth forming their main ingredients.
- Silicious stones: silica is the principal earthy constituent; rocks mainly containing sand or
Silicates (SiO2). Example: Granite, Basalt, Trap, Quartzit
- Calcareous stones: carbonate of lime is the predominating material; rocks containing Calcium
Carbonate and Lime (CaCO3). Example: Limestone, Marble, Dolomite.
- Argillaceous stones: alumina is the chief component; rocks containing Alumina (Al2O3) and
Clay as main components. Example: Slate, Laterite
According to physical properties:
- Stratified Rocks: rocks having distinct layers which are separable. Cleavage plane for split is
easily visible. Example: Slate, Sandstone, Limestone.
- Un-Stratified Rocks: cannot be easily stripped into slabs. No sign of distinct strata. Example:
Granite, Basalt, Trap.
- Foliated Rocks: having tendency to split up only in a definite direction. This structure is very
common in case of metamorphic rocks.

4.2 Quality of building stone


To qualify as a construction material, stone should have the following qualities:
- strength
- hardness - important for flooring, paving ..
- durability – resistance to the external effects (weather)
- workability – hardness must allow it to be quarried, cut and shaped
- porosity – it significantly affects durability. It can be expressed using the values of
water absorption (see Tab. 4.2)
- appearance – colour, texture …
Table 4.2: Porosity of selected stones
(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/ulrick04/bt-building-stones)

4.3 Quarrying of stone


Stone quarrying is the multistage process by which rock is extracted from the ground and processed
to produce aggregate or other kinds of stone products. Stone can be quarried in mainly 4 ways.
Selection of method depends upon the rock structure and place where the target product is available.
Methods being commonly used are following:
1. Excavating
The method is employed when stones to be quarried are lying buried in earth or under loose
overburden. Shovels, pick axes, hammers and chisels are used of for the purpose. Construction
machinery may also be used where feasible (see Fig 4.3).
2. Wedging
This method is suitable for quarrying soft stratified rocks. The operation is started near a vertical face
in the absence of which one is created by cutting a channel in it. Then 10 cm to 15 cm deep holds
about 10 cm apart are bored or drilled along the boundary of the slab to be quarried. Steel hammers
called sledge, hammers simultaneously in all the holes in a row. Use of steel feathers with plugs is to
be preferred. It will split the slab along the line of holes drilled.
3. Heating
This method is suitable where only smaller blocks of more or less regular shape are required and
suitable rocks bedded horizontal layers of not much thickness are to be quarried. It consists in piling a
heap of fuel on a small area of the exposed face of rock and burning a steady fire for some hours. It
results in uneven expansion because of unequal heating of the two layers and consequent separation
of the upper and lower layers.
4. Blasting
It is quarrying stones with explosives. Blasting may sometimes have to be done to excavate
foundations for buildings road structures in rock works and for tunneling. The operation for blasting
constitutes the boring or drilling of holes, charging them with some suitable explosive and then firing of
the charge various implements used in quarrying are the jumper or boring bar, scraping spoon,
priming needle and the tamping bar. The diameter and the depth of each hole depends upon the
quantity and nature of rock to be loosened, the type and the quantity of explosive used. The holes are
charged with the right quality of explosive to be used. The hole is filled in layers with burnt clay
powder. Each layer is well tamped with a brass tamping rod before the next layer is put in. Temping
should be done extremely well sufficient length of the fuse is left outside the dole so as to enable the
person glinting it to retreat to a place of safety before the explosion take place.

Figure 4.3: Excavation of stone

4.4 Finishing of building stone


Building stone that were excavated in quarry is treated in order to achieve the required shape, size
and surface. First, the big peaces have to be reduced in order to achieve the workable dimensions.
The treatment techniques are: scabbing, cutting, grinding.
Next, a variety of finishes can be applied to dimension stone to achieve diverse architectural and
aesthetic effects. As the result of these finishes, we can find following kinds of surfaces:
- Sawn: A finish is not applied to the stone; the appearance of the surface is a result of blade
or wire used to cut it. A sawn finish will produce a flat but raw stone. Primarily used on
curbing.
- Honed: A honed finish is smooth and shows the full colour of the stone without reflection.
This is the same procedure used to polish, but the honing process ends before the buffing
stage.
- Polished: Polished granite is highly reflective and all of the colour, depth, and crystal
structure are brought out. By polishing granite, the surface pores become sealed, making the
stone nearly impervious to weather and chemical wear.
- Machine tooled: This bush-hammered finish consists of parallel, concave grooves in the
stone. A heavy duty, surface pneumatic tool produces 4, 6, and 8 bats (grooves) to the inch.
The depth of the groove varies with the number of bats used (see Fig. 4.4)
- Thermal/Flamed: This finish is achieved by applying a high temperature flame and cool
water to the surface of the stone simultaneously. The flame fractures the crystals on the face
while the water prevents splitting, leaving a rough-textured finish. The thermal finish is
commonly used on exterior paving applications since it is highly slip resistant.
- Sandblasted – (Fine – Coarse Stippled): Powered by compressed air, the sandblast machine
forces 20, 40, or 60 grade sand directly onto the stone. This leaves a fine to coarse planed
surface on the stone.
- Split Face: A rugged, uneven, concave-convex finish that reveals reflections from the crystal
is produced by the splitting action of a guillotine. Detail character ranges from low to high for
fine grain through coarse grain stones, respectively. The stones are split to the specified wall
thickness but will have a random tolerance.
- Rock Face: Done by hand with a chipping tool, rock face stone is chipped around the
perimeter to produce a bold, convex projection along its face. This finish creates a more
massive appearance than split face. Detail character ranges from low to high for fine grain
through coarse grain stones, respectively.
- Pointed: A rough and uneven surface results from splitting, pointing and/or rough cutting the
granite.
- Diamond 4/6/8 – Water Jet: Because thermal and honed finishes do not maximize the colour
of the stone, a diamond finish can be applied to enhance it. The diamond finish is achieved by
water jetting stone with 4, 6, or 8 heads by either hand or machine.

Figure 4.4: Bush hammer Figure 4.5: Traditional stone-cutting tools: double-
(Source: face hammer (a), face hammer (b), the pick (c),
http://stonesavvy.blogspot.sk/2012/04/c the ax, or peen hammer (d), the tooth ax (e), the
ounter-top-stone-surface- bush, hammer (f),the crandall (g), the patent
series_25.html) hammer (h), the hand hammer (i), the mallet (j).
(Source:
http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/Building-
Construction-V2/Stone-Cutting-
Tools.html#.VDuOJP1xmM8)
Figure 4.6: Modern sawing of stones – boards production

Figure 4.7: Example of surface finishing of marble - honed surface laying on top of a polished surface
(Source: http://stonesavvy.blogspot.sk/search/label/surfaces)

4.5 Kinds of products

Natural stone
It is defined as building material in pieces, of various shapes and size 150 – 1 000 mm.
Nonsorted is used for road and railway build – up, sorted up to 350 mm for foundations or basement
walls. Big blocks of stone are used for banks, shores, or earthworks stabilising. Large size blocks
3 3
blasted from the quarry face, from approximately 0.5 m to 1.25 m , are called rip rap or rock armour
and are used in coastal and river flood defense schemes to shore up sea fronts and river banks.
Natural stone with treated dimensions and shape is used for paving of slopes and gutters, regulation
of rivers, plinth walling and cyclopean masonry (cobweb masonry).
Stone products
Stone products are worked from good chippable, polishable and durable rocks. They are very costly,
because of high portion of hand-work, but of very long life time and easy maintenance.
Various kinds of blocks (ashlars, cobblestones) for stone masonry and plates for veneers, sidings are
produced (see Fig. 4.8 and 4.9)
- Veneer is a non load-bearing facing of stone attached to a backing, of an ornamental nature
though it protects and insulates.
- Dimension stone is a square block of stone, often brick-sized – for ashlar masonry.
- Rubble consists of rough fragments of broken stone that have at least one good face for
exposure in a wall
- Small pieces of various shapes for Venetian mosaic (see Fig. 4.10)
- Traffic-related stone:
Paving blocks – they are worked from good chippable and durable rocks. They are sorted as:
Big: 160x160 mm and up to 300 mm length
Smallish: edge is 60-1200 mm
Mosaic: edge is 40-60 mm
Curbstones – they can be lineal or curved and with some end and surface design. They are
used along pavements, parking sites, platforms or highways to maintain the integrity of
sidewalks and borders.
- Flagstone: is a shallow naturally irregular-edged slab of stone, sometimes sawed into a
rectangular shape, used as paving (almost always pedestrian).
- Stone construction elements: stair treads, columns, windowsills ...
- Crushed stone: Crushing can be done in three or four stages, primary, secondary, tertiary
and, in some quarries, a quaternary. Each stage of crushing produces progressively smaller
sized stones. In order to produce a usable end-product, the crushed rock has to be screened
into various size categories. Crushed and screened rock is called aggregate and it is used
mainly for mortars and concretes production – see chapter 5.

Figure 4.8 Kinds of stone masonry


Figure 4.9 Stone masonry
(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/prabhazigzag/types-of-stone-masonry)

-
Figure 4.10: Some examples of geometric patterns for traditional mosaic pavements

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


2. Name the types of rocks according to geological classification.
3. Define igneous rocks.
4. Define sedimentary rocks.
5. Define metamorphic rocks.
6. Explain the uses of stones as building materials.
5 AGGREGATES
Aggregates for building purposes are defined as an inorganic, granular, loose, natural or artificial
material with grain size max. 125 mm. Aggregates can be used alone (in road bases and various
types of fill) or can be used with cementing materials (such as Portland cement or asphalt cement) to
form composite materials or concrete.

5.1 Classification of aggregates


Aggregates can be divided into several categories according to different criteria.

According to size:
- fine aggregate - aggregate sizes up to 4 mm
- coarse aggregate - aggregate sizes above 4 mm

According to origin and production:


- Natural aggregate:
- gravel and sand: it is obtained by exploitation of natural gravel deposits. It involves the
grains of naturally disintegrated and sediment rocks. The grains are round and
smooth.
- crushed rock: obtained by crushing (grinding) of rocks in quarries. The grains are
sharp (grit) and coarse.
- Manufactured aggregate: aggregates manufactured from selected naturally occurring
materials, by-products of industrial processes or a combination of these.
- Recycled aggregate: aggregates derived from the processing of materials previously used in
a product and/or in construction.
- Reused by-product: aggregates produced from by-products of industrial processes.
Individual kinds in each of these classes are given in the Tab. 5.1.

According to apparent density:


- -3
porous: ρ0 < 2 000 kg.m
-3
- solid: ρ0 = 2 000 – 3 000 kg.m
heavy weight: ρ0 > 3 000 kg.m
-3
-
Table 5.1: Classification of aggregates according to origin and production
(Source: Use of Recycled Aggregates in Construction. Cement Concrete & Aggregates Australia, 2008)

5.2 Production of aggregates

- Crushed stone aggregate is produced from many natural deposits including: limestone, granite,
trap rock and other durable mineral resources. Production of these products requires blasting and
excavating the broken stone from quarries followed by progressive stages of crushing, screening,
washing and blending. Products may range in size from Rip-Rap (large size blocks blasted from
3 3
the quarry face, from approximately 0.5 m to 1.25m ), where each stone may weigh several tons,
to manufactured sand for use in concrete and asphalt products. Crushed stone is used in the
construction of highways, railroads, airports, water and sewage systems, as well as in civil
engineering building in the mortars and concretes.
- Sand and gravel aggregate is produced in each of aggregate Industries' regional business units.
These resources, harvested from deposits, are processed by a series of crushing, screening and
washing operations. The aggregate produced is subsequently used in the manufacture of ready
mixed concrete, asphalt, pre-cast concrete products and as natural mineral base and for many
other uses in most construction projects.
- Foamed blast furnace slag (FBS) is a by-product of iron slag produced in a similar way to
granulated blast-furnace slag but with a controlled amount of water, applied to the molten slag to
trap the steam in the mass, giving a porous, pumice-like product. This product is then crushed and
screened to sizes suitable as lightweight aggregate.
- Fly Ash Aggregates can be produced by pelletization of fly ash - pellets can be bound by thermal
fusion or chemically, using cement or lime to produce synthetic coarse and fine aggregates
- Polystyrene Aggregates: crushed waste expanded polystyrene is used in combination with
normal weight aggregates to produce lightweight concrete, having better thermal - insulation
properties
- Expanded Clays, Shales and Slates: certain clays, shales, and slates expand several fold when
heated to a semiplastic stage (as a result of the formation of gas within the mass of the material at
the fusion temperature) and develop a cellular internal structure. Heavier expanded clay, shale and
slate aggregates can be used for structural lightweight concretes.
- Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) is produced by crushing sound, clean demolition waste of
at least 95% by weight of concrete, and having a total contaminant level typically lower than 1% of
the bulk mass. Other materials that may be present in RCA are gravel, crushed stone, hydraulic-
cement concrete or a combination thereof deemed suitable for premix concrete production.
- Recycled Concrete and Masonry (RCM) is graded aggregates produced from sorted and clean
waste concrete and masonry typically for road subbase applications. The material may contain
small quantities of brick, gravel, crushed rock or other forms of stony material as blended material.
Fine recycled aggregate may also be referred to as crushed concrete fines.
- Reclaimed Aggregate (RA) can be reclaimed from concrete returned to a batching plant by
separating the aggregates from the water-cement slurry using one of a number of alternative
technologies, most of which are based on washing the material with water. Aggregates are
screened for later use and the water may be reclaimed, depending on the technology adopted.
- Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) is a reuse of old asphalt concretes as the aggregate base
for new asphaltic concrete.
- Glass Cullet may be pulverised into a sand-like product, for which there are limited applications as
non-structural concrete aggregate, fill material and for drainage.
- Scrap Tyres are used in the form of tyre chips and crumb rubber aggregate for concrete
production. Another development is in the use of finely ground scrap or crumb rubber in asphalt.
- Air-cooled Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) is a by-product of iron manufacturing, in which silica and
alumina constituents combine with lime to form a molten slag collected on the top of the iron in a
blast furnace. The slag issues from the furnace as a molten stream at 1400–1600°C. If this is
allowed to cool slowly, it solidifies to a grey, crystalline, stone-like material, known as air-cooled
slag. This product is then crushed and screened to sizes suitable as coarse aggregate.
- Electric Arc Furnace Slag (EAF) is a by-product of steel formed in an electric arc furnace. In the
process, steel scrap and fluxes are added to a refractory lined cup-shaped vessel. This vessel has
a lid through which carbon electrodes are passed. An arc is induced between the scrap and
electrodes and the resultant heat generated melts scrap and fluxes. Steel and slag are also
separated similarly to the steel furnace slag process. EAF slag has been found to contain low
sulphur and hence the potential to be used as concrete aggregate.
- Steel Furnace Slag (BOS) is a by-product of steel formed in the Basic Oxygen System (BOS).
BOS slag is tapped from the vessel after the exothermic refinement of molten iron and recycled
steel in the presence of fluxes and oxygen. It consists of calcium silicates and ferrites combined
with fused oxides of iron, aluminium, calcium, magnesium and manganese. After air-cooling, the
material has a predominantly crystalline structure and is crushed and screened for use as coarse
aggregate. BOS slag is used as asphalt aggregate or for road base and subbase. Steel slag
aggregate should not be used as aggregate in cement concrete due to a potential durability
problem caused by lime expansion.
- Furnace Bottom Ash (FBA) is formed when ash adheres as hot particles to the furnace walls,
agglomerates and then falls to the base of the furnace where it is collected for disposal. Bottom ash
and boiler slag make up approximately 10% of the total ash produced and range in grain size from
fine sand to coarse lumps. Bottom ash has chemical compositions similar to fly ash. Coarse FBA is
used as a fine aggregate for lightweight blocks, a road-base component, for agricultural drainage
mediums and as engineered bulk fill.
- Organic Materials: certain organic materials are suitable for lightweight aggregates such as rice
husks, woodchips and sawdust. Woodchips and sawdust consist largely of cellulose, but they also
contain soluble sugars, acids, resins, waxes, and other organic substances in varying quantities.
Some of these have inhibiting effects on the setting and hardening of cement. Many patents have
been registered on methods of pre-treating sawdust in order to avoid these deficiencies.
- Crusher Fines is a sand-size material produced as a result of the crushing and screening
operations within a quarry plant. It is most commonly produced from hard rock quarry operations
but may also be generated from the crushing of gravel deposit materials which liberate suitable
fines. Unlike manufactured sands, which are designed and manufactured to provide material with
consistent engineering properties, crusher fines are not generally designed to have any specific
property other than maximum size. Where source rock and quarry processing are consistent with
suitable properties, crusher dusts have been used as coarse sand replacements in some concrete;
more commonly they are used as the finer filler fractions in asphalt.
Note, that recycled and re-used aggregates can be used for mortars/concretes production only
in limited dosage.

5.3 Properties of aggregates


For individual building purposes various levels of aggregate quality are needed. The basic parameters
are:
Particle (grain) size distribution - grading
The grading determine the paste requirement for a workable concrete since the amount of void
requires needs to be filled by the same amount of cement paste in a concrete mixture. It is a list of
values that defines the relative amounts of particles present, sorted according to size and describes
the grain materials from size point of view. It is expressed as the percentages by mass passing a
specified set of standard sieves. To obtain a grading data, sieve analysis has to be conducted.
Standard sieves in accordance with EN are of following square aperture sizes:
0.063 – 0.125 – 0.25 – 0.5 – 1 – 2 – 4 – 8 – 16 – 32 and 63 mm.
Using the sieving procedure, an aggregate size (fraction) can be defined - designation of aggregate in
terms of lower (d) and upper (D) sieve sizes expressed as d/D.
Example: fraction 4/8 – grains fell through 8 mm sieve and stayed on 4 mm one.
The grading is usually expressed by particle size distribution curve. For concrete production are
necessary min. two, better three various fractions for uniform filling of concrete volume. The ideal
grain size distribution for concrete must to be designed regarding the type of aggregate and concrete
and its quality with minimal voids ratio. A wide range of grading curves is acceptable for the economic
production of concrete with good quality. British Standards (B.S.) American Standards of Testing and
Measurements (ASTM) as well as European standard (EN) provide grading limits (which are
essentially upper and lower bounds of the grading curve) that can be used in practice. As long as the
grading curve lies within the recommended grading limits, the aggregate can be employed (see Fig.
5.1).

Figure 5.1: An example of recommended grading curve – for shotcrete production


(Source: http://sika.com/en/concrete-redirect/sika-concrete-technology/Shotcrete/base-materials.html)

The effect of a collection of various sizes in reducing the total volume of voids between aggregates is
also illustrated by the simple method shown in Fig. 5.2.
Figure 5.2: The level of liquid in the graduates, representing voids, is constant for equal absolute
volumes of aggregates of uniform but different size. When different sizes are combined, the void-
content decreases. The illustration is not to scale.
(Source: http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/concrete/PCA_manual/Chap05.pdf)

Shape index and texture


Aggregate shape and surface texture influence the properties of freshly mixed concrete more than the
properties of hardened concrete. Rough-textured, angular, and elongated particles require more water
to produce workable concrete than smooth, rounded compact aggregate. Consequently, the cement
content must also be increased to maintain the water-cement ratio. However, with rough aggregates,
there is better mechanical bond in the hardened concrete, so strength is higher (if concrete with the
same w/c ratio is compared). Hence, when smooth aggregates are replaced with rough aggregates,
concrete of similar flow properties and strength can be produced by adding a little bit more water or
plasticizers.
Shape index is the ratio of the biggest dimension of grain and the smallest one; represents the shape
of grains (see Fig. 5.3). Shape index is determined only for the coarse aggregates. The principle of
determination of shape index is to measure the thickness E and length L of each grain in a sample of
several hundred grains and then to calculate the ratio L/E between the thickness and the length of
each particle. If the ratio is 3:1 and more, the shape is too elongated; such grains are of bad quality
from concrete production point of view.

Fig. 5.3: Example of shape index measurement


-3
Density ρ: 2 500 – 2 900 kg.m
-3
Apparent densit ρ0: 2 400 – 2 800 kg.m (solid aggregates)
very variably as of porous aggregates
-3
Bulk density ρb: 1 300 – 2 000 kg.m (solid aggregates)
-3
400 – 1 600 kg.m (porous aggregates)
Resistance to Freezing and Thawing
The frost resistance of an aggregate, an important characteristic for exterior concrete, is related to its
porosity, absorption, permeability, and pore structure. An aggregate particle may absorb so much
water (to critical saturation) that it cannot accommodate the expansion and hydraulic pressure that
occurs during the freezing of water. If enough of the offending particles are present, the result can be
expansion of the aggregate and possible disintegration of the concrete. Generally it is coarse rather
than fine aggregate particles with higher porosity values and medium-sized pores (0.1 to 5 µm) that
are easily saturated and cause concrete deterioration and popouts.
Abrasion and Skid Resistance
The abrasion resistance of an aggregate is often used as a general index of its quality. Abrasion
resistance is essential when the aggregate is to be used in concrete subject to abrasion, as in heavy-
duty floors or pavements.
Harmful substances
Aggregates must be relatively clean. Harmful substances that may be present in aggregates include
organic impurities, silt, clay, shale, iron oxide, coal, lignite, and certain lightweight and soft particles
may affect performance by quickly degrading, which causes a loss of structural support and/or
prevents binder-aggregate bonding.
In addition, rocks and minerals such as some cherts, strained quartz, and certain dolomitic limestones
are alkali reactive. Gypsum and anhydrite may cause sulphate attack. Certain aggregates, such as some
shales, will cause popouts by swelling (simply by absorbing water) or by freezing of absorbed water.
- mainly sulphides and sulphates are dangerous. For aggregate as concrete compound, there is
limited amount of all sulphur converted as SO3 (max. 1%).
- Clay: Determination of clay, silt, and dust in fine and coarse aggregate can be tested by
sedimentation method. The aggregate is carefully mixed with water in volumetric cylinder and then let to
settle. The clay particles will form layer with different colour and structure on the surface of aggregate.
- Organic impurities: Decaying vegetation may result in aggregates being contaminated with
organic matter. This material may have a retarding effect on the setting of cementitious material and
may result in lower strengths of the hardened material at all ages. Organic impurities can be tested by
colorimetric test. Tested aggregate is mixed with sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or potassium hydroxide
(KOH) to prepare coloured solution. The colour of solution is compared with colour of standard
solution, prepared according the standard. If the colour of the test solution is darker than the standard
solution, than aggregate have to be reject.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. Name the classification of aggregates
2. Explain the grading of aggregates
6 GLASS

Glass is an amorphous substance having homogeneous texture. It is a hard, brittle, transparent or


translucent material. It is the most common material glazed into frames for doors, windows and curtain
walls. The most common types used in building construction are sheet and plate, next they can be of a
safety type, including wired, heat strengthened (tempered) and laminated glass. Glass fiber insulation
is common in roofs and walls. Foamed glass, made from waste glass, can be used as lightweight,
closed-cell insulation.
The main shortcoming of glass is its brittleness which depends on a number of factors, the chief one
being the ratio of the modulus of elasticity of the material to its tensile strength.

Glass is a mixture of a number of metallic silicates, one of which is usually that of an alkali metal. It
may be considered as a solidified super cooled solution of various metallic silicates having infinite
viscosity. For the purpose of classification glass may be grouped into the following three categories:
1. Soda-lime glass. Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2
2. Potash-lime glass. K20, CaO, 6SiO2
3. Potash – Lead glass. K20, PbO, 6SiO2

6.1 Properties and uses of glass


Properties such as density and melting point vary greatly depending on the material added to the
silica: density can range from light display glass with 2.37 g/cm³ to high lead-content flint glass with
7.2 g/cm³, while melting points can range from 500 to 1650 °C. These ranges can be exceeded, but
usually at the cost of stability or practicality.
• It absorbs, refracts or transmits light.
• It can take up high polish and may be used as substitute for every costly gems.
• It has no definite crystalline structure.
• It has no sharp melting point.
• It is affected by alkalies
• It is an excellent electrical insulator
• It is available in beautiful colours.
• It behaves more as solid than most solids in the sense that it is elastic
• It is capable of being worked in many ways
• It is extremely brittle.
• It is not usually affected by air or water
• It is possible to intentionally after some of its properties such as fusibility, hardness, refractive
power or to suit different purposes.
• It is not easily attacked by ordinary chemical reagents.
• It is possible to objects glasses with diversified properties. The glasses may be clear,
colourless, deffused and stained.
• It is possible to weld pieces of glass by fusion
• It is transparent and translucent.
• When it is heated, it becomes soft and soft with rise in temperature.
• It is possible to make glass lighter than cork or softer than cotton or stronger then steel by using
advancement of science.
• Uses:
Soda lime glass: It is used in the manufacture of glass tubes, laboratory apparatus, plate glass,
window glass, containers etc.
Potash lime glass (boro-silicate): It is used in the manufacturer of glass articles, which have to with
stand high temperatures.
Potash – lead glass: It is used in the manufacture of artificial gems, electric bulbs, lenses, prisms etc.
electrical applications

6.2 Constituents of glass


Typical glass contains formers, fluxes, and stabilizers.
• Formers make up the largest percentage of the mixture to be melted. In typical soda-lime-
silica glass the former is silica (Silicon dioxide) in the form of sand.
• Fluxes lower the temperature at which the formers will melt. Soda (Sodium carbonate) and
Potash (Potassium carbonate), both alkalis, are common fluxes. Potash glass is slightly
denser than soda glass.

• Stabilizers make the glass strong and water resistant. Calcium carbonate, often called
calcined limestone, is a stabilizer. Without a stabilizer, water and humidity attack and dissolve
glass.

The raw materials used in manufacturing glass (sand, lime (chalks) and soda or potash) are fused
over 1000° C. Oxides of iron, lead and borax are added to modify hardness, brilliance and colour. The
functions of the various ingredients are as follows.
Silica is used in the form of pure quartz, crushed sandstone and pulverised flint; should be free from
iron contents for best quality glass. Since it melts at very high temperatures (1710° C) carbonates of
sodium or potassium are added to lower down the fusing temperature to about 800° C. These also
make liquid silica more viscous and workable.
Lime is used in the form of limestone, chalk or pure marble and sometimes marl. The addition of lime
makes the glass fluid and suitable for blowing, drawing, rolling, pressing or spinning. It also imparts
durability and toughness to glass. Excess of lime makes the molten mass too thin for fabrication.
Soda acts as an accelerator for the fusion of glass and an excess of it is harmful.
Potash renders glass infusible and makes glass fire resistant.
However, the soda makes the glass water soluble, which is usually undesirable, so "lime" - calcium
oxide (CaO), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide Al2O3 are added to provide for a
better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 72 percent silica by weight and is
called a soda-lime glass. Soda-lime glasses account for about 90 percent of manufactured glass.
As well as soda and lime, most common glass has other ingredients added to change its properties.
Lead glass, such as lead crystal or flint glass, is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index
causes noticeably more "sparkles". Lead oxide imparts colour, brightness and shine. When 15–30% of
it added to substitute lime it lowers the melting point, imparts good workability, while its transparency is
lost with the glass becoming brittle and crystalline.
Boron may be added to change the thermal and electrical properties.
Adding barium increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and
low dispersion, and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has
been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern glasses. Large amounts of iron are used in glass that
absorbs infrared energy, such as heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide
can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths (biologically damaging ionizing radiation).
Cullets are broken glasses added to act as a flux to prevent loss of alkali by volatisation during the
process of forming glass and also to lower the fusion temperature. However, flux may reduce the
resistance of glass to chemical attack, render it water-soluble or make it subject to partial or complete
devitrification (crystallisation) on cooling. These crystalline areas are extremely weak and brittle.
Stabilizers are added to overcome these defects.
Typical compositions of individual kinds of glass are given in Tab. 6.1.

Table.6.1: Typical compositions of individual kinds of glass [%]


(Sources: http://glassproperties.com/glasses/ and * http://www.isca.in/rjcs/Archives/vol2/i2/4.pdf)

Soda-lime glass Borosilicate glass Lead Alkali-free


glass glass
Typical Typical Typical low Typical Typical Typical fiber
container float glass expansion fiber wool electrical reinforcement
glass glass glass insulator* for cement
composites
SiO2 74.42 71.86 83.34 63.51 59.0 70
Al2O3 0.75 0.08 1.33 2.92 1 10
MgO 0.30 5.64 - 5.22 - -
CaO 11.27 9.23 0.03 8.97 - 6
Na2O 12.9 13.13 4.08 15.70 8 -
B2O3 - - 11.19 2.89 - 10
PbO - - - - 22 -
K2O 10 -
SrO: 3
BaO 1
6.3 Forms of glass
• Sheet and plate glasses:
Sheet glass is used for glazing doors, windows and partitions and is obtained by blowing the molten
glass into the shape of a cylinder. The ends of the cylinder so produced are cut away and the cylinder
is flattened over a plane tray. It is available in thicknesses of 2, 2.5, 3, 4, 5, 5.5 and 6.5 mm.
Plate glass is used for all engineering purposes and is superior to sheet glass. A plate glass differs
from a sheet glass in that it has a parallel, distortion-free surface obtained by grinding or floating
process. It is produced by pouring the molten glass on casting tables and levelling it to an uniform
thickness. Both the glass surfaces are then ground, smoothened and polished.
Glass so produced is clear and contains unblemished true plane surfaces and is available in
thicknesses of 3 to 32 mm.
Tempered glass is made from plate glass by reheating and sudden cooling and is 3 to 5 times
stronger than plate glass. Although not unbreakable, it resists bending stress better than plate glass
and, when broken, the pieces are relatively small in size. It is used extensively in sports arenas, sliding
doors and curtain walls.
Wired glass is produced by embedding wire nets 0.46 to 0.56 mm into the centre of sheet glass
during casting. The minimum thickness of wired glass is 6 mm. When broken it does not fall into
pieces. It has higher melting point than ordinary glass. Wired glass is used for fire resisting doors and
windows, for sky lights and roofs. A special example of this is wired-refrax glass which transmits 100
per cent more light than the other glasses.
Obscured glass is made comparatively opaque to sunlight. Also known as patterned glass.
They are classified as frosted, rolled and ribbed.
Frosted glass is produced by subjecting the polished face of the glass to a sand blast which grinds off
the surface. It can also be produced by etching on glass by hydrofluoric acid.
Rolled glass has a series of waves of desired pattern on the surface and is also known as figured
rolled glass.
Ribbed glass – a series of triangular ribs are produced in the glass during casting.
Laminated glass is made by sandwiching a layer of polyvinyl butyral between two or more layers of
plate or sheet glass. It is also known as safety glass. The examples are heat proof glass, sound proof
glass and bullet proof glass.
Heate and sound proof glasses - two or more glass plates are sandwiched by a tinted plastic inner
layer. It provides high resistance to heat and glare. By increasing the thickness of plastic layer the
glass can be made more sound resistant.
Bullet proof glass is produced by placing vinyl plastic and glass in several alternate layers and
pressing them with outer layers of glass. It is used in banks, jewellery stores and display windows.
Insulating glass is composed of two glass plates into which a layer of 6–13 mm thick dehydrated air is
sealed. The round edges are formed by fusing together the two glass plates. These glasses reduce
the heat transmission by 30–60 per cent.
Heat absorbing glass is bluish green in colour and cuts ultra violet rays of sun. It is used in railway
carriages, factories, hospitals, health clubs and kitchens.
Ground glass - in this type of glass one face of plate or sheet glass is made rough by grinding. It is
used for maintaining privacy by obstructing vision and at the same time allowing light. The ground
glass is used for bedrooms, toilets and for making black boards.
Opal glass is also known as milk glass. It is produced by adding bone ash, oxide of tin and white
arsenic to vitreosil (99.5% silica glass known as clear silica glass). The composition is 10 parts of
sand, 4 parts cryolite and 1 part zinc oxide.
Enamel glass is produced by adding calcined lead and tin oxide to the ordinary glass. The
composition is 10 parts sand, 20 per cent lead and tin oxide and 8 parts potash.

• Glass fibers:
Fiberglass is the original fiber reinforcement of modern composites. Glass fiber offers an excellent
combination of properties from high tensile strength to fire resistance. They can be used in short-fiber
forms as a dispersed reinforcement, as well as in in the fabric form to produce a wide range of
woven/flat reinforcements. The basic properties of such fabrics are:
Dimensional Stability: glass fiber is a dimensionally stable engineering material. Glass fiber does not
stretch or shrink after exposure to extremely high or low temperatures. The elongation at break is
around 4.8% with a 100% elastic recovery when stressed close to its point of rupture.
Moisture Resistance: glass fibers do not absorb moisture or change physically or chemically when
exposed to water.
High Strength: the high strength-to-weight ratio of glass fiber makes it a superior material in
applications where high strength and minimum weight are required. In textile form, this strength can be
unidirectional or bidirectional, allowing flexibility in design.
Fire Resistance: glass fiber is an inorganic material and will not burn or support combustion. It retains
approximately 25% of its initial strength at 1000°F (540°C).
Chemical Resistance: most chemicals have little or no effect on glass fiber. The inorganic glass
textile fibers will not mildew, rot or deteriorate. Glass fibers are affected by hydrofluoric, hot phosphoric
acids and strong alkaline substances.
Electrical Properties: glass fiber is an excellent material for electrical insulation.
Ways of production
Drawing: The molten glass is extruded to the bushing for formation glass into many fibers with small
diameters.
Spinning: The most common process used is the rotary process. Here, the melted glass enters a
rotating spinner, and due to centrifugal force is thrown out horizontally. By this technique, the staple is
produced (that is, clusters of short lengths of fiber), suitable for glass wool insulations.

• Foamed glass:
The foamed glass aggregate is produced from cleaned recycled glass. It is a lightweight, extremely
fine-pored expanded glass with millions of hermetically sealed pores. Since no diffusion can take
place, the material is watertight and achieves an efficient barrier against soil humidity. It is especially
suited for usage in the construction of roads, as frost-heave insulation as well as a bulk lightening
material. It is also excellent as an all-round building insulator (foundation and frost heave insulator, flat
roof insulator in the structure of inverted roofs), as well as a bulk lightening material for foundations.
Crushed foamed glass can also be used as a capillary blocker.

6.4 The manufacturing process of glass


The manufacturing process of glass consists of the following steps:
• Selection and controlling of raw materials.

• Preparation of raw materials, consisting essentially of a weighing and mixing operation.


Sometimes water is added to avoid dust emissions; sometimes segregation and sorting are
applied to remove pollutant components from the batch or recycled glass.

• Melting: the raw materials undergo fusion at high temperature in a furnace. The batched raw
materials pass from a mixing silo to a five-chambered furnace where they become molten at a
temperature of approximately 1500°C.

• Forming: the molten glass is given a shape and allowed to solidify (production of flat and
container glass); the formation of fibres as continuous filaments or into glass wool mats is
carried out (production of glass wool) by special fiberisation processes. In the case of floating,
glass from the melter flows gently over a refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of
o o
molten tin, starting at 1,100 C and leaving the float bath as a solid ribbon at 600 C.

• Curing for wool: the binder-coated fibreglass mat is allowed to cure (production of glass wool)

• Annealing: internal thermally induced stresses in the glass articles are removed by heat
treatment. Despite the tranquillity with which float glass is formed, considerable stresses are
developed in the ribbon as it cools. Too much stress and the glass will break beneath the
cutter. To relieve these stresses, the ribbon undergoes heat-treatment in a long furnace
known as a lehr. Temperatures are closely controlled both along and across the ribbon.
Pilkington has developed technology which automatically feeds back stress levels in the glass
to control the temperatures in the lehr.

• Finishing or post-processing. Examples of finishing include:


o quality control and cutting (production of flat glass), application of coatings (hot and cold end)
of container glasses plus inspection on glass faults (inclusions, dimension and shape checks);

o cooling the glass wool mat, and backing, cutting, and packaging the insulation, as well as
quality control (production of glass wool);

o quality control, cutting, and for hand-shaped glass, further decorative treatment such as
engraving or polishing (special glass);
• Post processes may include tempering of glass or coatings application on glass surfaces to
change optical or thermal insulation properties of flat glass products, to add functionality to the
glass products or to increase scratch resistance of the glass surfaces.
6.5 Some examples of manufacturing the glass products
• Glass products generally

• Float glass process


(Source: http://www-old.me.gatech.edu/jonathan.colton/me4210/glass.pdf)

• Manufacturing process of glass wool


(Source: http://www.eurima.org/about-mineral-wool/production-process)
• Manufacturing process of glass fibres

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. Define basic properties and uses of glass.
2. Name components of glass
3. Name forms of glass – products
4. Explain basic steps of production process of glass

7 BUILDING CERAMICS

Fired clay has very suitable combination of properties for construction purposes – no other material
has such combinations, often very opposite, but lucrative for building aims:
- Low apparent density – adequate stability
- High compressive strength – low heat conductivity
- Further: optimal porosity (size and distribution), optimal water-vapour diffusion, and sound
absorption.
- Disadvantages: brittleness, low bending strength
7.1 Basic classification of building ceramics

Ceramics from water absorption capacity point of view:


• sintered W < 1,5%
• semisintered W = 1,5-3%
• solid W = 3-6%
• semisolid W = 6 – 10%
• porous W > 10%

Ceramics from body structure point of view:


• fine – microstructure is visible only by microscope, raw material is very fine ground (porcelain,
some linings, sanitary ware)
• coarse – structure is visible by eye (brickware)

Ceramics from surfacing coat point of view:


• glazed
• unglazed
• engobe-glazed
• polished
• facial (without surface treatment)
• decorated

7.2 Raw materials (components of ceramic matter)


• Basic:
Appropriate soil – usually incoherent sedimentary rocks – dirt, clay
Materials for ceramic matter – paste have to be both plastic and non-plastic in right ratio:
- plastic materials are good for formation of products, but it is risk of shrinking and crack
formation;
- non-plastic are unsuitable for plastic matter creation, but they eliminate volume changes
during production process and affect the microstructure of matter.

• Additional:
They are added into the ceramic body in limited amount and affect some final properties.
- Grogs – eliminate risk of shrinkage cracks and deformation of products (ash, sand, slag –
granularity 0,05-2,0 mm)
- Pore creating materials – they assist the pores creation in body and in such a way minimise the
volume weight and increase the thermal insulation parameters. Such materials added into
ceramic paste burn out during the burning stage of production and leave the pores (coal dust,
wooden saw dust)
- Melting materials – they act easement of sintering process and higher solidity of ceramic body
(feldspar…)
7.3 Manufacturing technology
• geological survey of deposit
excavation • excavators, dredgers, scrapers, bulldozers…
of raw • maturation on dumps

• crushing., grinding, mixing – homogenization


preparation • steaming, spraying
of raw

formation Creation of shape, dimensions and perforations.


Important is an amount of water and plasticity of paste. Amount of water is
of designed regarding to manner of formation. The modes are:
products • compression (dry paste) – linings, pavements
• pulling by screw press (paste with cca 20% of water) - bricks
• casting into the mould (slurry) – sanitary ware

Some amount of water have to be removed before the firing process,


drying of
because the sharp change of temperature could cause a deformation and
products cracking of products. There are various types of ovens – hot air drying oven,
chamber oven, channel oven ..., where drying runs are controlled

Glaze application – before firing or on fired product surface (and repeated


surface firing). Glaze can to be transparent or covering; colour pattern is applied
treatment before glazing.
Engobe application – application of liquid form of basic paste like material
on the product surface.

Ceramic body obtains typical final properties by this process of


firing manufacturing. Run, temperature and time of firing depends on: kind of raw
materials, kind of products, thickness of product, properties required;
Higher temperature of firing – higher strength, frost resistance, durability.
Lower temperature – higher porosity, water absorption, heat insulating ability.

Run of firing:
• heating – up to 700°C: for smooth transition to firing temperature
• hardening – up to 900°C comes the compaction of body, above the 900°C
the process of sintering and creation of melt like body starts
• cooling – till the ambient temperature; process have to be smooth

Separation of poor quality products. Parameters of sorting define the producer


sorting according to customer’s requirements. The criteria are:
• accuracy of dimensions
• shape regularity
• sharpness of edges and corners
• planeness of surfaces
• cracks presence
7.4 Kinds of products

Brickware
- products with more than 10% of porosity, without surface coating; assigned for external utilisation
have to be frost resistant, solid or perfored by various holes, tongues…
Classification from construction placement point of view:
• products for vertical constructions: external or internal walls, dividing walls
• products for horisontal constructions: structural floors
• roof tiles
• brick linings and floor tiles
• products for special aims

Products for vertical constructions


The largest group of brickware, so called walling. Unites for internal walls have to have good acoustic
properties, for external walls good thermal ones and frost resistance and adequate strength for load-
bearing function.
New generation of products are the light-weight brick units (Britterm, Porotherm…). They insure
required heat insulating values, without an additional insulation necessity. Indicated properties are
achieved by porosity of clay body and special arrangement of holes.
Some examples:

Products for horizontal constructions


- for floor or ceiling assembled load-bearing constructions. The advantage is their low volume weight –
they can be assembled in situ without any lifting gear (crane).

ARMO
Floor block KSV 45 Supporting beam

HURDIS

Roof tiles
There is wide variety of these products on the market. They are used as roof cladding for sloped roofs
and have a nib (stub) for joining purpose. There are high quality requests: colour constancy, frost
resistance and they must be water proofing.

Red Copper Antik Brown Black


Grey Green Blue Dark green Grey

Brick linings and floor tiles


Brick linings are used as both internal and external veneer of vertical constructions. Floor tiles for
special aims – neat-house floors, garret floors…

Products for special aims


- drainage tubes – without the glaze with a smooth surface and the transversal grooves or slots
to enhance water resistance. To drain wetlands for reducing the groundwater level. Length of 500 mm,
frost resistant
- chimney units
- well units
- fence units
- unites for ground shaping
- aggregates for lightweight concrete (expanded clay, agloporit)

Pavement blocks TERCA Klinker Garden blocks

Drainage tubes
Cearmic tiles
They are thin walled materials of plate like shape and nice look. They protect constructions from
moisture and gas penetration, provide resistant surface of floors and uplift hygienic parameters of
construction surfaces and maintenance. They uplift the resistance of constructions towards the
weather influences and mechanical wear.
Kinds of products: linings – for vertical facings, veneers
floor tiles
They are manufactured from homogenous mixture of clay, sand, meltings and others by formation,
drying and burning.
They are of various qualities in accordance with utilization purpose: what is the ambient they are built-
in and what actions they must to resist.
Definitive properties depend on porosity (burning quality) and surface finishing mostly.
Ceramic body can be white or coloured; the surface treatment is glaze mostly.

Classification of ceramic facing units in terms of water absorption capacity:


• low absorptive units: W ≤ 3%
• middle absorptive units: W = 3-10%
• high absorptive units: W ≥ 10%
The most quality facing units are special high sintered units with absorption less than 0,1%.

Properties required:
• accuracy of dimensions – because of high aesthetic requests. They must be produced in some
settled dimensions as well, in order to trouble free combinations. In our is settled scale (modulus)
100 mm; and all building materials manufactured as units (individual pieces) have to be
manufactured in multiple or quotient of this value.

Examples of face units dimensions: 30 x 30 mm, 20 x 20 mm, 15 x 15 mm, 20 x 15 mm …


• water absorption capacity
• frost resistance – for units dedicated for external utilization
• hardness – tested by Mohs hardness scale
• bending strength
• wear resistance
• household chemicals resistance
• acid resistance – for units dedicated for chemical laboratories
• alkali resistance - - //-
• antiskid treatment – floor tiles
Azul/Blue 25x35 Grys/Grafit Beige/Brown Blue

Pallad Blue 33,3x33,3 Stella 33,3x33,3 Rubid 33,3x33,3

Sanitary ware
Accessories of hygienic rooms (sanitary) of civil buildings, enterprises, hospitals, laboratories …
They are of porous ceramic body, always with glazed surface treatment. Disadvantageous is their
brittleness.

Kinds of products:
• wash-basins – wall or with jamb
• toilet bowls – wall or standing on floor
• bidets
• urinals – bowls, slabs
• special laboratory, industrial and medicinal products
Refractory ceramics
Refractories are materials that provide linings for high-temperature furnaces and other processing
units. Refractories must be able to withstand physical wear, high temperatures (above 538°C), and
corrosion by chemical agents. There are two general classifications of refractories, clay and nonclay.
Clay refractories are produced from fireclay (hydrous silicates of aluminium) and alumina (57 to 87.5
percent). Other clay minerals used in the production of refractories include kaolin, bentonite, ball clay,
and common clay. Nonclay refractories are produced from a composition of alumina (<87.5 percent),
mullite, chromite, magnesite, silica, silicon carbide, zircon, and other nonclays.
Refractories are produced in two basic forms, formed objects, and unformed granulated or plastic
compositions. The preformed products are called bricks and shapes. These products are used to form
the walls, arches, and floor tiles of a various high-temperature process equipment glass furnaces,
metallurgical furnaces). Unformed compositions include mortars, gunning mixes, castables (refractory
concretes) and ramming mixes. These products are cured in place to form a monolithic, internal
structure after application.
Acid resistant ceramics
Sewer drain pipes are made of fire-resistant or refractory clay. The presence of a thin layer of glaze
determines water resistance and high resistance to tubing effects of acids and alkalis. Pipes carry a
150 - 600 mm, length 800 - 1200mm. High chemical resistance allows for removal of industrial pipes
for water containing alkali and acid.
Acid products - acid-proof brick. Used for lining machines, flues and gutters, for floors in shops with
aggressive media, for lining digesters and in agriculture (feeders, silage containers …).
Acid-tubes have thin baked crock, outer and inner sides coated with acid resistant coating. Apply for
the chemical industry.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. Name the operations involved in the manufacture of ceramics.
2. What are the types of ceramics?
3. What are the important qualities of ceramics?
4. Explain the refractory type of ceramics.

8 BINDERS
Binders are substances which are used to bind inorganic and organic particles and fibres to form
strong, hard and/or flexible components. This is generally due to chemical reactions which take place
when the binder is mixed with water and/or other materials, or just exposed to air.
The main groups of binders are as follows:
• Inorganic (mineral): mineral binding materials are materials that set and harden after being
combined with water, as a result of chemical reactions with the mixing water, and that, after
hardening, retain strength and stability. These can be divided into two categories:
− Air hardening/Non-hydraulic binders, which can only harden in the presence of air. Also, they
are not durable under humid conditions
− Hydraulic binders which require water to harden and develop strength. They also are durable
in humid conditions.
• Organic:
− Bituminous binders
− Synthetic binders

8.1.1 Mineral Binders


Hydraulicity of binders:
Ability of powdery material to react with water, next set and harden creating the hard and strong block.
This process depends on the ratio of lime and hydraulic oxides SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3 (hydraulic modulus
HM).

CaO
HM =
SiO 2 + Al 2O3 + Fe 2O3
According to the value of HM, we can differ whether the binder dispose of hydraulicity or it only is the
air type of binder.
HM < 3:strong hydraulic binders
HM = 3-6: middle hydraulic
HM = 6-9: weak hydraulic
HM > 9: air hardening binders

8.1.2 Air hardening/Non-hydraulic binders

Clay: it is the most common non-hydraulic binder, which is present in most soils, causing them to
harden on drying and soften when wet. Its main uses are in earth constructions and in the
manufacture of burnt clay products.
Lime: another common non-hydraulic binder is high calcium or magnesium lime. It is the high-
temperature product of the calcination of limestone. Although limestone deposits are found in every
state, only a small portion is pure enough for industrial lime manufacturing. To be classified as
limestone, the rock must contain at least 50 percent calcium carbonate. When the rock contains 30 to
45 percent magnesium carbonate, it is referred to as dolomite, or dolomitic limestone. Lime can also
be produced from aragonite, chalk, coral, marble, and sea shells.
Lime is used in different forms:
• as burnt lime or quick lime (CaO)
• as hydrated lime Ca(OH)2
Lime is manufactured in various kinds of kilns by one of the following reactions:
When limestone is affected by heat or acid it transforms into a series of unstable chemical
compounds, before eventually turning back into Calcium carbonate. This process is known as the
'Lime Cycle' (Fig. 8.1).

Fig. 8.1: The lime cycle


(Source: http://www.oldbuilders.com/what%20is%20lime/whatislime.htm)

In construction and building it is used for:


• calcium silicate bricks production
• masonry mortar and rendering
• treatment and stabilization of soils
• mixed with a pozzolana (rice husk ash, fly ash, blast furnace slag, etc.) to produce a
hydraulic binder, which can partially or completely substitute cement
• in cement mortars and plasters to make it more workable.
• limewash (diluted milk of lime) is used as an external and internal wall coating

Gypsum: it is a non-hydraulic binder made of calcium sulphate all-hydrate (CaS04.2H20). By gentle


heating up to about 160° C, calcium sulphate hemi-hydrate (CaSO4.1/2H2O) is produced, more
commonly known as "Plaster of Paris", which when mixed with water sets in 8 to 10 minutes. Further
heating of gypsum, slightly beyond 200° C produces anhydrite gypsum (CaSO4), which when mixed
with water, sets very slowly.
Gypsum is used mainly as a retarder to regulate the setting of various types of hydraulic cements, and
in conjunction with a variety of other materials (eg lime, sand, sawdust, jute, sisal, linseed oil, paper) to
produce renders, boards and masonry blocks.
The main advantages of gypsum are the low energy input during burning to produce gypsum plaster;
rapid drying and hardening, with negligible shrinkage; good adhesion to fibrous and other materials;
good fire resistance; good sound reflection (if made dense and hard); superior surface finish;
resistance to insects and rodents.
The principle drawback of gypsum plaster is its solubility in water. Humid air can also soften gypsum
plaster. Frost and sudden temperature changes can also cause damage.
On account of this drawback, gypsum should not be used on external surfaces in humid climatic
zones.
Soluble glass: water glass or soluble glass, colorless, transparent, glasslike substance available
commercially as a powder or as a transparent, viscous solution in water. Chemically it is sodium
silicate, potassium silicate, or a mixture of these. It is prepared by fusing sodium or potassium
carbonate with sand or by heating sodium or potassium hydroxide with sand under pressure. Water
glass is very soluble in water, but the glassy solid dissolves slowly, even in boiling water. Water glass
has adhesive properties and is fire resistant – this designates it to be used for refractory mortars and
plasters. Next typical application is recovery of facades.

8.1.2 Hydraulic binders


Hydraulic and semi-hydraulic limes are obtained from burning limestone, which contains a large or
moderate amount of clay. This can be easily understood, since limestone and clay are the main raw
materials for cement production.
Pozzolanas are natural or artificial materials which contain silica and/or alumina. They are not
cementitious themselves, but when finely ground and mixed with lime, the mixture will set and harden
at ordinary temperatures in the presence of water, like cement. Natural pozzolanas are essentially
volcanic ashes from geologically recent volcanic activity. Artificial pozzolanas result from various
industrial and agricultural processes, usually as by-products. The most important artificial pozzolanas
are burnt clay, pulverized-fuel ash (fly ash) and ground granulated blast furnace slag.
Hydraulic binders are usually available in the form of a fine powder: the finer they are ground (usually
in a ball mill), the larger is the specific surface area (of the sum of the particles) per unit weight. And
the larger the surface area, the more effective and complete is the chemical reaction with the water
that it comes into contact with. On account of their affinity to water, hydraulic binders must be stored in
absolutely dry conditions, to avoid premature setting and hardening. Even humid air can cause
hydration.
Cement is the most common hydraulic binder. From the large variety of cements available today,
ordinary Portland cement (OPC) is most common. It essentially consists of 95% of clinker. Certain part
of clinker can be substituted by some pozzolanic materials containing similar oxides; by this way the
blended cement is produced.

Portland cement
Powdered hydraulic binder; mix of clinker (basic component) and additives (they regulate some
properties of cement).
Production of clinker (see Fig. 8.2): materials that contain appropriate amounts of calcium
compounds, silica, alumina and iron oxide, i.e. limestone and clay are ground and mixed with water to
form slurry, which is fed into the upper end of the slightly inclined, refractory lined rotating furnace,
which can be more than 100 m long. Hot air of temperatures between 1300° and 1400° C is blown in
at the lower end, drying the slurry, which is then sintered and fused into hard balls known as clinker.
These drop out of the kiln, are cooled and interground in a ball-mill with about 3 % gypsum to retard
the setting of the cement. The finer it is ground, the higher is the rate of the setting and strength
development reactions. The wet process, described here, has largely been superseded by the dry
process, which needs less energy to dry the raw material feed.
The appropriate mix design of raw materials for clinker production, as well as quality of resulting
clinker is evaluated by 3 basic modules (hydraulic, silicate and aluminate):

CaO
HM =
SiO 2 + Al 2O 3 + Fe 2O 3

SiO 2
SM =
Al 2O 3 + Fe 2O 3

Al 2O 3
AM =
Fe 2O 3

Figure 8.2: Cement production process


(Source: http://www.ohorongo-cement.com/product/process.php)

• Typical chemical composition of Portland clinker:


CaO 63-66%
SiO2 21-44%
Al2O3 4-8%
Fe2O3 2-4%
• Typical mineralogical composition of Portland clinker:

Table 8.1: Typical mineralogical composition of Portland clinker


name formula brief mineral name amount
notation
trikalciumsilicate 3CaO.SiO2 C3S alite 37-60%
dikalciumsilicate 2CaO.SiO2 C2S belite 15-37%
trikalciumaluminate 3 CaO.Al2O3 C3A aluminate/celit 7-15%
tetrakalciumaluminateferite 4CaO.(Al2O3, C4AF ferrite 10-18%
Fe2O3)

• Hydration process:
The setting and hardening are the result of chemical and physical processes that take place between
Portland cement and water, i.e. hydration. To understand the properties and behaviour of cement and
concrete some knowledge of the chemistry of hydration is necessary. Three principal reactions occur:
Almost immediately on adding water some of the clinker sulphates and gypsum dissolve producing an
alkaline, sulfate-rich, solution.
Soon after mixing, the (C3A) phase (the most reactive of the four main clinker minerals) reacts with the
water to form an aluminate-rich gel. The gel reacts with sulfate in solution to form small rod-like
crystals of ettringite. (C3A) reaction with water is strongly exothermic but does not last long, typically
only a few minutes, and is followed by a period of a few hours of relatively low heat evolution.
The first part of this period, up to perhaps half-way through, corresponds to when concrete can be
placed. As the period progresses, the paste becomes too stiff to be workable. At the end of the period,
the alite and belite in the cement start to react, with the formation of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH)
and calcium hydroxide Na(OH2). This corresponds to the main period of hydration, during which time
concrete strengths increase. The individual grains react from the surface inwards, and the anhydrous
particles become smaller. (C3A) hydration also continues, as fresh crystals become accessible to
water and creates calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH).
The period of maximum heat evolution occurs typically between about 10 and 20 hours after mixing
and then gradually tails off. In a mix containing PC only, most of the strength gain has occurred within
about a month. Where PC has been partly-replaced by other materials, such as fly ash, strength
growth may occur more slowly and continue for several months or even a year (see Fig. 8.3)
Ferrite reaction also starts quickly as water is added, but then slows down, probably because a layer
of iron hydroxide gel forms, coating the ferrite and acting as a barrier, preventing further reaction.
Typical development of the degree of hydration and compressive strength of a Type I Portland cement
over time is given in Fig. 8.4.
Figure 8.3: Rate of feat evolution
(Source: http://matse1.matse.illinois.edu/concrete/prin.html)

Figure 8.4: Typical development of the degree of hydration and compressive strength of a Type I
Portland cement over time.
(Source: http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Monograph5_1.html)

Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early
strength. In general, the early strength of portland cement concrete is higher with increased
percentages of C3S.
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S) hardens slowly and contributes largely to strength increases at ages
beyond 7 days.
Hydration of Calcium silicates in cement is described by next formulas:
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) liberates a large amount of heat during the first few days of hardening
and, together with C3S and C2S may somewhat increase the early strength of the hardening
cement (this effect being due to the considerable heat of hydration that this compound evolves). It
does affect set times.
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF) contributes very slightly to strength gain. However, acts as a
flux during manufacturing. Contributes to the color effects that makes cement gray.

Resulting basic components of hydration reaction:


- CSH gel: 50-60% of hardened cement
- Portlandite Ca(OH)2 – 20-25%: compared with C-S-H, the strength contributing potential of
calcium hydrate due to Van-der Waals forces is limited as a result of a considerably lower surface
area. It has an adverse effect on chemical durability to acidic solutions because of the higher
solubility of calcium hydroxide than C-S-H.
- CAH gel: 10-15%
- Non hydrated clinker grains: some non hydrated clinker grains may be found in the microstructure
of hardened cement paste, even long after hydration. It is due to “shell” originated from hydration
products.

Supplementary Cementitious Materials:


Various blends can be used in blended cements as partial substitution of clinker. They can offer
significant performance advantages over portland cement - they can produce stronger and more
durable concrete together with global environmental benefit (due to saving the high energy demanding
clinker). and also can significantly affect the hydration process – see below. They are also known as
supplementary cementing materials (SCM´s). The most common SCM´s are:

Natural:
They are produced from natural mineral deposits (e.g., volcanic ash or pumicite, diatomaceous earth,
opaline cherts and shales), or by heat treatment of some materials (e.g., metakaolin or calcined clay,
calcined shale, rice hull ash, calcined shale).

Processed/manufactured:
- GBFS (granulated blast furnace slag) is a by-product of the iron manufacturing process.
- Fly ash (FA) from the pollution-control equipment of coal-burning power plants.
- Silica fume (SF) is a by-product of manufacturing silicon metals and ferro-silicon alloys.
According to chemical/mineralogical composition, they exhibit pozzolanic or latent hydraulic reactions.
Position of GBFS, FA and SF in these terms is given in Fig. 8.5 and 8.6.
Figure 8.5: Composition of different SCM´s using ternary diagram

Figure 8.6: Characterisation of hydraulic vs. pozzolanic ability of different SCM´s

• The physical properties of cement:


Setting Time: Cement paste setting time is affected by a number of items including: cement fineness,
water-cement ratio, chemical content (especially gypsum content) and admixtures. For construction
purposes, the initial set must not be too soon and the final set must not be too late. Normally, two
setting times are defined:
• Initial set: occurs when the paste begins to stiffen considerably.
• Final set: occurs when the cement has hardened to the point at which it can sustain some load.
Setting is mainly caused by C3A and C3S and results in temperature rise in the cement paste.
Soundness: Soundness is defined as the volume stability of the cement paste. The cement paste
should not undergo large changes in volume after it has set. However, when excessive amounts of
free CaO or MgO are present in the cement, these oxides can slowly hydrate and cause expansion of
the hardened cement paste. Most Portland cement specifications limit magnesia content and
expansion.
Fineness: fineness or particle size of Portland cement affects hydration rate and thus the rate of
strength gain. The smaller the particle size, the greater the surface area and thus the more area
available for water-cement interaction per unit volume.
When the cement particles are coarser, hydration starts on the surface of the particles. So the coarser
particles may not be completely hydrated. This causes low strength and low durability. For a rapid
development of strength a high fineness is necessary.
Strength: Cement strength depends mainly on the chemical composition and fineness. It is typically
defined by strength classes denoting the compressive strength after 28 days of setting and hardening.
Strength of hardened cement paste then can be affected by a number of items , most of them by
water/cement ratio.
Porosity:
Knowledge of porosity is very useful since porosity has a strong influence on strength and durability. In
hardened cement paste, there are several types of porosity, trapped or entrained air (0.1 to several
mm in size), capillary pores (0.01 to a few microns) existing in the space between hydration products,
and gel pores (several nanometers or below) within the layered structure of the C-S-H. The capillary
pores influence the hardened paste significantly. They affect the strength and permeability of the
hardened paste itself, consequently the durability of cement – based products.
The minimum w/c ratio for complete hydration is usually assumed to be app. 0.36. To satisfy
workability requirements, the water added in the mix is usually more than that needed for the chemical
reaction. Part of the water is used up in the chemical reaction. The remaining is either held by the C-S-
H gel or stored in the capillary pore. Most capillary water is free water (far away from the pore
surface). On drying, they will be removed. Loss of adsorbed water on surfaces and those in the gel
will, however, lead to shrinkage. Movement of adsorbed and gel water under load is a cause of
creeping in concrete.
Figure 8.7:Dependance between amount of water and capillarity of hardened cement

For above mentioned properties, SCM´s the can play an important role. The basic effects of SCM´s on
the properties of hardened cement are given in Fig. 8.8.
Effect on the properties of fresh paste should be also mentioned here. SCM´s can positively affect the
workability of mixture, but most of them elongate the setting time – this causes lower early strengths.

Figure 8.8: Benefitional effect of SCM´s on the pore structure of hardened cement
• Types of cement:
The actual kinds and notifications of cement are different in individual countries being defined by
corresponding standard. As examples, types of cements according to European standard, as well as
American standard are given here.
EN Cement types and composition: see the Tab. 8.2
Table 8.2: European standard EN 197-1 cement composition

The choice of applicable type of cement depends on: type of structure, environment acting on
structure, and procedure of structure production.
CEM I – is recommended for wide range of uses: for concrete and mortars production, production of
plain and reinforced concrete structures, concrete blocks, precast units. It is improper for foundation
constructions, rugged (massive) constructions, for constructions to be exposed to the aggressive
environment (mainly sulphates) or to high temperatures.
CEM II/A-S or CEM II/B-S – is the most utilized type because of lower hydration heat and better
resistivity to aggressive attack. It is suitable for almost all manners of utilization; especially for massive
constructions and constructions being in contact with waste water.
CEM III – there is good for rugged constructions, massive blocks or large areas concrete placing,
dams, concrete to be in contact with aggressive surroundings – soil, water.

ASTM Cement types and compositions:


ASTM has three standards that address cement and cement types. ASTM C150 is the most common
cement used and is familiar to most of us in the precast industry. The ASTM has designated five types
of portland cement, designated Types I-V. Physically and chemically, these cement types differ
primarily in their content of C3A and in their fineness. In terms of performance, they differ primarily in
the rate of early hydration and in their ability to resist sulfate attack. Inside types I –V, the 10 current
cement types listed in ASTM C150 are:
1. Type I – for use when the special properties specified for any other type are not required
2. Type IA – air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type I, where air entrainment is desired
3. Type II – for general use, more especially when moderate sulfate resistance is desired
4. Type IIA – air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II, where air entrainment is desired
5. Type II (MH) – for general use, more especially when moderate heat of hydration is desired
6. Type II (MH)A – air-entraining cement for the same uses as Type II(MH), where air-entrainment is
desired
7. Type III – for use when high early strength is desired
8. Type IIIA – air-entraining cement for the same use as Type III, where air entrainment is desired
9. Type IV – for use when a low heat of hydration is desired
10. Type V – for use when high sulfate resistance is desired

Modifications of common Portland cement

Sulfate-resistant PC: it is a cement in which the C3A is kept low enough for only a small amount of
gypsum (which is a sulfate) to have to be added; thus, the risk of the formation of an excessive
amount of cracks is reduced, it is better sulfate attack resistance and volume stability. Sulphate
Resistant Cement is used in projects such as dams that are exposed to high amounts of sulfates. It is
also used wherever there are constructions that are in direct contact with clay soil, which contains a
large amount of sulfate salt, such as foundations and pillars.
Low-heat Portland cement: it is cement in which the amount of C3A is reduced and that of C2S
increased instead. Low Heat Cement is specially engineered cement for use where the heat evolved
during the cement hydration process needs to be reduced. In mass concrete situations using normal
type cements, this heat of hydration can cause significant temperature gradients within the structure
and thermal cracking may result. The use of Low Heat Cement (Type LH) can minimize this effect.

8.2 Organic Binders

8.2.1 Bituminous Binders


Asphalts are mechanical mixtures of different hydrocarbons (compounds of carbon and hydrogen)
and a few other substances, and is obtained as a residue in the distillation of crude oil, either in
petroleum refineries or in nature (in pores of rocks or in the form of lakes, close to petroleum deposits).
Bitumens are generally dark black, oily, fluorescent thermoplastic substances, which are highly
viscous to almost solid at normal temperatures. Compounds consisting of at least 40 % of heavy
hydrocarbons are called bitumens.
Tar is the thick black substance produced by the destructive distillation (or carbonisation) of organic
matter, such as wood or coal.
Pitch is the residue after distilling tar from coal.
Bitumen is insoluble in water and fairly resistant to most acids. Bitumen and coal tar products may be
poisonous; hence contact with drinking water should be avoided.
Bituminous products can be used as waterproofing materials (in soil stabilization, as paints, damp-
proof membranes, roofing felt, joint fillers, etc.), as paving materials (roads and floors) and as
adhesives (for wood block flooring, insulating linings and felts).
8.2.2 Synthetic Binders
These binders are generally produced by industrial processes and, therefore, often expensive.
Synthetic materials which bond loose particles together are mainly resins derived from plant materials
or mineral oil. The variety of commercial products is very large and their use depends on the required
performance (strength development, waterproofing, elasticity etc.).
The generally are capable of hardening to 105 MPa within a few minutes without thermal treatment.
Some common types are potassium silicate, vinyl ester, epoxy, and furan.
Epoxy resins are higher in cost but offer advantages such as adhesion to wet surfaces.
Styrene monomer, and methyl methacrylate (MMA) with benzoyl peroxide catalyst and an amine
promoter are also often used.
An unsaturated polyester resin promoted for room temperature cure contains styrene monomer is low-
viscosity fast-cure resin for applications where fast green strength development is required

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. Name the classification of binders
2. Explain the difference between air hardening and hydraulic binders
3. Explain production and uses of lime and gypsum
4. Name the important ingredients of cement
5. What are the important types of cement ?
6. Explain the qualities of cement
7. Explain the varieties of cement
8. Explain in detail the uses of cement
9. Explain the process of hydration of cement
10. Explain the function of SCM´s

9 MORTARS
The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a mixture
of binding material like cement, gypsum or lime and fine aggregates like sand. The two components of
mortar namely the binding material and fine aggregates are sometimes referred to as matrix. The
durability, quality and strength of mortar will mainly depend on quantity and quality of the matrix.

Basic requirements for mortars:


• It should be capable of developing good adhesion with the building units such as bricks,
stones etc.
• It should be capable of developing the designed stresses.
• It should be cheap.
• It should be durable.
• It should be easily workable.
• It should not affect the durability of materials with which it comes into contact.
Basic uses (functions) of mortars:
• To bind the building units such as bricks, stones etc.
• To carry out painting and plaster works on exposed surfaces of masonry
• To form an even bedding layer for building units
• To form joints of pipes
• To improve the appearance of structure.

9.1 Classifications of Mortars


The mortars are classified on the bases of the following:
1. Apparent density
2. Kinds of binding material
3. Strength
4. Nature of application

• Based on apparent density:


According to bulk density of mortar in dry state, the mortars are two types
3
- Heavy mortars: bulk density is more than 1500kg/m and prepared from heavy quartz
3
- Lightweight mortars: bulk density is less than 1500/mg and prepared from light porous sands.

• Based on kinds of binding material:


The governing factors in deciding a particular type of mortar for a specific structure depends upon the
desired strength of masonry, resistance to penetration of rain water, immediate and long term
appearance, hardening temperature, expected working conditions of the building and also cost. The
mortars are classified into four categories:
- Lime Mortar - in this mortar, lime is used as binding material. Lime may be fate lime or Hydraulic
lime. Fat lime mortar 1:2 to 1:3 and hydraulic lime mortar may be1:2 by volume.
- Cement mortar: In this mortar, cement is used as binding material. Depending upon the strength
required and importance of work, the proportion of cement to sand varies from 1:2 to 1:6 or more.
- Gauged Mortar or composite mortar: The process of adding cement to lime mortar to improve
the quality of lime mortar is known as gauging. It makes lime mortar economical, strong and
dense. The usual proportion of cement to lime by volume is about 1:6 to 1:8
- Gypsum mortar: These mortars are prepared from gypsum binding material such as building
gypsum and anhydrite binding materials.

• Based on strength:
Building mortars are subdivided into nine grades on the basis of compressive strength from 0.4 to 30.0
MPa.

• Based on nature of application:


According to the nature of application, the mortars are classified into two categories.
- Brick laying mortars: Mortars for brick laying are intended to be used for brick works and walls.
Depending up on the working conditions and type of construction, the composition of masonry
mortars with respect to the kind of binding materials is decided.
- Finishing mortars: these mortars include common plastering work and mortars for developing
architectural or ornamental effects. Generally cement or lime is used as binding material.
- Grouting mortars
- Mortars for special applications:
- Fire resistant mortar- This mortar is prepared by adding 1:2 ratio of aluminous cement with
crushed powder of fire bricks used for fire brick lining furnaces, fire places, ovens etc.
- Light weight mortar – This mortar is prepared by adding sawdust, wood powder to lime or
cement mortar for sound proof and heat proof construction
- Packing Mortar – To pack of oil wells, special mortars possessing the properties of high
homogeneity, water resistance, predetermined setting time, ability to form solid water proof
plugs in cracks and voids of rocks, resistance to subsoil water pressure etc. have to be formed
with cement sand, cement loam and cement sand loam mortars.
- Sound absorbing mortars: To reduce the noise level, sound absorbing mortars with Portland
cement, lime, gypsum, slag Portland cement etc as the binding materials employed in its
composition. The aggregates are selected from lightweight porous material such as pumice.
- X-ray shielding mortar: This type of mortar is used for providing the plastering coat to walls
and ceiling of x-ray cabinets. This is heavy mortar with bulk density over 2200kg/m3 is used.
The aggregates are obtained from heavy rock and suitable admixtures are added to enhance
protective property of such a mortar.

9.2 Preparation of mortar

For preparing mortar, water is added to intimate mixtures of binding material and sand. The water to
be used for this purpose should be free from clay, earth and other impurities. Water which is fit for
drinking should only be used for preparing mortar. Mortar may be prepared by manual mixing or by
mechanical mixing. Mechanical mixing is preferred when mortar is required in large quantities to be
used in continuous order.
Mixing in mechanical mixer: In this case, binder and sand in desired proportion are fed in the mixer
and mixed dry. Water is then added gradually and the wet mixing a continued for at least one minute
to obtain the mortar of desired consistency. It is necessary to ensure that only the quantity of mortar
which can be used within half an hour of its mixing should be prepared at a time. This is essential as
after 30 minutes the mortar begins to set.
Manual mixing: In this case of traditional mixing, specified quantity of sand is spread and levelled on
clean dry masonry platform. Required quantity of binders is emptied over the sand layer. The
ingredients are then mixed thoroughly by turning them over the sand layer. Dry mixing is continued till
the mix have attains a uniform colour. A batch of dry mix is then put in the shallow masonry tank and
just sufficient quantity of water is added to bring the mortar to the consistency of a paste. The quantity
of dry mix taken in each batch should be such the mortar formed each time is consumed within half an
hour.
9.3 Characteristics of mortars
The chief properties of hardened mortar are strength, development of good bond with building units,
resistance to weathering and those of green mortar mixes are mobility, placeability and water
retention. In addition, the mortar should be cheap and durable and should not affect the durability of
building units in contact. The joints made with mortar should not develop cracks.

• Strength
The strength of masonry depends upon both the mortar and the building unit (brick, stone or block). A
very strong mortar with weak building units will be of little use. It is also important to consider whether
full strength is required within a short time. In cold weather, when the strength of lime or cement mixes
develops slowly, this is likely to affect the choice of mix. Strong cement mortars are most likely to lead
to shrinkage cracks, and should, therefore be avoided except where high strength is an essential
requirement. On the other hand the use of much weaker mortar say, 1:10 cement mortar is not
satisfactory since reduction in cement content leads to less workability, less cohesion and will produce
porous joints of low frost resistance. Strength of hardened mortar depends on the activity of binding
materials, the water-cement ratio, consumption of binding material and the quality of sand. It has been
found that:
- The density and strength of mortars made of the same class of aggregate decrease as the
proportion of fine aggregate is increased.
- It requires about twice as much cement to produce a mortar of given strength when fine sand
is used as it does with coarse sand.
- When the percentage of mixing water is increased beyond that required to form a placeable
mix, the density and strength of mortar reduces. The proportionate effect is greatest at the
early ages.
- Even small percentage of mica if present considerably lowers the tensile strength and
adversely affects the compressive strength.
- There is a loss of compressive strength by the replacement of less than 25 per cent of cement
by hydrated lime.
- Cement lime mortars are helpful in autogenous healing of cracks.

• Resistance to penetraition of water


The mortar for plastering should protect the masonry joints and units by forming an impermeable
sheet. A satisfactory bond between the building units, mortar and plaster should be ensured.

• Mobility and placeability


The term mobility is used to indicate the consistency of mortar. The placeability is the ease with which
the mortar mix can be applied with a minimum cost in a thin and uniform layer on the surface.
Depending on its composition a mortar may have a consistency ranging from stiff to fluid. Mortars for
masonry, finishes and other works are made sufficiently mobile. The mobility of mortar mix determines
its placeability. Mortars prepared from Portland cement alone are frequently deficient in cement paste,
stiff and non-placeable and often plasticizers are added.
• Water retention
It is characterized by the ability of mortar not to stratify during transportation and to retain adequate
humidity in a thin layer spread over a porous bed. A mortar mix of low water retention will show the
defects after hardening. Mortar may lose so much water that the amount left may be insufficient for its
hardening and required strength. Mineral and organic plasticizing agents may be added to enhance
water retention.

9.4 Kinds of mortars

• Cement mortar
Cement mortar can be prepared by mixing cement, sand and water in desired proportions. Portland
cement and blast furnace slag cement form excellent mortars for walls built with bricks, stones and
large blocks. Pozzolana Portland cement and sulphate-resisting cement form mortars which are used
for constructions exposed to aggressive and waste waters. Cement mortars are used for plastering,
rendering smooth finishes and damp proof courses.
The mix proportions of cement mortar are given in Tab. 9.1.

• Lime mortar
Lime mortar is made by mixing lime, sand and water. Lime used for mortar may be fat lime (quick or
hydrated lime) or hydraulic lime. Fat lime has high calcium oxide content. Its hardening depends on
loss of water and absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and possible recrystallisation in
due course. Hydraulic lime contains silica, alumina and iron oxide in small quantities. When mixed with
water it forms putty or mortar having the property of setting and hardening under water.
Slaked fat lime is used to prepare mortar for plastering, while hydraulic lime is used for masonry
construction and are most suitable for construction of chimneys and lightly loaded superstructure of
buildings.
The mix proportions of lime mortar for various types of works are given in Tab. 9.2

Table 9.1 The mix proportions of cement mortar


Table 9.2: The mix proportions of lime mortar for various types of works

Lime mortars have plasticity and placeability, good cohesion with other surfacings and little shrinkage.
They harden and develop strength very slowly continuously gaining strength over long period. Fat lime
mortars do not set but stiffen only as water is lost by absorption (by masonry units) and evaporation.
The gain in strength is a very slow reaction of lime with carbon dioxide absorbed from air.

• Lime-cement mortar
Also known as guarded mortar or gauged mortar is made by mixing cement and lime. The advantages
of lime-cement mortar are increased water retentivity, workability, bonding properties and frost
resistance. The mortar gives good and smooth plaster finish and is used in buildings.
Preparation: For low lime content, cement and sand are first mixed dry. Lime putty is dissolved in
water and added to the dry mix. The mix is then worked thoroughly with spades till uniform
consistency is obtained. For high lime content lime cement mortar is made in the mills; lime and sand
are first mixed separately in the form of paste for the entire day’s requirement. Then cement is mixed
with lime mortar in batches to be consumed in a hour time. The mix proportions of lime-cement mortar
are given in Tab. 9.3.

Table 9.3: The mix proportions of lime-cement mortar

• Selection of mortar
Proper selection of mortar for actual nature of work is given in Tab. 9.4.
Table 9.4: Proper selection of mortar for actual nature of work

• Polymer-modified mortars
Repairing and patching concrete surfaces makes up a lot of our company’s work. There seem to be
many different types of polymer modifiers for cement and concrete [10].
Modifying cement formulations with polymers provides many important properties that make a variety
of applications possible, including concrete patch and repair, decorative cement overlays, ceramic tile
adhesives, and many others. To get the performance desired for any of these applications, it helps to
understand some of the basics of why polymers are added to cement formulations.
The first thing to understand is that polymers are primarily used to modify mortars (portland cement +
water + sand aggregate), not concrete (mortar + larger aggregates such as gravel or stone), due to
the relative cost involved. The main exceptions are polymer-modified concrete for bridge deck
overlays and road repair work. Most polymer-modified cement applications involve mortar that is not
more than an inch or two thick.
Many different types of polymers can be used in mortars, including latex polymers, redispersible dry
polymers, water soluble polymers and many others.

Polymers improve mortars in four main ways:


- More extensive cement cure. Cement/concrete strength depends on proper curing, a chemical
reaction (hydration) between water and cement that causes crystals to grow and wrap around
the mix components. During the early stages of cure (roughly the first five to seven days), there
must be enough water to maintain the hydration process or the cement/concrete will not harden
properly.
- Polymers reduce the rate of water evaporation, allowing the crystal structure to keep growing
and building strength during these critical early curing stages. This reduced water evaporation is
especially important in thin applications, where the surface area for evaporation is high, relative
to the volume of the mortar.
- Improved workability. Polymer modification noticeably improves application characteristics,
making the mortar more fluid and easier to handle and apply. Certain polymers also prolong the
hydration period, which can increase working time, an important characteristic in hot climates.
This means contractors can use less water for workability purposes. The polymer acts as a
water reducer, ultimately leading to a stronger mortar with fewer voids, or weak spots.
- Improved adhesion. Polymer modifiers act as an adhesive to enable the modified mortar overlay
to stick to a variety of surfaces such as concrete, masonry, brick, wood, rigid polystyrene and
polyurethane foam, glass, and metals. Adhesion is an important property, especially in thin
section overlay mortar applications such as spray coatings, stuccos, and underlayments, and
applications with excessive vibration and heavy traffic.
- Improved strength and durability. Cured polymer-modified mortars generally have improved
tensile strength, flexural strength, impact and abrasion resistance, water resistance, and
chemical resistance versus unmodified mortars. Also, the polymer in the mortar helps restrain
micro-crack propagation, which improves the overall toughness of the mortar.
Applications of polymer-modified mortars:
The combination of improved workability, adhesion, and curing performance allows using polymer-
modified mortar in several niche applications that would otherwise be difficult or impossible. One thing
most of these applications have in common is a thin layer of mortar, usually no more than 1 or 2
inches thick. All of them require one or more of the chemical and/or mechanical properties mentioned
earlier.
- Adhesives and Grouts: Wall and floor tiles—ceramic, marble, stone, etc. It provides for
adhesion, water/chemical resistance and flexural strength. This is the most common application
for polymer-modified mortars.
- Patch and Repair Mortars: Grouts for repairing cracks and delamination of concrete structures
such as sidewalks, driveways, and walls. Adhesion, abrasion resistance, tensile and flexural
strength. New mortar will not stick well to old concrete without polymer modification.
- Decorative Overlays: Wall coatings and textured building finishes (polymer-modified stucco).
Adhesion, tensile and flexural strength, exterior durability.
- Flooring and Pavements: Can be used in mortar or heavy use concrete industrial/commercial
flooring overlay formulations. Warehouses, factories, hospitals, stairways, garages, railway
platforms, airport runways, etc. Abrasion resistance, tensile and flexural strength, water
resistance, chemical resistance, and exterior durability.
- Waterproofing: Basements, bulk water storage tanks, septic tanks, ship decks, roof decks, and
concrete walls. Water resistance for all; chemical resistance, other properties depending on the
application.

• Dry mix mortars


Dry mix mortar is a well-mixed blend of various raw materials and is supplied as a ready mix in
suitable packs avoiding unused remainders. Production process is given in Fig. 9.1.
Main components:
- Fillers: dry sand preferred with wide particle size distribution
- Binders:
- Cement (Portland cement, various qualities), white cement, hydrated lime, gypsum (requires
separate handling)
- Additives: improve adhesion, workability, abrasion strength, water retention, bending tension
strength, frost resistance, etc.
- methyl-cellulose
- air-entraining additives
- synthetic resin
- hydrophobing agents

Benefits for the builder:


- Usage for many kinds of construction material, such as autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC),
rock, calcium silicate bricks, masonry blocks, tiles, joints, etc.
- Application manually or with rendering/ plastering machines
- Available in paper bags or in bulk

Figure 9.1: Production process of dry mix mortar


(Source: http://www.wehrhahn.de/en/pdf/Wehrhahn_Moertel_Folder_5694_300414_eng.pdf)
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
1. Define mortar
2. Name the types of mortar and its uses
3. Explain the properties of mortar
4. Explain the procedure for preparation of mortar

10 CONCRETE
Concrete - a composite man-made material is the most widely used building material in the
construction industry. It consists of a rationally chosen mixture of binding material, well graded fine
and coarse aggregates, water and both admixtures and additives (to produce concrete with special
properties). In a concrete mix, cement and water form a paste or matrix which in addition to filling the
voids of the fine aggregate, coats the surface of fine and coarse aggregates and binds them together.

Notice:
Composite materials (or composites for short) are engineered materials made from two or more
constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single
component.
There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion
(fraction) of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement
materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart special physical properties
to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from naturally
occurring materials. Due to the wide variety of matrix and reinforcement materials available, the design
potential is incredible. In the case of concrete and mortar, the aggregates play as reinforcement.

10.1 Classification of concrete


Concrete can be classified from various points of view, while individual classes can differ in details
depending on the standards to be valid in actual region. Classifications given in next points are valid in
European area.
Binding material point of view:
• Cement concrete
• Lime concrete
• Gypsum concrete
• Bituminous concrete
• Polymer concrete
• Polymer-cement concrete
Notice:
In actual practice, the term “concrete” is commonly used for concrete with cement binder. Only in the
case of other binder, this binder is indicates in the name of concrete.
Apparent density point of view:
• Light-weight: ρV < 2 000 kg.m
-3

• Normal-weight: ρV = 2 000 – 2 800 kg.m


-3

• Heavy-weight: ρV > 2 800 kg.m


-3

Technique of placing point of view:


• In –situ (when concrete is made and placed in position at the site)
• Precast (when used as a material for making prefabricated units in a factory)

Function point of view:


• Thermal insulating
• Non bearing, infilling
• Structural

Reinforcement mode point of view:


• Plain
• Reinforced: steel concrete
prestressed concrete: pre-tensioned
post-tensioned
fiber reinforced concrete (scattered reinforcement)

10.2 Components of concrete


Concrete is made up of two components, aggregates and paste. Aggregates are generally classified
into two groups, fine and coarse, and occupy about 60 to 80 percent of the volume of concrete. The
paste is composed of cement, water, and entrained air and ordinarily constitutes 20 to 40 percent of
the total volume. In properly made concrete, the aggregate should consist of particles having
adequate strength and weather resistance and should not contain materials having injurious effects. A
well graded aggregate with low void content is desired for efficient use of paste. For the related issue,
go to chapter 4 – Aggregates.
Each aggregate particle is completely coated with paste, and the space between the aggregate
particles is completely filled with paste. The quality of the concrete is greatly dependent upon the
quality of paste, which in turn, is dependent upon the ratio of water to cement content used, and the
extent of curing. The cement and water combine chemically in a reaction, called hydration, which
takes place very rapidly at first and then more and more slowly for a long period of time in favourable
moisture conditions. More water is used in mixing concrete than is required for complete hydration of
the cement. This is required to make the concrete plastic and more workable; however, as the paste is
thinned with water, its quality is lowered, it has less strength, and it is less resistant to weather. For
quality concrete, a proper proportion of water to cement is essential. For the related issue, go to
chapter 8 – Binders.
10.2.1 Water
Contrary to common belief, concrete does not solidify from drying after mixing and placement. Instead,
the cement hydrates, gluing the other components together and eventually creating a stone-like
material. Mixing water has 2 functions:
• provides the hydration reaction and
• provides appropriate consistency of fresh concrete

Except for mixing water, curing water is necessary in concrete technology – it is required to care the
concrete in moist state after the placing into the mould. For the function of curing water, see the
chapter 10.3.8.
There is a definite optimum water requirement for a particular concrete. Generally, the excess water
may leak through the form work, resulting in honeycombed concrete and on evaporation makes the
concrete porous. On the other hand lesser water makes it difficult to work with concrete and because
of nonuniform mixing the resultant concrete is weaker in strength. The amount of water must therefore
be limited to produce concrete of the quality required for a job.
The mixing water shall comply (as all other components, too) with the requirements of the national
standards or regulations valid in the place of use of the concrete. Water shall not contain harmful
constituents in such quantities as may be detrimental to the setting, hardening and durability of the
concrete or cause corrosion of the reinforcement. In general in Europe, drinking water from public
supply is suitable for making concrete.

Sources of mixing water:


• Ground water
• Natural ground waters seldom contain more than 20 to 30 ppm of iron. However, acid mine
waters may carry rather large quantities of iron. Iron salts in concentrations up to 40,000 ppm do
not usually affect mortar strengths adversely.
• Sea water
• Sea water may be used if suitable fresh water is not available. The sea water generally contains
3.5 % of salts with about 75 % of sodium chloride, about 15 % of chloride and sulphate of
magnesium. It has been found to reduce the strength of concrete by 10-20 % and slightly
accelerate the setting time. Sea water may lead to corrosion of the reinforcement. It has been
found that the factors affecting corrosion are permeability of concrete and lack of proper cover. If
these are ensured and adequate amount of entrained air is there, the problem of corrosion may
be circumvented, or otherwise the reinforcement is likely to be corroded whether it is pure water
or sea water but with a difference in the rate of corrosion. Therefore, sea water is not
recommended for reinforced and prestressed concrete.
• Industrial waste water
Most waters carrying industrial waste have less than 3,000 ppm of total solids. When such water
is used as mixing water in concrete, the reduction in compressive strength is generally less than
about 10 %. Waste waters from paint factories, coke plants, chemical and galvanizing plants may
contain harmful impurities. It is advisable to test any waste water that contains even few hundred
parts per million of unusual solids before using it for mixing concrete.
One way of using sewage containing large organic matters (say 400 ppm) is to dilute it in a good
disposal system to reduce the concentration to about 20 ppm or less, an amount too low to have
any significant effect on concrete strength.
• Tap water
It is usual mixing and curing water in Europe.

10.2.2 Admixtures
Admixtures are organic or non-organic materials in form of solids or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics. In normal use the admixtures make up less than 5% of the
cement weight and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. The most used types of
admixtures are:
• accelerators: speed up the hydration (strengthening) of the concrete.
• retarders: slow the hydration of concrete.
• air-entrainers: add and distributes tiny air bubbles to the concrete, which reduces damage due
to freeze-thaw cycles.
• plasticizers: can be used to increase the workability of concrete, allowing it be placed more
easily with less compactive effort. Superplasticizers allow a properly designed concrete to flow
around congested reinforcing bar. Alternatively, they can be used to reduce the water content
of a concrete (termed water reducers) yet maintain the original workability. This improves its
strength and durability characteristics.
10.2.3 Additives
In fact, they are a pozzolanas ot latent hydraulic materials (also known as Supplementary
Cementitious Materials – SCM´s) - a siliceous materials which whilst itself possessing no cementitious
properties, either processed or unprocessed and in finely divided form, react in the presence of water
with free lime released during the hydration of cement at normal temperatures to form compounds of
low solubility having cementitious properties. Currently their principal use is to replace a proportion in
cement when making concrete. The advantages gained are economy, improvement in workability of
concrete mix with reduction of bleeding and segregation. Other advantages are greater
imperviousness to freezing and thawing and to attack by sulphates and natural waters. In addition the
disruptive effects of alkali-aggregate reaction and heat of hydration are reduced. It is generally held
that the addition of natural pozzolanas reduces the leaching of soluble compounds from concrete and
contributes to the impermeability of the concrete at the later ages.
Additives are mostly very fine powdered materials, which improve some technological properties of
fresh concrete (pumpability, solidity, water proofness) and mechanical properties of hardened one
(strength). They are added to the concrete at the rate of 10-40% of the cement weight. The main
justification for using pozzolanas is the possibility of reducing costs. If they are to reduce costs, they
must be obtained locally and it is for this reason that they have not so far been much in use.
Secondary benefit of their utilisation lies in environmental aspect, because a lot of them are industrial
wastes. Their application for concrete production can help to minimize the undesirable waste.
Classification:
All pozzolanas are rich in silica and alumina and contain only a small quantity of alkalis. Pozzolanas
are classified as natural and artificial. Following are these two basic groups of pozzolanas:
• Natural pozzolanas:
- clays and shales which must be calcined to become active
- diatomaceous earth and opaline cherts and shales which may or may not need calcination
- volcanic tuffs and pumicites. Tuffs (solidified volcanic ash) may be ground to desired fineness
for use.
- trass - a light-colored variety of volcanic ash resembling pozzolana
• Artificial pozzolanas:
- fly ash: a by-product of coal-fire electric generating plants, it is used to partially replace
portland cement by up to 40% by weight
- ground blast-furnace slag: a by-product of steel production
- silica fume: a byproduct of the silicon and ferrosilicon alloys production. Silica fume is a very
reactive pozzolan having a big influence on the increase of strength and durability of concrete.
- rice husk ash: rice husk is used as fuel in the rice mills to generate steam for the parboiling
process. This husk contains about 75 % organic volatile matter and the balance 25 % of the
weight of this husk is converted into ash during the firing process. This RHA contains around
85 % - 90 % amorphous silica.
For the related issue, regarding the pozzolanic/latent hydraulic reactions and function of SCM´s go to
chapter 8 – Binders.
10.3 Production of concrete
The performance of concrete is determined by its microstructure. The microstructure is determined not
only by its composition, but also by all production process, including mixing, placing and curing
conditions.
10.3.1 Concrete composition design
The ultimate properties of concrete is related to water-cement ratio (w/c), the proportion and type of
cement to fillers, and the size, shape, and strength of the aggregate used. Concrete with lower water-
cement ratio (down to 0.35) makes a stronger concrete than using a higher ratio. Concrete made with
smooth pebbles is weaker than that made with rough-surfaced broken rock pieces for example,
pebbles require more bonding material per area than larger rock, which has less surface area to bond
than the smaller "pea gravel".
The ideal proportion of individual components is very important for concrete properties, so the design
must be provided considering the requested final properties of concrete.
General rules:
• ratio of coarse/fine aggregate should be 3:2 or 2:1, i.e. coarse aggregate makes up 60-67% of
weight, fine aggregate makes up 40-33% of weight
• amount of cement should be min. 200 kg for 1 m of plain concrete, min. 240 kg for 1 m of
3 3

reinforced concrete. There must be sufficiency of cement paste in the concrete for encapsulation of
every grain of aggregate. The minimal amount of cement specifies the EN 206-1 considering the
strength class of concrete and influence of environment intensity.
• water-cement ratio (w/c): it is the ratio of weight of water to the weight of cement used in the
concrete mix. It has some important influences on the quality of concrete produced. Concrete with
a low water-cement ratio may become strong and durable, but the mix would become very difficult
to place. If water-cement ratio is increased then the concrete mix would be more workable (or
loose). It is easier to place the concrete in this condition but too much water causes forming of
capillary pores, thereby reducing the strength and durability. The water-cement ratio is a critical
factor in the design of concrete mixes. The rule is, make the concrete with the lowest w/c, providing
for good workability. The practical values are 0.35-0.7, depending on application of plasticitzers.

10.3.2 Batching
For good quality concrete a proper and accurate quantity of all the ingredients should be used. The
aggregates, cement and water should be measured with an accuracy of ± 3% of batch quantity and
the admixtures by 5% of the batch quantity. There are two prevalent methods of batching materials,
the volume batching and the weigh batching. The factors affecting the choice of batching method are
the size of job, required production rate, and required standards of batching performance. For most
important works weigh batching is recommended.

10.3.3 Mixing of concrete


The concept of “mixer efficiency” is used to qualify how well a mixer can produce a uniform concrete
from its constituents. The mixer is considered to be efficient if it distributes all the constituents
uniformly and all grains of aggregates are completely coated by cement paste. The mixing procedure
includes the type of mixer, the order of introduction of the materials into the mixer, and the energy of
mixing (duration and power).
There are two main categories of mixer:
• batch mixers: produces concrete one batch at a time and it needs to be emptied completely
after each mixing cycle, cleaned, and reloaded with the materials for the next batch of
concrete
• continuous mixers: produces concrete at a constant rate. Here, the constituents are
continuously entered at one end as the fresh concrete exits the other end.
The various designs of each type of mixer are available on the market.
Then, the mixing process includes the loading method, the discharge method, the mixing time, and the
mixing energy. Mixing time depends on consistency of fresh concrete and on drum volume. It may be
from 60 to 360 s.
Concrete can be mixed on the work site in building mixers, or in central ready-mix plants.

10.3.4 Transport of concrete


• primary: from central ready-mix plat to work site – by special containers, transit mix-trucks,
concrete agitators.
• secondary: moving of concrete within the work-site area – by wheelbarrows or pumps. Because it
is a fluid, concrete can be pumped to where it is needed. Here a concrete transport truck is feeding
concrete to a concrete pumper, which is pumping it to where a slab is being poured.

10.3.5 Formwork
It is the term given to either temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete is poured.
Formwork comes in three main types:
• Traditional timber formwork. The formwork is built on site out of timber. It is easy to produce
but time consuming for larger structures, and it has quite a limited lifespan. It is used only for simple
structures.
• Engineered formwork systems. The formwork is built out of prefabricated modules with a steel
frame and is made of a material with the wanted surface structure (steel, timber, etc.) where the
contact surface between the concrete and formwork lies. The two major advantages of formwork
systems, compared to traditional timber formwork, are speed of construction and lower life-cycle costs.
• Stay-In-Place formwork systems. The formwork is assembled on site, usually out of
prefabricated insulating concrete forms. The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured to
provide thermal and acoustic insulation, space to run utilities, and backing for finishes.
Another type is “Stay-In-Place Structural Formwork systems”. The formwork is assembled on site,
usually out of prefabricated fiber-reinforced plastic forms. These are in the shape of hollow tubes, and
are usually used for columns and piers. The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured and
acts as axial and shear reinforcement, as well as serving to confine the concrete and prevent against
environmental effects, such as corrosion and freeze-thaw cycles.
For the first two types, once the concrete has been poured into formwork and has set (or cured), the
formwork is struck or stripped (removed) to expose the finished concrete. The removal time of the
forms is dependent upon the strength needed to be achieved by the cured concrete. Spectacular
accidents have occurred when the forms have been either removed too soon or under-designed to
carry the load imposed by the weight of the uncured concrete.

10.3.6 Placing
Concrete shall not be placed until the subgrade and forms have been inspected and approved by the
inspector. Concrete shall be discharged into the forms, vibrated and spaded within 90 minutes after
the cementitious materials have been introduced into the aggregates. When air temperatures are high,
this time is reduced to 45 minutes. Concrete shall be deposited as close as possible to its final
position. Concrete in slabs shall be placed at design thickness in one layer. If the surface of a layer in
place will develop its initial set before more concrete is adjacent to it, a construction joint (of the type
shown in the plan) shall be made.

10.3.7 Compaction of concrete


Compaction is the process which expels entrapped air from freshly placed concrete and packs the
aggregate particles together so as to increase the density of concrete It is sine qua non operation for
the final quality of concrete. Loosely embedded concrete has a large amount of cavities and pores.
Imperfect compaction can cause the decrease of strength – the rate of decline is shown in the Fig.
10.1.
Two types of vibrators are common on building sites:
• immersion vibrators and
• surface vibrators.
Each has its own specific application, although on floors and other flatwork it is not uncommon for one
to complement the other. A third type, form vibrators, are commonly used in precast work, and
sometimes on building sites Compaction effectiveness is given by dynamic parameters of vibrator:
amplitude, frequency and acceleration.

Figure 10.1: Loss of strength through incomplete compaction


(Source: Compaction of Concrete, June 2006, www.concrete.net.au)
10.3.8 Curing
Curing is the process of keeping concrete under a specific environmental condition, especially
regarding the moisture and temperature. Good curing is typically considered to be a moist
environment which promotes hydration. Increased hydration lowers permeability and increases
strength, resulting in a higher quality concrete.
Hydration and hardening of concrete may lead to tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained
significant strength, resulting in shrinkage cracks. Extending the period concrete stays damp during
curing increases its strength (see Fig. 10.2). Minimizing stress prior to curing minimizes cracking.
Cracking may start out as micro cracking, thus not readily apparent.
Freezing of concrete (such as in cold climates) before the curing is complete will interrupt the
hydration process, reducing the concrete strength and leading to scaling and other damage or failure.
The most usual methods of curing are as follows: various foils or sheets, periodic spraying of concrete
surface in early age by water, or by wax.

Fig. 10.2: Effect of curing duration on compressive strength development


(Source: S. Kosmatka et al: Design and Control of Concrete Mixtures, 14th Edition, PCA Engineering
Bulletin EB 001, Portland Cement Association , Skokie, IL 2002)

10.4 Properties of concrete


10.4.1 Fresh concrete
Workability (consistency) is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mould properly
with the desired work (vibration) and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on
water content, additives, aggregate (shape and size distribution) and age (level of hydration). Raising
the water content or adding plasticizer will increase the workability. Too much water will lead to
bleeding (loss of water) and/or segregation (concrete starts to get heterogeneous) and the resulting
concrete will have reduced quality.
Workability is normally measured by the "slump test", a simplistic measure of the plasticity of a fresh
batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test standards, or the flow table test.
Slump is normally measured by filling the Abrams cone with a sample from a fresh batch of concrete,
inverting the cone and setting it on a level surface. When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed
material will slump a certain amount due to its water content. A relatively dry sample will slump very
little, while a relatively wet concrete sample may slump more.

10.4.2 Hardened concrete


During hydration and hardening, concrete needs to develop certain physical and chemical properties,
among others, mechanical strength, low permeability to ingress of moisture, and chemical and volume
stability. All of concrete properties depend on the type of concrete, its composition – properties of
individual constituents, manner of manufacturing, compacting, curing.
In addition, the change of these properties and durability of concrete depends on external conditions,
where concrete structure is exposed.
Strength is the most important mechanical property of concrete. Concrete has relatively high
compressive strength, but significantly lower tensile strength (about 10% of the compressive strength).
The practical implication of these facts is that concrete elements to be subjected to tensile stresses
must be reinforced.
Concrete strength classes following European Standard are in the terms of cylindrical and cube
compressive strength - see Tab. 10.1, given by EN 206-1.
Table 10.2 gives the modulus of elasticity and tensile strength for various strength classes. They are
taken from Table 3.1 of the Eurocode 2, which gives additional properties as well as values for other
strength classes. It should be noted that these are characteristic values and should be modified as
appropriate for design purposes.

Table 10.1: Compressive strength classes of normal-weight and heavy-weight concrete.

Table 10.2: Modulus of elasticity and tensile strength for most used strength classes

Strength class 20/25 25/30 30/37 35/45 40/50 45/55 50/60

Modulus of elasticity (GPa) 30 31 32 34 35 36 37

Tensile strength (MPa) 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1

Durability is highly required parameter of concrete, mainly from environmental and economic
point of view. It is the ability of hardened concrete to resist deterioration caused by weathering,
chemicals, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. It is also characterised
as the ability of concrete to withstand the conditions for which it is designed without deterioration for a
long period of years.
• Physical Durability
Physical durability is against the following actions:
- Weather Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by freezing and thawing, wetting and
drying, and heating and cooling
- Erosion Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by water flow, traffic, and wind
blasting
- Percolation / Permeability of water
- Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration
• Chemical Durability
Chemical durability is against the following actions:
- Alkali Aggregate Reaction
- Sulphate Attack
- Chloride Ingress
- Delay Ettringite Formation
- Corrosion of reinforcement
• Causes for the lack of durability in concrete
External Causes
- Extreme Weathering Conditions
- Extreme Temperature
- Extreme Humidity
- Abrasion
- Electrolytic Action
- Attack by a natural or industrial liquids or gases
- Biological factors
Internal Causes
- Physical: volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregates and binder
- Chemical: alkali aggregate reactions, corrosion of steel

For ensure of good durability, concrete in European area should be designed keeping the
requirements which depends on actual exposure action. The environmental actions are classified as
exposure classes. The concrete may be subject to more than one of the actions to which it is
subjected may thus need to be expressed as a combination of exposure classes.

Exposure classes are as follows:


X0 Exposure class for no risk of corrosion or attack
XC Exposure classes for risk of corrosion induced by carbonation
XD Exposure classes for risk of corrosion induced by chlorides other than from sea water
XS Exposure classes for risk of corrosion induced by chlorides from sea water
XF Exposure classes for freeze/thaw attack
XA Exposure classes for chemical attack
10.5 Kinds of concrete
10.5.1 Plain concrete
The term plain concrete is used to describe any concrete mass used without any strengthening
materials. It is used in slabs-on-grade, pavements, basement walls, small foundations, and curb-and-
gutter.
Plain concrete has compressive strength—the ability to resist crushing loads; however, its tensile
strength is only about 10% of its compressive strength. Its tensile strength is so low that it is nearly
disregarded in design of most concrete structures. Reinforced concrete is a combination of adequate
reinforcement (usually steel bars with raised lugs called deformations) and concrete designed to work
together to resist applied loads. Properly placed reinforcement in concrete improves its compressive
and tensile strength.
10.5.2 Reinforced concrete
• Standard reinforced concrete
Three physical characteristics come together to give reinforced concrete its special properties. First,
the coefficient of thermal expansion of concrete is very nearly identical to that of steel, eliminating
internal stresses due to differences in thermal expansion or contraction. Second, when cement cures,
the microscopic lattice conforms to the surface details of the steel, permitting any stress to be
transmitted efficiently among the different materials. Usually steel bars are roughened or corrugated to
further improve the bond or cohesion between the concrete and steel. Third, the alkaline chemical
environment provided by calcium carbonate (lime) causes a passivating film to form on the surface of
steel, making it much more resistant to corrosion than it would be in neutral or acidic conditions.
Many structural members are required to carry loads that cause bending stresses. An example is a
simply- supported beam, in which the top of the member is subjected to compression lengthwise while
the bottom is subjected to tension lengthwise (Fig. 10.3). This is referred to as beam action and can
be illustrated by supporting a board at each end and breaking it by applying a heavy load to the
center. If the board is loaded at each end and supported in the middle, as in a cantilevered beam, the
top of the board over the support is in tension and the bottom is in compression (Fig.10.4).
Unreinforced concrete structural members have little capacity for beam action because concrete’s low
tensile strength provides little resistance to the tensile stress in the tension side of the member. This is
one of the most important functions of reinforcement in concrete members—to resist the tension in
these members due to beam action (Fig. 10.5)
Steel is remarkably well- suited for concrete reinforcement because it has high tensile strength, and
therefore relatively small amounts are required. Also, concrete bonds to steel, and both expand and
contract to about the same degree with temperature changes. The good bond between concrete and
steel allows an effective transfer of stress or load between the steel and concrete so both materials act
together in resisting beam action. For these reasons, steel is the most common material used to
reinforce concrete.
Many structural members must perform like a beam to fulfill their function in the structure. Among such
concrete structural members are beams, girders, joists, structural slabs of all kinds, some columns,
walls that must resist lateral loads, and more complex members such as folded plates, arches, barrels,
and domes. In addition to unintentional omission of part or all of the reinforcement, improper
placement of the reinforcement designed to resist tension is one of the most common causes of
structural concrete failures (Fig. 10.6). If the tensile steel is not properly placed in the tension zone of a
structural member, it will not be effective in resisting tension, and failure may occur.

Figure 10.3: A simple beam loaded in the middle and supported at the ends will tend to deflect or bend
down in the middle, causing tensile stress in the bottom of the beam and tending to pull it apart. That
is, the bottom of the beam is in tension. Reinforcing steel near the bottom of the beam will resist this
tension and hold it together.

Figure 10.4: If the beam is supported in the middle and the ends are loaded (as in a cantilever beam,
such as a balcony), the top of the beam over the support is in tension and will pull apart or crack if
there is no reinforcing steel near the top of the beam.

Figure 10.5: Properly placed reinforcement in this cantilever beam will resist tension and control
cracking.
Figure 10.6: Incorrectly placed or missing reinforcement is not effective in resisting tension and will
allow uncontrolled cracking in the beam
(Source: http://www.concrete.org/Portals/0/Files/PDF/fE2-00.pdf)
• Prestressed concrete
It is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be used to produce
beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete.
Prestressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping
load which produces a compressive stress that offsets the tensile stress that the concrete member
would otherwise experience due to a bending load – for principle, see Fig 10.7. Prestressing can be
accomplished in two ways:
- Pre-tensioned concrete is cast around already tensioned tendons. This method produces a
good bond between the tendon and concrete, which both protects the tendon from corrosion
and allows for direct transfer of tension. The cured concrete adheres and bonds to the bars
and when the tension is released it is transferred to the concrete as compression by static
friction. However, it requires stout anchoring points between which the tendon is to be
stretched and the tendons are usually in a straight line. Thus, most pretensioned concrete
elements are prefabricated in a factory and must be transported to the construction site, which
limits their size. Pre-tensioned elements may be balcony elements, lintels, floor slabs, beams
or foundation piles.
- Post-tensioned concrete is the descriptive term for a method of applying compression after
pouring concrete and the curing process (in situ). The concrete is cast around a plastic, steel
or aluminium curved duct, to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the
concrete element. A set of tendons is fished through the duct and the concrete is poured.
Once the concrete has hardened, the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that react
against the concrete member itself. When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according to
the design specifications, they are locked in position and maintain tension after the jacks is
removed, transferring pressure to the concrete. The duct is then grouted to protect the
tendons from corrosion.
Prestressed concrete is the predominating material for floors in high-rise buildings, foundations for
residential buildings in soft soil areas and bridges.
The advantages of prestressed concrete include lower construction costs; thinner slabs - especially
important in high rise buildings in which floor thickness savings can translate into additional floors for
the same (or lower) cost and fewer joints, since the distance that can be spanned by post-tensioned
slabs exceeds that of reinforced constructions with the same thickness. Increasing span lengths
increases the usable unincumbered floorspace in buildings; diminishing the number of joints leads to
lower maintenance costs over the design life of a building, since joints are the major locus of
weakness in concrete buildings.

Figure 10.7: In a prestressed simple beam, the prestressing steel is placed near the bottom of the
beam, just like regular reinforcing steel. But in the prestressed beam, the prestressing causes the
unloaded beam to bend upward in the middle, opposite to the downward bending caused by the
applied load. The combined effect is a beam that bends less, and therefore cracks less, under load.
(Source: http://www.concrete.org/Portals/0/Files/PDF/fE2-00.pdf)

• Fiber-reinforced concrete
Fiber-reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete. Fiber-
reinforced normal concrete are mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements, but can be
considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pillars, foundations etc) either alone or with
hand-tied rebars.
Fiber (steel or plastic fibres) reinforced concrete is less expensive than hand-tied rebar, while still
increasing the tensile strength many times. Shape, dimension and length of fibre are important. A thin
and short fibre, for example short hair-shaped glass fiber, will only be effective the first hours after
pouring the concrete (reduces cracking while the concrete is stiffening) but will not increase the
concrete tensile strength. A normal size fibre for European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45 mm length)
will increase the concrete tensile strength.
Steel is the strongest commonly-available fiber, and come in different lengths (30 to 80 mm in Europe)
and shapes. Steel fibres can only be used on surfaces that can tolerate or avoid corrosion and rust
stains. In some cases, a steel-fiber surface is faced with other materials.
Spun basalt fibre is stronger and less expensive than glass, but historically, has not resisted the
alkaline environment of portland cement well enough to be used as direct reinforcement. New
materials use plastic binders to isolate the basalt fiber from the cement.
The premium fibers are reinforced plastic fibres, which are nearly as strong as steel, lighter-weight and
corrosion-proof.

10.5.3 Self compacting concrete


During the 1980´s a number of countries including Japan, Sweden and France developed a range of
concretes that were self-compacting. These 'SCC's are characterised by their extreme fluidity (using
superplasticizers), behaving more like a viscous fluid that is self-levelling than the traditional concrete
that needs consolidating, normally by vibration.
SCC´s are characterized by:
• extreme fluidity measured by flow, typically measured between 700-750 mm, rather than
slump.
• no need for vibrators to compact the concrete, which can be noisy and may cause hand-arm
syndrome (whitefinger)
• placing becomes simpler
• no bleed water (excess water migrating to the surface of the concrete)
SCC can offer benefits of up to 50% in labour costs, due to it being poured up to 80% faster and
having reduced wear and tear on formwork.

10.5.4 Shotcrete (sprayed concrete)


Shotcrete uses compressed air to shoot (cast) concrete to a frame or structure. Shotcrete is mostly
used for rock support, especially in tunelling. Today there are two application methods for shotcrete:
the dry-mix and the wet-mix procedure. In Dry-mix the dry mixture of cement and aggregates is filled
into the machine and conveyed with compressed air through the hoses. The water needed for the
hydration is added at the nozzle. In Wet-mix the mixes are prepared with all necessary water for
hydration. The mixes are pumped through the hoses. At the nozzle compressed air is added for
spraying. For both methods additives such as plasticizers and accelerators may be used. Shotcrete is
normally reinforced by fibres.

10.5.5 Light-weight concrete


It is used as filling or structural/filling concrete. There are 3 types from microstructure point of view:
• Autoclaved aerated concrete (cellular concrete)
Various performed foams have been added to mixes, further reducing weight. The entrapped air takes
the form of small, macroscopic, spherically shaped bubbles uniformly dispersed in the mix.
Components: aggregate - fine silica sand or fly ash
binder - lime or cement
admixture - for foam of air bubbles creating
water
Typical properties are obtained by aeration and autoclaving (high pressure steam curing). They are:
-3
high porosity (60-70%), high absorption (70-80%), low volume weight (900-2000 kg.m ), low strength.
Overall steps in manufacture of autoclaved aerated concrete are given in Fig. 10.8, and some
examples of autoclaved aerated concrete are given in Fig. 10.9.

.
Figure10.8: Overall steps in manufacture of autoclaved aerated concrete
(Source: http://www.masoncontractors.org/2008/10/16/using-autoclaved-aerated-concrete-correctly/)

Figure 10.9: Some examples of autoclaved aerated concrete


(Source: http://www.cccme.org.cn/products/detail-3020329.aspx)
• Light-weight concrete with porous aggregate
It has traditionally been made using such aggregates as expanded shale, clay, vermiculite, pumice,
and scoria among others. Each has their peculiarities in handling, especially the volcanic aggregates
which need careful moisture monitoring and are difficult to pump. Decreasing the weight and density
produces significant changes which improves many properties of concrete, both in placement and
application.
An example of porous aggregate concrete is given in Fig. 10.10.
Figure 10.10: An example of porous aggregate concrete

• No-Fines concrete
There is used only one fraction of coarse aggregate here, without the fine portion. Lightening is
reached by the voids between the grains. Grains are bonded by cement paste only in the contact
points. When mixing this concrete, the idea is to use just enough wet cement to coat the
aggregate so it will adhere to the surrounding particles. It can be made from porous or solid
aggregate. Because of large pores between grains, the strength is lower, but there is no capillary
moisture movement. It is also the high thermal insulating properties here. Ways of application: Low-
volume pavements, residential roads, alleys, and driveways, parking lots, sidewalks and pathways,
foundations/floors/walls for greenhouses and low-cost houses.
Some examples of no-fines concrete are given in Fig. 10.11.

Figure 10.11: Some examples of no-fines concrete


(Source: http://www.concreteanswers.org/CIPs/CIP38.htm)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. What are the ingredients of concrete?
2. What are the types of concrete?
3. What is meant by compaction?
4. What is meant by curing?
5. Write the uses of concrete
6. Explain the function of water in cement concrete
7. Define kinds of light-weight concrete
11 METALS

Metals are employed for various engineering purposes such as structural members, roofing materials,
damp proof courses, pipes, tanks, doors, windows etc. Out of all the metals, iron is the most popular
metal and it has been used in construction activity since pre-historic times. For the construction
purposes, a specific group of metals are used.
For the purpose of study, metals are grouped in the following two categories:
• Ferrous metals: Ferrous metals contain iron as their main constituent.
• Non-ferrous metals: Non-ferrous metal does not contain iron as their main constituent

11.1 Ferrous metals


11.1.1 Iron
The fundamental chemical principles in the extraction of iron from the ores are very simple. Heating
the ores in the presence of a reducing agent will result in the formation of CO or CO2, librated as a
gas, and metallic iron. Iron owes its greatest utility to the fact that it alloys freely with other elements,
and its inherent properties are markedly altered and improved for varying conditions of service.
The following are the important commercial varieties of iron ores, which are commonly used, in the
manufacturing process:
• Haematite – red oxide of iron (Fe2O3) 65 to 70% of iron
• Limonite – 2Fe2O3, 3H2O ( 60% of iron)
• Magnetite – Fe3O4 (70 to 73% of iron)
• Pyrite – FeS2 (45 to 47% of iron)
• Siderite – FeCO3 (40% of iron)

Pig Iron
The crude impure iron, which is extracted from iron ores, is known as pig-iron and it forms the basic
material for the manufacture of cast-iron, wrought iron and steel. The pig iron is usually manufactured
by the smelting.
Smelting: The impurities are knocked off and the ore is then calcined to drive off moisture. The
calcined ore is smelted in special type furnace known as blast furnace. The raw material consists of
iron ores, the fluxing materials like limestone and fuel like coal, charcoal is allowed to through throat
portion of the furnace. By the reduction, the pig iron collects in the hearth of furnace. The iron is
deoxidised and a part of sulphur is also removed. The slag formed is removed and hot gases dust
escapes through outlet, which is provided in the throat portion of furnace as shown in Fig 11.1. The
molten metal is tapped from the furnace and is cast in the form of pigs.
Composition of pig iron: Pig iron contains 3–4% carbon, 0.5–3.5% silicon, 0.5–2% manganese,
0.02–0.1% sulphur and 0.03–1% phosphorus.
Fig 11.1 Blast Furnace
(Source:
http://www.mrcorfe.com/KS4/Applied/Unit2/CountrysideEnvironment/ManEnvrion/BlastFurnace.php)

Cast iron
Cast iron is manufactured by re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone. This re-melting is done in a
furnace known as Cupola furnace, which is more or less same as blast furnace. Its shape is cylindrical
with diameter about 1m and height of about 5m. The raw materials are led from the top and the
furnace is fired. The impurities of pig iron are removed to some extent by oxidation. The molten cast
iron is led into moulds of required shapes to form what are known as cast iron castings and slag is
removed from the top of cast iron at regular intervals.
Composition of cast iron:
• Cast iron contains about 2 to 4 percent of carbon.
• Manganese makes cast iron-brittle and hard, so it may be kept below 0.75 percent.
• Phosphorous makes brittle and percentage may be 1 to 1.5 percent.
• Silicon decreases shrinkage and ensures softer and better castings and it may be less than
2.5 percent.
• Sulphur makes cast iron brittle and hard and should be kept below 0.10 percent.
Properties of cast iron:
Cast iron is hard and brittle. It can neither be riveted nor welded. It is strong in compression (600
2 2 -3
N/mm ) but weak in tension (150 N/mm ) and shear. Its specific gravity is 7 500 kg.m . It has low
melting point (1 200°C). It cannot be magnetized and is not suitable for forging. With proper
adjustment in composition, cast iron may be rendered white by cooling rapidly or grey by cooling
slowly from the molten state. Other parameters:
• If placed in salt water, it becomes soft.
• It can be hardened by heating and sudden cooling.
• It cannot be magnetized.
• It does not be rust easily.
• It is fusible.
• It is not ductile and cannot be adopted to absorb shocks and impacts.
• It shrinks on cooking.
• It lacks plasticity and hence it is unsuitable for forging work.
• It is weak in tension and strong in compression.
• Two pieces of cast iron cannot be connected by the process of riveting or welding (They are to
be connected by nuts and bolts).
Uses cast iron:
• For making cisterns, water pipes, gas pipes and sewers, manhole covers and sanitary fittings.
• For making ornamental castings like brackets, gates, lampposts etc.
• For making parts of machinery which are not subjected to shock loads.
• For manufacture of compression members.
• For preparing rail chairs, carriage wheels etc.

Wrought Iron
Wrought iron is almost pure and it hardly contains carbon more than 0.15 percent. But the process of
its manufacture is laborious and tedious. Wrought iron is manufactured by four operations:
• Refining
• Pudding
• Shinging
• Rolling

Properties of wrought iron:


• It can be easily forged and welded
• It can be used to form temporary magnets
• It is ductile, melleable and tough
• It is moderately elastic
• It is unaffected by saline water
• It resists corrosion in a better way
• Its melting point is about 15 000°C

-3
Its specific gravity is about 7 800 kg.m
• Its ultimate compressive strength is about 2 000 MPa
• Its ultimate tensile strength is about 4 000 MPa.

Uses of wrought iron:


It is used for rivets, chains, ornamental iron work, railway couplings, water and steam pipes, bolts and
nuts, horse shoe bars, hand rails, straps for timber roof trusses, boiler tubes, roofing sheets etc.
11.1.2 Steel
As per as carbon content is concerned, steel forms an intermediate stage between cast iron and
wrought iron. Cast iron contains carbon from 2 to 4 percent and wrought iron contains 0.15 percent. In
steel the carbon content varies from 0.25 to 1.5 percent. The steel is manufactured by the following
processes.
• Bessemen process
• Cementation process
• Crucible steel process
• Duplex process
• Electric process
• L.D. (Lintz and Donawitz) process
• Open-hearth process

Properties of steel
• Carbon content: Variation in carbon percentage produces steel of different grades. Carbon
always assists in increasing the hardness and strength of steel and decreases the ductility of
steel.
• Presence of impurities:
- Silicon content is about 0.30 to 0.40 percent, elasticity and strength of steel are considerably
increased.
- Sulphur content between 0.02 to 0.10 percent, no appreciable effect on ductility or strength
however mealleability and weld ability decreases.
- Phosphorous content below 0.12 percent reduces shock resistance, ductility and strength of
steel.
- Manganese content 0.3 to 1.00 percent, the steel becomes very brittle and hence, it loses its
structural value
• Heat treatment processes: It is possible to alter the properties of steel by heating and
cooling under controlled conditions. The following are the purposes of heat treatment
- To alter magnetic properties of steel
- To change the structure of steel
- To increase resistance to heat and corrosion
- To increase surface hardness
- To make steel easily workable
- To vary strength and hardness
The principal processes involved in the heat treatment of steel:
- Annealing - to make steel soft
- Case hardening - the core of specimen remains tough and ductile
- Cementing - the skin of the steel is saturated with carbon (880 to 9500°C)
- Hardening - it is reverse process of annealing to make hard
- Normalising - to restore steel to normal condition and it is adopted when structure of steel is
seriously disturbed for any reason
- Tempering - this process is applied to steel, which are treated with hardening process
• Magnetic properties of steel: Steel widely used in electrical machinery, generates,
transformers etc. For making steel suitable for such use, its magnetic properties are given
supreme importance and these properties are obtained by carefully adjusting its chemical
composition.
- Carbon – carbon content as low as possible and should not exceed 0.10 percent.
- Silicon-presence of silicon results in considerable increase of electrical losses and hence it
highly undesirable.
- Sulphur and phosphorous: Combines content of sulphur and phosphorous exceeds 0.3
percent, magnetic properties of steel are greatly affected.
- Manganese: If manganese content exceeds 0.3 percent, it proves to be injurious to the
magnetic properties of steel.

Uses of steel
• Rolled steel sections
Structural steel can be rolled into various shapes and sizes in rolling mills (see Fig. 11.2). Usually
sections having larger moduli of section in proportion to their cross-sectional areas are preferred. Steel
sections are usually designated by their cross-sectional shapes. The shapes of the rolled steel
sections available today have been developed to meet structural needs. Cross-section and size are
governed by a number of factors: arrangement of material for optimum structural efficiency; functional
requirements (surfaces that are easy to connect to, flat surfaces suitable for supporting other
materials, etc.,) dimensional and weight capacity of rolling mills, and material properties which, for
example, inhibit the hot rolling of wide thin elements because of excessive warping or cracking that
might occur.
The types of rolled structural steel sections are as follows (see Fig. 11.3):
- Rolled steel I-sections
- Rolled steel channel sections / hollow sections
- Rolled steel T-sections
- Rolled steel angle-sections
- Rolled steel tube-sections
- Rolled steel bars
- Rolled steel flats)
- Rolled steel plates
- Rolled steel sheets / profiled sheets
- Rolled steel strip
Figure 11.2: Rolling mill
(Source: http://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_construction_products)

Figure 11.3: The types of rolled structural steel sections


(Sources: http://www.navkarmarketing.com/2014/04/measures-to-protect-steel-materials.html
and http://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_construction_products)

• Reinforcing steel bars


Cement concrete is one of the most versatile and established construction material throughout the
world. Concrete being extremely weak in tension requires reinforcement, which is in variably steel.
Steel reinforcement is available in the form of bars of specific diameters with different chemical
composition, e.g., mild steel and high tensile steel, and surface characteristics— plain or deformed.
Good steel should not have carbon content of more than 0.25%, sulphur content of more than 0.05%
and phosphorus content of more than 0.05%.
Effectiveness of concrete reinforcement may be enhanced by the use of low-alloy steel, or by
mechanical strengthening, or by heat treatment. Mechanical strengthening of steel is done by drawing,
stretching, twisting; the yield point of steel rises by about 30%. Heat treatment increases strength,
improves mechanical properties of steel and effects 30 to 40% savings on reinforcement.
Steel bars can also be strengthened by cold drawing after rolling. Mild steel has a definite yield point.
Cold working increases the yield stress of mild steel. Higher yield strength of reinforcing steel bars
lowers the steel requirement and thus the cost of reinforcement and its fixing is reduced. The major
drawback of cold working is the introduction of internal stresses in steel bars. Some of the other
disadvantages of cold working are reduced ductility of steel, and reduced shear strength of reinforced
cement concrete beams; the longitudinal tensile reinforcement is reduced.

Figure 11.4: Some examples of reinforcing steel bars


(Source: http://www.g-w.com/pdf/sampchap/9781590703472_ch10.pdf)

Figure 11.5: Some examples of detailed scheme of reinforcing steel bars


(Source: http://www.tc-evraz.com/en/products/construction)
11.2 Non- ferrous metals:

11.2.1 Aluminium
Aluminium is an important non-ferrous metal, occurring in abundance on the surface of earth in
various forms such as oxides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates etc. Bauxite (Al2O3, 2H2O) is hydrated
oxide of aluminium produced commercially. Aluminium extraction from bauxite is as follows:
- Bauxite is purified
- It is then dissolved in fused cryolite which is double fluoride of aluminium and sodium.
- This solution is then taken to an electric furnace and aluminium is separated out by
electrolysis.
Properties:
- It is good conductor of heat and electricity
- It is a silvery white metal with bluish tinge and it exhibits luster on a freshly broken surface.
- It is rarely attacked by nitric acid, organic acid or water. It is highly resistant to corrosion.
- It is light in weight, malleable and ductile
- It is very soft.
- It melts at about 6 580°C.
- It possesses great toughness and tensile strength
- It readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid
-3
- Its specific gravity is about 2700 kg.m .
Uses:
This metal is used for making parts of aeroplane, utensils, paints, electric wires, window frames,
glazing bars, correlated sheets, structural members, posts, panels, balustrades, etc.

Figure 11.6: Some examples of aluminium structural members


(Source: http://www.structure1.com/html/aluminum.htm)

11.2.2 Copper
The important ores of copper are cuprite Cu2O, Copper glance Cu2S, copper pyrites CuFeS2,
Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2.
Properties:
- It becomes brittle just below its melting point
- It can be worked in hot or cold condition but it cannot be welded.
- It has a peculiar red colour
- It is a good conductor of heat and electricity
- It is attacked by steam at white heat.
- It is not attacked by dry air, but moist air gases a green coating to copper surface.
- It is not attacked by water at any temperature
- It is melleable, ductile and soft
-3
- Its specific gravity is 8 900 kg.m
Uses:
The market forms of copper are ingots, sheets, tubes and wires. It is extensively used for making
electric cables, alloys, household utensils, electroplating, lighting conductors, dowels in stone
masonry, roofing, sheeting etc.

11.2.3 Zinc
The main source of zinc is the sulphide ore zinc blende or black jack (ZnS, 67 per cent zinc). The
other ores for extraction of zinc are zinc carbonate, calamine (ZnCO3, 52 per cent zinc) and zinc
silicates-hemimorphite and willemite. The sulphide ore is finely ground and calcined in reverberatory
furnace until nearly all the sulphur is expelled. Carbonate ores and silicate ores are often calcined in
shaft furnace before being distilled.
Properties:
The most important property of zinc is its resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Ductility is
good and it can be deformed into desired shapes. Lead (< 0.1 per cent) makes the zinc roll easier;
however, it softens, weakens and ductility is reduced. Iron and cadmium embrittle and harden zinc and
are, therefore, a detriment in final products to be rolled or used for galvanising. They should not
exceed 0.02 per cent. Zinc, either rolled or cast, shows no well-defined yield point.
Uses:
It is used to produce brass, some of the bronzes, as a protective coating on iron and steel, boiler
tubes, fruit jar covers and cans for resisting corrosion and for negative pole pieces of batteries.

11.2.4 Lead
Mainly used in its pure form, lead is the densest, softest and the weakest metal. The principal ore is
lead sulphide, galena (PbS, 86.6 per cent lead). Lead is extracted by reducing the sulphur content by
roasting the raw ore in pots or sintering it in shallow pallets. It is then smelt in a blast furnace along
with flux and coke. Lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, etc., are taken out of the blast furnace and separated
alternately on the basis of their different melting points.
Properties:
Pure lead can be scratched even with finger nail, highly malleable and can be rolled, into thin foils. It
has a blue grey colour and dull metallic lusture when freshly fractured. When exposed to moist air it
-3
loses lusture due to oxidation. Its relative density is 11 340 kg.m and melting temperature is 327° C.
The softness and specific gravity of lead are reduced because of the impurities such as antimony,
arsenic, zinc and copper. Magnesia (2 per cent) raises the hardness abruptly.
Uses:
It finds its principal use in paints as base, lead pipes and joints in sanitary fittings and in batteries.

11.2.5 Nickel
Nickel is generally extracted from pyrite or silicate ores.
Properties:
A brittle metal approaching sliver in colour nickel takes good polish and at ordinary temperatures does
-3
not tarnish or corrode in dry air. It has specific gravity 8 300 kg.m , when cast and
-3
8 700 kg.m when rolled. Its melting point is 1 500° C. It is almost as hard as soft steel far more
malleable, and when rolled and annealed, is somewhat stronger and almost as ductile. Nickel resists
alkaline corrosion, but gets readily dissolved in nitric acid and aquaregia. The presence of carbon,
arsenic, sulphur leads to brittleness. Small amounts of magnesium render it more ductile whereas iron
makes it hard.
Uses:
Nickel is used in making nickel steels, coin and wires, as catalyst and for moisture-proof packings.
Nickel is widely used as an alloying element in steel and cast iron and as an electro-deposited coating
over steel to give corrosion protection. Nickel is also used to form alloys with such elements as
copper, chromium and iron.

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. Name important metals used in building construction
2. Name important non-metals used in the building construction
3. What are the uses of cast iron?
4. What are the uses of wrought iron?
5. What the properties of steel?

12 WOOD

Wood is the oldest material used by humans for construction after stone. It is a commonly used
construction material in many parts of the world because of its reasonable cost, ease of working,
attractive appearance and adequate life if protected from moisture and insects. The basic
characteristics of wood are following:
• exceptionally strong relative to its weight
• a good heat and electrical insulator
• of increasing importance
• a renewable and biodegradable resource
However, forests are a valuable natural resource that must be conserved, particularly in areas with
marginal rainfall. As good a material as wood may be, there are regions where other materials should
be considered first, simply on a conservation basis.
Timber: The wood which is suitable or fit for engineering construction is called timber. Wood for
building is available from many different species with widely varying characteristics. Some species are
used in the form of small poles for light construction, while other species are allowed to mature so that
timber (lumber in many countries) may be sawn from the large logs. The species that produce small,
inexpensive poles in rather short growing periods often grow in the fringes of agricultural land and can
be used without danger to the ecology of the region.

12.1 Wood characteristics


Wood cut from deciduous trees (which drop their leaves sometime during the year) is considered to be
hardwood, while that cut from coniferous (needlebearing) trees is considered to be softwood.
However, this classification does not accurately reflect whether the wood itself is soft or hard. The term
hardwood is usually used to classify wood with hard characteristics.

12.1.1 Basic properties of wood


Wood is a hygroscopic, cellular and anisotropic material. Dry wood is composed of fibers of cellulose
(40%–50%) and hemicellulose (15%–25%) held together by lignin (15%–30%).
The basic characteristics for wood stem from the fact, that it is natural and organic material of fiber
arrangement - see Fig. 12.1.

Figure 12.1: Composition of wood


(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/emersondejesus1/chapter-7-timber)

Strength in wood is its ability to resist breaking when it is used in beams and columns. Not only is
strength related to the species, but also to moisture content (MC) and defects. Strength is also quite
closely related to density.
Hardness is the resistance to denting and wear. While hardwoods are more difficult to work, they are
required for tools, tool handles, flooring and other applications subject to wear, or where a high polish
is desired.
Stiffness is resistance in deflection or bending when loaded. Stiff woods are not necessarily very
strong. They may resist bending up to a point and then break suddenly.
Toughness is considerable deflection before breaking. Even after fracturing, the fibres tend to hang
together and resist separation. Tough woods are resistant to shock loading.
Warping is the twisting, bending or bowing distortions shown by some woods. The method of sawing
and curing affects the amount of warping, but some species are much more prone to warping than
others.
Nail-holding resistance for hardwoods is greater than for softer woods. However, woods that are so
hard that they tend to split when nailed, lose much of their holding ability. Pre-boring to 75 percent of
the nail size avoids splitting.
Great technological properties – workability, divisibility, connectivity, easy assembly, transportation,
and storage. The workability, such as sawing, shaping and nailing, is better for soft, low-density woods
than for hardwoods, but usually they cannot be given a high polish.
Natural-decay resistance is particularly important in the warm and humid regions. A wide range of
resistance is shown by different species. However, for all species, the heartwood (the darker centre
area of the tree) is more resistant than the sapwood (the lighter outer area of the tree). In addition to
selection for natural-decay resistance, wood preservatives should be considered where contact with
the ground is likely.
Paint-holding ability differs between woods and, as a general rule, this should be considered when
selecting materials.
Other properties: minimal level of natural radiation, wooden materials absorb electromagnetic smog,
neutral magnetic and electromagnetic properties, aesthetic properties – natural texture, colour, aroma,
which favorably influence mood of the man.

12.1.2 Defects in wood


Defects to watch for when selecting timber are:
Brittle heart, found near the centre of many tropical trees, makes the wood break with a brittle
fracture (see Fig 12.2.)
Wide growth rings indicate rapid growth resulting in thin-walled fibres with consequent loss of density
and strength (see Fig. 12.3)
Fissures include checks, splits, shakes and resin pockets. Knots are the part of a branch that has
become enclosed in a growing tree. Dead knots are often loose and therefore reduce the effective
area that can take tensile stress. Knots can also deflect the fibres, thereby reducing strength in
tension.
Figure 12.2: Brittle heart Figure 12.3: Wide growth rings
(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/narendramupparaju5/timber-ppt1?related=1)

Decay, which results from moisture levels between 21 percent and 25 percent in the presence of air,
reduces the strength of the wood and spoils its appearance. Decay appears due to rot, fungi and
insects

Wet rot, is a decomposition of sap and fibers of the living tree set up by the access of water through
wounds in the barks.

Dry rot, is a decomposition of converted timber induced by the commonest and most destructive dry
rot fungi or weeping fungus.

Fungi, feeding on wood can be divided into three main categories: staining fungi, moulds and decay
fungi. Most fungi thrive under moist conditions. Staining fungi live mainly on the sapwood but they may
penetrate deeply into the wood and spoil the timber’s attractive appearance. Moulds do not penetrate
below the surface and do not seem to affect the strength of the wood, but they look unsightly. Decay
fungi eat the cell walls of the wood. This causes the tree to lose its strength and often reduces it to a
crumbling, rotting mass. These decay fungi never attack timber that is seasoned to a moisture content
of less than 20 percent and kept well ventilated and dry.

Insect damage, caused by termites, beetles or borers (see Fig.12.4). The main species of borer that
attack tropical woods are the pinhole borer and the Lyctus, or powderpost beetle. The pinhole borer
attacks newly felled logs and sometimes standing trees. The attack can occur within hours of felling.
The beetles do not normally continue to operate in seasoned timber. The powderpost beetle attacks
seasoned tropical hardwoods – particularly those that contain starch on which the larvae feed. Timber
is sometimes sprayed in the yard to protect it until it is transported. Termites are normally of two kinds:
the dry wood types that are able to fly and the subterranean type. Termites usually operate under
cover and it is only after the first signs of damage appear that the full extent is realized. Flying termites
usually enter the end-grain of untreated timber and build up a colony from inside, finally devouring all
the interior wood and leavingonly a thin skin behind. Some subterranean termites, white ants, operate
from a central colony and travel in search of food. Their nests or hills sometimes achieve great size
and house millions of ants. While no timber is completely immune to attack from ants or other insects,
there are great variations among the species. The density of the timber is no guide to its resistance to
termite damage, as some of the lighter timbers are more immune than heavier varieties. Weathering is
the disintegration of wood caused by alternate shrinkage and swelling as a result of rain, rapid
changes in temperature, humidity and the action of sunlight. Painting, when properly carried out, does
much to prevent weathering. The paint must be of exterior quality, however, and applied according to
the maker’s instructions.

Fire, is also damaging factor for timber. As timber has tendency to burn, so fire can damage it easily.

Figure 12.4: Termites, Beetles and Borers and corresponding forms of wood decay
(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/emersondejesus1/chapter-7-timber)

12.1.3 Wood preservation


The main structural softwood timbers are not naturally durable. If used in conditions subject to fungal,
insect or termite attack, they will fail after some time. To avoid this, the timber used in permanent
structures should be treated with a preservative.
Effective preservation depends on the preservative and how it is applied. An effective preservative
should be poisonous to fungi and insects, permanent, able to penetrate sufficiently, cheap and readily
available. It should not corrode metal fastenings, nor should the timber be rendered more flammable
by its use. If a structure is correctly designed and built, and the moisture content of its timber does not
exceed 20 percent, then a preservative treatment is generally unnecessary for protection against
fungal attack. However, where the above conditions are not present, there will be a risk of fungal
decay, and proper preservation is recommended.
Creosote is an effective general-purpose preservative that is cheap and widely used for exterior work
and, to a lesser degree, indoors. It is a black to brownish oil produced by the distillation of coal tar and,
while it has many of the properties required of a preservative, it increases flammability, is subject to
evaporation, and creosoted wood cannot be painted. It should not be used on interiors where the
characteristic smell would be objectionable. Unfortunately, creosote has been found to be a
carcinogen and must be used with caution.
Coal tar is not as effective a preservative as the creosote produced from it. Tar is less poisonous,
does not penetrate the timber because of its viscosity, is blacker than creosote and is unsuitable for
interior wood work.
Unleachable metallic salts are based mostly on copper salts. A combination of copper/chrome/
arsenate is used. The copper and arsenical salts are toxic preservatives that are rendered non-
leaching (cannot be washed out) by the chrome salt, which acts as a fixing agent. The timber is
impregnated using a ‘vacuum pressure’ process. Preservation by metallic salt is being used
increasingly because the treated surfaces are odourless and can be painted or glued. Water-soluble
preservatives are not satisfactory for exterior use as they are liable to be washed out of the timber by
rain. By contrast, they are very suitable for interior work as they are comparatively odourless and
colourless and the timber can be painted.
Used engine oil can often be obtained free of charge, at least in small quantities. The oil contains
many residual products from combustion and some of them act as preservatives, but it is not nearly as
effective as commercial preservatives. It can be thinned with diesel fuel for better penetration.
Special paints to save timber from fire: following paints are used:
- diammonium phosphate
- mono ammonium phosphate
- mono magnesium phosphate
- phosphoric acid

Methods of wood preservation


There are two categories of timber preservation methods:
• Non-pressure methods
These are applicable for both green and dried timber and include:
- Hot and cold soaking: the tank with the preservative and timber is heated to nearly boiling
point for 1-2 hours and allowed to cool. During the heating period, the air in the cells expands
and some is expelled. When cooling, a partial vacuum develops in the cells and liquid is
absorbed.
- Steam and cold quenching
- Superficial methods such as painting and spraying
To make non-pressure methods more effective, storage in a closed environment is recommended.
• Pressure methods
The treatment in pressure processes is carried out in steel cylinders, or ‘retorts’. Most units conform to
size limits of 2–3 metres in diameter and up to 46 metres or more in length, and are built to withstand
working pressures of up to 1 720 kPa. The wood is loaded on special tram cars and moved into the
retort, which is then closed and filled with the preservative. Pressure forces preservatives into the
wood until the desired amount has been absorbed. Three processes - full-cell, modified full-cell and
empty-cell – are commonly used. These processes are distinguished by the sequence in which
vacuum and pressure are applied to the retort.
12.2 Timber manufacturing and basic products

12.2.1 Wooden poles


In farm buildings and rural structures, wood is often used in the form in which it has grown, i.e. round
poles. In some areas where enough trees are grown on the farm or in local forests, wooden poles can
be obtained at very low cost. These poles have many uses in small building construction, such as
columns for the loadbearing structure, rafters, trusses and purlins. Sticks and thin poles are often used
as wall material or as a framework in mud walls. Round timber can generally be considered stronger
than sawn timber of the same section area because the fibres in round timber are intact.

12.2.2 Sawing timber


The method of sawing has a considerable effect on the appearance, resistance to warping, shrinking,
paintholding ability and wear resistance of the final piece. There are several methods of sawing a log
into boards and planks (see Fig. 12.5 and 12.6), giving different relationships between the growth
rings and the surface, i.e. more or less parallel to the surface in plain sawn timber and at right angles
in radial sawn timber. Radially sawn boards shrink less, are less liable to cup and twist and are easier
to season. Cutting methods that produce a high proportion of quarter-sawn timber are wasteful and
therefore only used to produce material for high-class joinery work. On the other hand, those waste
(chips, saw-dust ...) are usable for other products (see chapter 12.3).

Figure 12.5: Methods of sawing timber

Figure 12.6: Quarter sawn method


(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/emersondejesus1/chapter-7-timber)
A tree is tapered and cylindrical, whereas boards and planks are rectangular. This results in the outer
pieces with tapered edges and less than full dimensions throughout the length. Such pieces, called
offcuts, can sometimes be obtained at low cost and used for rough building.

12.2.3 Seasoning of timber


The strength, stiffness and dimensional stability of wood are related to its moisture content. Hence, if
wood is dried (seasoned) before use, not only can higher strength values be used in a design, but a
more durable structure will result. In developing countries, most timber is not seasoned and it is sold in
what is called its ‘green’ state. Timber must be stacked, supported and sometimes restrained so as to
minimize distortion during seasoning. If drying is too rapid, the outer parts, in particular the
unprotected ends, shrink before the interior does, and this leads to surface checking and splitting, as
well as the possible extension of ring and heart shakes. Some timber species are more difficult to
season satisfactorily than others.
• Air/natural seasoning
Timber should be protected from rain and from the ground. It should therefore be stacked so that air
can circulate freely around all surfaces, reducing the risk of twisting and cupping, as well as minimizing
attacks by fungi and insects. In favourable conditions, thin softwoods can be air-seasoned in weeks
but in unfavourable conditions some hardwoods require a year or more.
• Artificial seasoning
Artificial seasoning can be either moderate or rapid, depending on the temperature of the air injected
into the chamber where the timber is piled, and on the rate at which the air is circulated and extracted
from the chamber. This method is more expensive.
Traditional smoke seasoning is a moderate process and involves placing the timber over a bonfire. It
can take a month or two, depending on the size and type of wood being seasoned. This method is
considered to be both a seasoning and a treatment method for timber. Presumably it protects the
timber against pest attacks and increases durability. However, it is not very reliable and can lead to
splitting of the timber because of the lack of control over the heat from the bonfire.
Nowadays, kiln, chemical or electrical seasoning is used in mass-produce of timber products.

12.3 Wood based products

12.3.1 Manufactured building boards


There are a number of building boards made from wood veneers or the waste products of the timber
industry that are convenient and economical materials to use in building construction. In general, they
offer excellent bracing for the building frame, together with labour savings because they are available
in large sizes requiring a minimum of fitting. Some manufactured boards are designed with specific
characteristics, such as fire resistance, ease of cleaning, high insulation value or resistance to
weathering.

Veneer
It is thin sheet of wood, 0.4 – 0.6 mm in thickness obtained by different knife cutting process.
Plywood
Plywood is produced by gluing together three to seven veneers (plies) that have been peeled from
logs. The grain of each successive veneer is angled at 90° from the previous one, resulting in a board
that has considerable strength and rigidity in all directions (see Fig. 12.7). Waterproof glue is most
commonly used, giving a product that is highly resistant to moisture. Waterproof glue panels should
always be chosen for farm buildings. As the wood itself is not waterproof, the panels are still subject to
swelling and shrinkage from moisture changes.

Figure 12.7: Plywood


Advantages of plywood:
- It has a good strength across as well as along the grain
- It has better splitting resistance due to grains in adjacent layers running at the right angle and
nailing and screwing even closed to the edges in safe
- Can easily be bending to a curvature limited by the tensile and the compressive strength of the
other plies
- The face plies made a different heartwoods show great aesthetic variety in grain pattern ad
colour

Blockboards and laminboards

They are made of strips of wood between 8 mm and 25 mm wide, glued together and covered with
one or more veneers on each side. At least one pair of corresponding veneers will have the grain
at right angles to the grain of the core. If the finish grain is to run parallel with the core, there must
be at least two veneers per side. Blockboard panels are often used for doors.

Figure 12.8: Blockboard


Particleboards
They are formed by pressing chips or flakes of wood between pairs of heated platens so that the
particles lie in random fashion with their longer dimensions parallel to the surface of the board. The
chips are bonded with thermosetting synthetic resins. Depending on the size of the particles, these
boards are variously known as particleboard, chipboard or fiberboard. Strength and rigidity generally
increase with density, but that alone is not a measure of quality, as moisture resistance varies
considerably and most particleboards should not be used in moist locations.
Softboards are made from uncompressed woodchips or sugarcane fibres mixed with water and glue or
3
resins, giving a density of less than 350 kg/m . They are inexpensive and can be used for wall or
ceiling surfaces that are not subject to high-moisture conditions. Softboards have little resistance to
rupture and must be supported when installed.
3 3
Mediumboards, with a density ranging from 350 kg/m to 800 kg/m , are used for panelling, in
particular those with a density at the higher end of the range.
3
Hardboards are made of wood fibres compressed to more than 800 kg/m . They are usually smooth
on one surface and textured on the other. An oil-treated grade has good resistance to moisture.

Figure 12.9: Particleboard

Cement Bonded Particle products


The are combine the strength of cement and lightweight of wood. Various products can be
manufactured in dependence of wood particle size, rate of wood/cement paste and rate of pressure. In
those relations, the resulting product may be more dense and strong, or more gappy and insulating
(see Fig. 12.10).
These factory-made composite materials consist of Portland cement, wood fibers, water and different
additives. Cement gives them following advantages:
• Durability and dimensional stability
• resistance to wood boring insects
• resistance to rot
• reduced flammability
Figures 12.10: Examples of Cement Bonded Particle products: more dense board made of smaller
wood particles as well as masonry element made of bigger wood particles, thus being more gappy and
insulating
(Sources: http://www.thefourcharms.com/siding-cement-board/ and http://www.durisol-
czech.cz/sortiment.html)
12.3.2 Advanced wood products

OSB panels
(Oriented Strand Board) is an engineered wood-based panel consisting of strands of wood which are
bonded together with a synthetic resin; the strands are pressed together in layers. In the outer layers
strands are generally oriented longitudinally in line with the panel length, whereas in the middle layers
strands generally lie in a cross wise direction.
The wood species used in OSB manufacture include both softwoods (spruce, pine) and some
hardwood. Wood strands are cut tangentially from debarked logs which are held longitudinally against
rotating knives. The ribbon of strands produced is usually about 75 mm wide and this breaks up on
handling to produce individual strands which are typically 100 mm along the grain and from 5 to 50
mm across the grain.
After drying, these strands are sprayed with a synthetic resin binder. The resin types typically used
include Phenol formaldehyde (PF), melamine fortified Urea Formaldehyde (MUF) or isocyanate
(PMDI), all of which are moisture resistant binders. In Europe, it is common to use a combination of
binders, typically PMDI would be used in the core and MUF in the face layers and this has the
advantage of reducing press cycles whilst imparting a bright appearance to the surface of the panel.
Panel density (and thus panel mass) varies depending upon the product, being affected by the timber
3
species and the manufacturing process. Typical densities are 600-680kg/m .
Four grades of OSB are defined in EN 300 in terms of their mechanical performance and relative
resistance to moisture. These are:

OSB/1 - General purpose boards and boards for interior fitments (including furniture) for use in dry
conditions.
OSB/2 - Load-bearing boards for use in dry conditions.
OSB/3 - Load-bearing boards for use in humid conditions
OSB/4 - Heavy-duty load-bearing boards for use in humid conditions.

When it comes to new construction projects, OSB’s versatility makes it easy to work with a variety of
applications, including:
• Wall sheeting – excellent strength and racking performance under all types of exterior cladding.
• Roof sheeting – uniformly sound and extra rigid to handle snow and wind loads, sacking for
pitched tiles on slated roofs, structural decking on joists for flat roofs.
• Subfloors – strong, rigid and impact-resistant for underlayment, carpet or tiles.
• Single-layer floors – use OSB directly under carpet, lightweight concrete or hardwood.
• Underlayment – uniformly thin yet strong and finely sanded, OSB provides a smooth and uniform
base for vinyl or tiles.
• I-joists – a high quality support system that minimizes deflection, provides for long spans and
minimizes floor squeaking. Because it’s engineered, OSB can be custom manufactured to meet
specific requirements in thickness, density, panel size, surface texture, strength and rigidity. OSB
is also highly workable, making it easy to saw, drill, nail, plane, file, glue, paint and sand. This
makes it an excellent choice for the replacement of ageing or unwanted building components, as
well as new additions to existing structures. OSB is also used as concrete shuttering or
framework.

Figure 12.11: Oriented Strand Board


(Source: http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:OSB-3_Kronoply_2009.jpg)

Solid structural timber


It has been especially developed in response to the increased demands of contemporary timber
construction. Precision of fit and dimensional stability set it apart from typical structural timber.
DUO / TRIO beams combine well with solid structural timber. The specific combination provides for
high dimensional stability and reduction in cracking and warping. They are particularly suitable for
heavy static loads in modern timber construction, e.g. for rafters, ceiling beams and columns. (see Fig.
12.12).
Figure 12.12: Examples of solid structural timber and DUO/TRIO beams
(Source: Timber for construction, www.germantimber.com. HOLZABSATZFONDS 2007)

Glued laminated timber, commonly referred to simply as “glulam”, is the building material for load-
bearing structures in residential and large-scale buildings, as well as for structural engineering. Glulam
consists of at least four softwood boards or planks glued together under high pressure with their fibers
aligned parallel to each other and kiln dried. Glulam products provide dimensional stability, accuracy
and precision of fit. Cracking is kept to a minimum, while up to 80% more load-bearing capacity than
conventional structural timber of the same cross section is attainable.

Figure 12.13: Glued laminated timber


(Source: Timber for construction, www.germantimber.com. HOLZABSATZFONDS 2007)

12.4 Areas of application and products ranges


Base plate and cellar
• Formwork panels
• Formwork timbers, stock squared sawn timber
• Solid structural timber
• Treated squared timbers
Load-bearing timber construction members
• solid structural timber
• DUO/TRIO beams
• Glulam
Exterior and interior walls
• solid structural timber
• OSB panels
• Particle boards
• Three-layer boards
• Soft fiber boards
Frontages
• Planks and boards
• Heat-treated wood
• solid structural timber
• OSB panels
• Three-layer boards
• Wood fiber boards for insulation and soundproofing
Ceiling and floor
• solid structural timber
• DUO/TRIO beams
• Glulam
• OSB panels
• Solid wood floorboards
• Wood fiber boards for insulation and soundproofing
Roof
• solid structural timber
• DUO-/TRIO beams
• Glulam
Exterior
• Palisades, wooden decking
• Squared and round timbers
• Prefabricated units for pathways and benches
• Fences for noise reduction and privacy

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. Define basic properties of wood
2. Name any four defects in timber
3. What are the important qualities of timber?
4. Name any four wood based products
5. What is plywood?
6. What is meant by seasoning?
7. What are methods of wood preservation
8. Define any advanced timber products
13 INSULATIONS

The main role of insulating materials is to protect both the constructions and internal environment of
buildings to external influences.
Classification from function point of view:
Water-proof - water and moisture insulations
Thermal insulations - loss of heat prevention
Sound insulations - prevention of noise and vibrations transfer in constructions
Special insulations - chemical aggressive agents prevention
fire resistant
radiation resistant

13.1 Water-proof insulations


The primary function is to prevent of water/moisture penetration into the construction elements;
secondary to increase the durability of materials and life-time of constructions.
• Parts of construction which have to be insulated:
- substructures – against groundwater
- roof structures and covering
- pools, reservoirs …
• Water-proof insulations from raw materials point of view:
- bituminous – asphalt and tar
- plastic - foils
- silicate – special sealers based on cement
- clay
- special – chemical grout materials

13.1.1 Bituminous materials


Asphalt is a sticky, black and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid that is present in most crude
petroleums and in some natural deposits. Asphalt is composed almost entirely of bitumen. Asphalt can
be separated from the other components in crude oil (such as naphta, gasoline) by the process of
fractional distillation, usually under vacuum conditions. In order to obtain better technical properties,
asphalt is modified by rubber or polypropylene.
Tar is a viscous black liquid derived from the destructive distillation of organic matter. Most tar is
produced from coal as a byproduct of coke production, but it can also be produced from petroleum
and peat. Tar is also predominantly composed of bitumen; however the bitumen content of tar is
typically lower than that of asphalt. Tar and asphalt have very different engineering properties. Asphalt
is of higher durability.
• Properties in asphalt
-3
Density: 980-1 100 kg.m
-1 -1
Heat conductivity: 0,12 W.m .K
Softening point: 95°C – asphalt
120 - 135°C modified asphalt
• Utilisation
Asphalt and tar for water-proof insulating purposes are used in the form of penetration coatings and
paints and asphalt especially in the form of felts or membranes.
Polymer Modified Bitumen waterproof membranes: Polymer modified bitumen or modified bitumen
sheet membranes were developed in Europe in the early 1960s and now have been widely in use all
over the world.are composed of reinforcing fabrics that serve as carriers for the hot polymer-modified
bitumen as it is manufactured into a roll material. The kind waterproof systems typically are installed
as a two-ply system and almost always are fully adhered. Surfacings for modified bitumen membranes
include aggregate surfacing, mineral surfacing, metal foil-laminate surfacing and smooth liquid-applied
surfacing.
There are two types of modified bitumen waterproof membranes:
Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene (SBS) polymer-modified bitumen membranes commonly are installed in
hot moppings of asphalt or cold adhesive. SBS is a rubber-type modifier that gives bitumen the ability
to stretch and resist damage, and improves its cold-temperature flexibility. Some SBS modified
membranes are self-adhering; that is, they contain an adhesive backing.
Atactic Polypropylene (APP) polymer-modified bitumen membranes typically are heat-welded or torch-
applied. APP is especially suitable for high temperature and strong sunshine area.
Generally, APP modifiers impart a "plasticized" quality to asphalt, and SBS modifiers impart a
"rubberized" quality to asphalt.

Figure 13.1: SBS polymer-modified bitumen membrane


(Source: http://www.chinaperfectroof.com/en/product.asp?id=157)

• Composition of asphalt felt (Fig. 13.2):


1. upper surface treatment: mineral spreading or metal foil
2. upper asphalt layer
3. bearing layer: heavy-duty paper, paper board, metal foil or mesh, polyester mesh …
4. primary asphalt layer
5. bottom asphalt layer
6. bottom surface treatment: plastic foils, mineral spreading, silicon paper
7. treatment of bordures: for good connection of individual felts

Figure 13.2: Composition of asphalt felt


(Source: Rouseková, I. et al: Building Materials. JAGA group 2000, Slovakia)

There is the possibility of production of asphalt shingles by cutting from the asphalt felts in practise.
They are used for covering of sloped roofs.

Figure 13.3: Asphalt shingles


(Source: http://www.companyroofingandexteriors.com/roofing/residential/asphalt-shingles)

13.1.2 Plastic materials


EPDM waterproof membrane: Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) rubber membrane,
which is the world recognized outstanding performance of polymer waterproof material as a high
elastic waterproof material, is one of the key promotions of new chemical materials in construction,
using as a part of roof-insulating system.
Features of EPDM waterproofing membrane
• excellent weatherability, in the long term light, humidity, cold use of the natural environment,
small changes in physical properties
• ozone resistance, resistance to ultraviolet and atmospheric corrosion of many chemical
corrosive substances
• high tensile strength, high elongation, high flexibility, capable of sustaining a puncture of hard
material, good anti-crack, high adaptability of the grass roots’ contraction and the crack and
deformation, and give full play to extend the performance, playing the role of waterproofing.
• long lifetime, high durability can achieve more than 25 years
• easy to install, no environment pollution and simple operation

Figure 13.4: Ethylene Propylene Diene Monomer (EPDM) rubber membrane


(Source: http://www.chinaperfectroof.com/en/product_show.asp?id=1344)

Breathable Membranes: A three layer highly breathable, fully waterproof membrane, constructed
from high tensile spun-bonded polypropylene layers, around a microporous polypropylene film. The
outer layer forms the functional waterproof surface; the middle layer is the breathable waterproof
membrane and the inner layer protects the membrane from abrasion and damage, also giving
additional strength. This enables the fabric to allow moisture vapour to pass through, whilst remaining
fully waterproof.
Breathable roofing underlay positioned immediately above the insulation layer in a warm pitched roof,
or in a cold pitched roof (ventilated or unventilated) . Breathable roofing underlay for use under tiles
and sheeted roofs, over open rafters or on to fully boarded substrates. Breather membrane for timber
frame wall construction.
It often is in form of 3-layers laminate: PP nonwoven + PE film + PP nonwoven

Figure 13.5: Breathable Membrane


(Source: http://www.everychina.com/m-laminated-breathable-
membrane?cpc_kw=breathable%20waterproof%20pe%20membrane&cpc_flag=c66082)
13.2 Thermal and sound insulations

13.2.1 Thermal insulation


In building results in living and working indoor-conditions because it keeps the room cool in summer
and warmer in winter. Due to thermal insulation, the demand of heating in winter and cooling in
summer is considerably reduced. The use of thermal insulation materials further reduces the risk of
water freezing in case of pipes and heat loss of hot water system.

• Heat transfer takes place in following ways:


- Conduction: transmission of heat through material.
- Convection: heat is transmitted by convection in fluids and gases, due to circulation.
- Radiation: heat is transfer by radiation (through space) in the form of radiant energy. When the
radiation strikes on object, some of the energy is absorbed and transformed into heat.

• Insulating material should have the following properties:


- it should have high thermal resistance
- it should be reasonably fire proof
- it should be insect proof
- it should be non-absorbent moisture

The basic parameter describing the thermal insulating ability is the thermal conductivity coefficient
λ. Thermal insulating materials should be of λ < 0,3 W.m .K . We can consider also the “high
-1 -1

effective” thermal insulations with λ < 0,1 W.m .K .


-1 -1

The R (thermal resistance) is also defined for constructions - value of a material indicates its
resistance to heat flow (ability of material to assure the thermal protection respectively). R-values are
measured at 75 °F (22 °C) and are calculated from the thermal conductivity λ and the thickness d of
materials: R = d/λ .
How much insulation the building should have depends on the building design, climate, energy costs,
budget, and personal preference. Each country has different recommendations as to what R-values
each component of a house should have.

13.2.2 Sound insulation


This function can satisfy the “acoustic soft materials” - materials with very low value of volume weight
and open porosity. By the essence of material, there are very similar as thermal insulations.

13.2.3 Materials and forms of thermal and sound insulations


• From shape point of view:
- rigid board
- fiber
- loose fill
- foam
• From raw material point of view:
- insulations from anorganic materials: mineral fibres, glass foam/fibers, perlit
- insulations from organic materials: expanded plastics, cork, wood-wool, saw-dust
Rigid board insulations
They can be produced from various fibered materials by compression or from expanded plastics.
• Polystyrene
Polystyrene is a polymer made from the monomer styrene, a liquid hydrocarbon that is commercially
manufactured from petroleum. At room temperature, polystyrene is normally a solid thermoplastic, but
can be melted at higher temperature for molding or extrusion.
Polystyrene's most common use, however, is as expanded polystyrene (EPS). Expanded polystyrene
is produced from a mixture of about 95% polystyrene and 5% gaseous blowing agent. The solid plastic
is expanded into foam through the use of heat, usually steam. Extruded polystyrene (XPS), which is
different than expanded polystyrene, is commonly known by the trade name Styrofoam®. The voids
filled with trapped air give expanded polystyrene low thermal conductivity. This makes it ideal as a
construction material and it is used in structural insulated panel building systems.
- Molded expanded polystyrene, also known as MEPS, EPS, or beadboard, consists of many
tiny foam beads molded and pressed together. EPS is manufactured in low-density and high-density
versions. Low-density EPS is relatively inexpensive, resistant to the effects of moisture, and can be
used underground. High-density EPS is even more moisture-resistant, and is manufactured for use on
exterior foundation walls.
- Extruded expanded polystyrene, also known as XEPS, XPS, or blueboard, has a smooth, cut-
cell surface, is stronger than EPS, and is ideal for blocking air-infiltration. Like EPS, XPS is also
manufactured in low-density and high-density versions. High-density XPS is used for foundation slabs,
concrete floors, roofs, and other applications that require higher bearing strength than EPS and low-
density XPS.
• Rigid polyurethane panels
• Cork
Sheets of cork, often the byproduct of more lucrative stopper production, are used to make floor tiles.
It allows improved insulation. It is also a very good material for vibration elimination.
• Fiberglass and rock wool rigid panels are mainly used for acoustic applications.
• Wood Fibre board – (see chapter 12.3).

Fiber insulations
• Fiber glass - made from molten glass, usually with 20% to 30% recycled industrial waste and
post-consumer content. Nonflammable, except for the facing (if present). Sometimes, the
manufacturer modifies the facing so that it is fire-resistant. Some fiberglass is unfaced, some is paper-
faced with a thin layer of asphalt, and some is foil-faced.
Manufacturing process
After the fusion of a mixture of natural sand and recycled glass at 1,450 °C, the glass that is produced
is converted into fibers. The original feature of process lies in the combination of centrifugal drawing of
the glass and its refining in a flow of hot gas. The cohesion and mechanical strength of the products
are obtained by the presence of a binder that “cements” the fibers together. Ideally, a drop of bonder is
placed at each fiber intersection. This fiber mat is then heated to around 200 °C (to polymerize the
resin), and is calendered to give it strength and stability.
The final stage involves cutting the wool and packing it in rolls or panels under very high pressure
before palletizing the finished product in order to facilitate transport and storage.
Thanks to its intertwined flexible fibers, glass wool offers excellent fire-resistant properties, as a
thermal insulation material (for example in loft of wall cavity insulation) and is also widely used as an
absorbant material in acoustic treatments such as sound insulation, absorbant ceiling tiles. Its light
weight, flexibility and elasticity make it easy to install, which is another essential condition for effective
insulation
The best known products: TEL-MINERALWOLLE, THERWOOLIN
• Rock wool - also known as mineral wool or mineral fiber. Made from rock (basalt, diabase), or
blast furnace slag. Usually gray with black specs, or white, and more brittle, denser, and more
resistant to airflow than fiberglass.
Manufacturing process
Rockwool is a furnace product of molten rock, at a temperature of about 1600°C, through which is
blown a stream of air or steam. More high tech production techniques are based on spinning molten
rock (lava) on high speed spinning wheels. The final product is a mass of fine intertwined fibres with a
typical diameter of 6 to 10 micrometers. Mineral wool may contain a binder and an oil to reduce
dusting and making it water repellent (hydrophobic).
The best known products: NOBASIL, ORSIL, ROCKWOOL, ISOVER

Loose fill insulations


They are used in the form of filling. It is of:
• Fibrous type (see Fig. 13.6): mineral rock wool, glass wool, cellulose, wood fiber/dust or
sheep wool.

Figure 13.6: Loose-fill insulation, fibrous type


(Source: http://www.cmd-sk.sk/fukana-izolacia-celulozova-izolacia-2/)

• Granular type (see fig 13.7):


- Expanded perlite - perlite is an amorphous volcanic glass that has relatively high water
content. It occurs naturally and has the unusual property of greatly expanding when heated
sufficently. When it reaches temperatures of 850–900 °C, perlite softens (since it is a glass)
and water trapped in the structure escapes and this causes the expansion of the material to
7–15 times its original volume. The expanded material is a brilliant white, due to the reflectivity
of the trapped bubbles. Unexpanded ("raw") perlite bulk density is around 1100 kg/m³. Typical
expanded perlite bulk density: 30–150 kg/m³.
- Granulated polystyrene
- Expanded clay products

Figure 13.7: Loose-fill insulation, granular type


(Source: http://obchod.takacs.sk/?content=TVRDETAIL&nparams=kod_id;11078)

Foam insulations
Basically it is Spray polyurethane foam – (see Fig. 13.8).

Figure 13.7: Foam spray insulation


(Source: http://www.certainteed.com/products/insulation/spray-foam-insulation)

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS


1. Define waterproof insulations and its functions
2. Define thermal insulations and its functions
3. Name materials suitable for waterproof insulations production
4. Name materials suitable for thermal insulations production
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