10 Basics of Building Materials
10 Basics of Building Materials
Stavebná fakulta
ITMS 2611020070
This publication is prepared to support study of Building materials, or other related subjects on Faculty
of Civil Engineering in Košice. The aim is to become familiar with the basic building materials used in
today's buildings.
The first chapter deals with the structure of the building materials. After studying this chapter, students
will be able to identify and describe the types of structures and materials, as well as classify materials
according to the structure.
The second chapter is devoted to the properties of construction materials. It is crucial in the context of
courses at this level of teaching; knowledge of it is applied to knowledge of all kinds of building
materials.
Other chapters then deal with the raw material base for production of building materials (including
secondary raw materials), and then production, properties and applications of standard groups of
building materials.
Learning skills are necessary inputs for the study in all study programs in higher grades.
1 INTRODUCTION
Building material (construction material) is a matter with available physical and chemical properties
for building purposes.
Notice:
When you think of building materials, don't confuse yourself with building products. These are two
different things altogether. Building products are things like doors and windows that are made from
different materials to use in the making of supporting structure to a building.
Building materials are the material foundation for all the construction engineering. Building materials
industry is one of the important basic industries of a lot of national economies. The varieties,
specifications and qualities of building materials are directly related to the applicability, artistry and
durability of buildings.
The application of building materials in the projects must possess the following characteristics: the
function (properties) required by projects, the durability proper for the environmental conditions, the
rich resources to meet the needs of construction, and low price. Present formation and development of
material science and engineering had contributed to not only the improvement of building materials in
function and quality, but also the varieties. Some new building materials with special functions came
into being, such as high heat-resistant, corrosion resistant, and impermeable materials. In the second
th
half of 20 century, building materials evolved towards light, high-strength and functional direction. The
most preferred function is presented by durability and long life-time of materials.
As a choice of great variety of materials, builder needs to know their exact technical parameters for
responsible application in construction. They can only be obtained through laboratory or in-situ tests,
performed under specific conditions prescribed by the standards. Testing of materials is therefore an
integral part of research and development phase.
Life-cycle phases and environmental relations of building materials
The path taken by a material from its initial formation until its ultimate disposal is called a life cycle. All
products begin with the harvesting of raw materials, followed by their conservation to products through
a series of manufacturing steps, and ultimately their sale to user. Historically, the goals of a materials
scientist ended here, but the product itself was not finished. After the useful life of a material passes, it
must be recycled, reused, or discarded. The life cycle of a material includes the entire time from the
harvesting of the raw material until the ultimate disposal of product.
These three life-cycle phases relate to the flow of materials through the life of the building:
a) Pre-Building Phase
The Pre-Building Phase describes the production and delivery process of a material up to, but not
including, the point of installation. This includes discovering raw materials in nature as well as
extracting, manufacturing, packaging, and transportation to a building site. This phase has the most
potential for causing environmental damage. Understanding the environmental impacts in the pre-
building phase will lead to the wise selection of building materials. Raw material procurement
methods, the manufacturing process itself, and the distance from the manufacturing location to the
building site all have environmental consequences. An awareness of the origins of building materials
is crucial to an understanding of their collective environmental impact when expressed in the form of a
building.
The basic ingredients for building products, whether for concrete walls or roofing membranes, are
obtained by mining or harvesting natural resources. The extraction of raw materials, whether from
renewable or finite sources, is in itself a source of severe ecological damage. The results of clear-
cutting forests and strip-mining once-pristine landscapes have been well documented.
b) Building Phase
The Building Phase refers to a building material’s useful life. This phase begins at the point of the
material’s assembly into a structure, includes the maintenance and repair of the material, and extends
throughout the life of the material within or as part of the building.
c) Post-Building Phase
The Post-Building Phase refers to the building materials when their usefulness in a building has
expired. At this point, a material may be reused in its entirety, have its components recycled back into
other products, or be discarded. The re-use or recyclation of the materials is more preferred approach,
because of environmental reasons.
Building materials, from their resource extractions through manufacturing, use and disposal have
become a major component of the total human effects on global ecosystems. Because all
manufactured building materials industries are raw material and energy consumers, and produce
some degree of waste, they are important targets worldwide for efficiency improvements and
environmental pollution reductions.
Resource Efficiency can be accomplished by utilizing materials that meet the following criteria:
• Recycled content: Products with identifiable recycled content, including postindustrial content
with a preference for postconsumer content. For production of new building material, it is
possible to use wastes/by-products from different sources, usually divided to:
a) construction and demolition waste (C&DW): recycled concrete aggregate, recycled
masonry aggregate…)
b) waste from other industrial activities and processes (fly-ash, blast furnace slag…)
c) selected municipal waste (glass cullet, plastic debris…)
• Natural, plentiful or renewable: Materials harvested from sustainably managed sources and
preferably have an independent certification (e.g., certified wood).
• Resource efficient manufacturing process: Products manufactured with resource-efficient
processes including reducing energy consumption, minimizing waste (recycled, recyclable and
or source reduced product packaging), and reducing greenhouse gases.
• Locally available: Building materials, components, and systems found locally or regionally
saving energy and resources in transportation to the project site.
• Salvaged, refurbished, or remanufactured: Includes saving a material from disposal and
renovating, repairing, restoring, or generally improving the appearance, performance, quality,
functionality, or value of a product.
• Reusable or recyclable: Select materials that can be easily dismantled and reused or
recycled at the end of their useful life.
• Recycled or recyclable product packaging: Products enclosed in recycled content or
recyclable packaging.
• Durable: Materials that are longer lasting or are comparable to conventional products with
long life expectancies.
Difference between „traditional“ and environmental friendly extraction and disposal of materials, using
C&DW, is given in Fig. 1.1
Figure 1.1: Traditional and environmental friendly extraction and disposal of materials
(Source: Green Building Materials. http://www.calrecycle.ca.gov/greenbuilding/materials/)
1.2 General classification of building materials
For the sake of better overview, study, application and description, building materials are arranged into
the groups and they are classified from different angles.
Structure refers to the arrangement of a material's components from an atomic to a macro scale.
Understanding the structure of a substance is a key to understanding the state or condition of a
material, information which is then correlated with the processing of the material in tandem with its
properties. Understanding these relationships is an intrinsic part of materials science engineering, as it
allows engineers to manipulate the properties of a material.
Matter has many definitions, but the most common is that it is any substance which has mass and
occupies space. All physical objects are composed of matter, in the form of atoms, which are in turn
composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.
Every possible kind of matter possesses a unique set of intensive properties that distinguishes it from every
other kind of matter. In other words, intensive properties serve to characterize matter.
States of matter: one of the ways in which matter can interact with itself to form a homogeneous phase.
• Solid - a solid has a definite shape and volume
• Liquid - a liquid has a definite volume, but can change shape
• Gas - the shape and volume of a gas can change
Matter may be considered as (see Fig. 2.1):
• Pure substance - usually refers to a sample of matter that has a distinct set of properties that
are common to all other samples of that substance. A pure substance is one whose intensive
properties are the same in any purified sample of that same substance. It can be a element (pure
substance consisting of one type of atom) or compound (pure chemical substance consisting of two
or more different chemical elements that can be separated into simpler substances by chemical
reactions)
• Mixture - in contrast, is composed of two or more substances, and it can exhibit a wide range
of properties depending on the relative amounts of the components present in the mixture. It can be
prepared or separated by physical processes.
− Homogeneous mixture (from the Greek homo = same) – called also single-phase,
can be thought of as being uniform and continuous – it possesses uniform intensive properties
throughout its volume, whereas
− Heterogeneous mixture (hetero = different) - a sample of matter can contain more
than a single phase; it also implies non-uniformity and discontinuity
Notice: Phase is a region of space, throughout which all physical properties of a material are
essentially uniform. A simple description is that a phase is a region of material that is chemically
uniform, physically distinct, and (often) mechanically separable.
Phases of the composite system have different roles that depend on the type and application of the
composite material.
The matrix material surrounds and supports other constituents by keeping their relative positions,
protecting both the reinforcement and whole the composite from environment effects/deterioration; as
well as transferring the loading to reinforcement. The matrix plays a minor role in the tensile load-
bearing capacity of a composite structure.
Transfer stresses between the fibers:
• provide a barrier against an adverse environment
• protect the surface of the fibers from mechanical abrasion
• determine inter-laminar shear strength
• determine damage tolerance of composites
• determine in-plane shear strength
• determine the processibility of composites
• determine heat resistance of composites
The reinforcement material imparts special physical properties, such as electrical and mechanical, to
improve the matrix properties. It provides some stiffening and strenghtening of the material, as well
as control of cracks rise and development.
Isotropic Anisotropic
In the civil engineering, building materials play different roles, so they should possess corresponding
properties. For example, structural materials should have good mechanical characteristics; water-
insulating materials should be impermeable and water-resistant; wall material should be heat-
insulating and sound-absorbing. In addition, building materials should be durable, considering actual
environment they are situated. External factors affecting the materials are mainly rain, sun and frost,
but very often also more aggressive media, such as sewage water, or de-icing salts. For assurance of
right function and long life time of building structures, there is necessary to choose the appropriate
materials. It can be done only by the perfect knowledge of their properties.
Every material dispose of various properties, there are mutual relations between them. Changing one
of them means, that change of the other one becomes. Properties of materials strongly depend on
both the chemical composition, and the structure (micro/macro; homogeneity/heterogeneity;
isotropy/anisotropy).
Material properties create also the base for the quality evaluation.
The properties of materials are determined by tests, carried out exactly in accordance with appropriate
standard.
3.1 Physical properties
Outside appearance
This is important mainly for unit type of materials (bricks, linings, precast units…).
Attributes to be evaluated: gloss, colourity, shape regularity, sharpness of edges and corners, surface
roughness, planeness of surphases and accuracy of dimensions.
Dry mass per unit volume (without pores and voids, only volume of solid):
ρ=
m
Vs
[
kg.m −3 ] m – the mass [kg]
Density is typical property of liquids and metals; when find it for majority of solid materials, it is
necessary to eliminate the pores, for example by very fine grinding.
Apparent density
Dry mass per unit volume under national conditions (including pores, voids and holes):
ρ =
0
m
V0
[
kg .m −3 ] m – the mass [kg]
The values of apparent density of some typical building materials are given in Tab. 3.1.
Notice:
Apparent density is very importatnt technical parameter, because of giving us the indirect information
3
about porosity and next relating properties. Generally, the lower is a mass of 1m of material, the
higher is the porosity. Then, the lower is the strength and the higher is heat insulation, water
absorption …
Bulk density
Property of particulate materials (sand, gravel). It is the mass of many particles of the material divided
by the volume they occupy. The volume includes the space between particles as well as the space
inside of individual particles - the pores.
Bulk density is not an intrinsic property of a material; it can change depending on how the material is
handled. For example, grain poured in cylinder will have a particular bulk density; if the cylinder is
disturbed, the grain particles will move and settle closer together, resulting in a higher bulk density.
For this reason, the bulk density of aggregates is usually reported both as "freely settled" and "tapped"
density (where the tapped density refers to the bulk density of the aggregate after a specified
compaction process, usually involving vibration of the container.)
ρb =
m
Vb
[
kg.m −3 ] m – the mass [kg]
Solidity
- refers to the degree how the volume of a material is packed with solid substances, which is the ratio
of the solid volume to the total volume.
ρ0
.100[%] .100[%]
VS
S= S=
V0 ρ
Porosity
- refers to the degree how the volume of a material is packed with pores. Measure of the void spaces
in a material, it is measured as a fraction, between 0–1, or as a percentage between 0–100%.
ρ0
P = (1 − ).100[%]
ρ
S + P = 100 %
Porosity and characteristics of pores (size, connectivity, distribution…) affect the properties of
materials greatly. Properties affected by porosity: apparent density, water absorption, frost
resistance, strenght, thermal conductivity …
The values of porosity of some typical building materials are given in Tab. 3.1
Table 3.1: Apparent density and porosity of some common building materials
Materials Apparent density Porosity
[kg.m ] [%]
-3
- typical property for loose, grain materials (aggregate). The ratio of voids volume (voids
between the individual grains of bulk material) and bulk volume of material.
ρ
VR = 1 − b .100[%]
ρ0
Specific surface area
- property of very fine grain materials (cement) – it defines the fineness of grinding
2 -1
Definition: sum total of surface areas of all grains in unit amount of material [cm . g ]
3.2 Hydro-properties
Moisture (humidity)
- amount of water within the material in actual time and actual environment. The natural state of
porous system filling by water. Free and constrained water (by physical forces).
Moisture depends on: porosity (open, close). It is not constant value, but variable one depending on
the humidity of environment. An example how water is bonded toporous material (aggregate) is given
in Fig. 3.1.
mw – the mass of wet material [g]
.100[%]
mw − md md – the mass of dry material [g]
w=
md
- ability of materials to absorb the certain amount of water, when materials are exposed to water.
Maximal amount of water, which material is able to absorb. It is constant value for actual material.
Water absorption depends on: porosity. For normal materials, the higher the porosity is, the stronger
the water absorption is.
ms – the mass of saturated material [g]
.100[%]
ms − md
WA = md – the mass of dry material [g]
md
Properties affected: the water absorption will have a negative impact on materials´nature. Saturated
material will have a lower strenght, worse frost resistance and thermal insulation ability.
Impermeability
- ability of material to prevent a penetration of water acting under press. It is usually expressed by
various coefficients, which reflect the rate of water flowing in a material under defined pressure of
water in defined time.
Impermeability depends on: porosity and character of pores, structure defects – cracks
It is an important property of materials for water constructions, dams, reservoirs, tubes, roofings...
F F F
F
l
F F
F
The tensile strength, compressive and shear strength can be defined by following formula:
R=
3Fl
[MPa] F - the largest force of a specimen when it is destructed [N]
2bh 2
l - the distance between two supporting ends [mm]
b – the width of the cross-section [mm]
h - the height of the cross-section [mm]
Strength depends on: composition of material and microstructure – porosity, defects, moisture. The
bigger the porosity is, the smaller the strength will be. The strength is also concerned with testing
conditions, such as the amount and shape of structural element, loading speed, or surface and water
content.
Specific strength: is a material strength divided by its apparent density. It is an important index for
measuring the high-strength and lightweight materials. The higher specific strength is, the higher
strength and lighter weight the material is.
Generally, elasticity is ability of the material to get original form after unloading. Such materials are so
called elastic. Plasticity means, the material has not an ability to get original form after unloading.
Material stays in changed form and is so called plastic.
Elasticity is the property of material to deform with external forces and return to its original shape
when the stress is removed. External loading (stress) causes the deformation of solid materials.
Materials change their shape and dimensions (strain).
Within the range of elastic deformation, the ratio of stress (σ ) and strain (ε ) is a constant (E), which is
known as modulus of elasticity. It is theoretical stress, whereat the relative strain = 1. It is the
mathematical description of an object's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e., non-permanently)
when a force is applied to it. It states if the material is more stiff or elastic. Stiff material has higher
modulus; material with lower modulus is elastic. The bigger E is, the more difficultly the material
deforms.
σ
E= [MPa, GPa ]
ε
Strain is usually expressed as the change of dimension, for example length.
Relative elongation:
∆ l – the change of length
∆l
ε= l0 - the original length
l0
Plasticity describes the deformation of a matertial undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in
response to external forces.
Among building materials, there are no pure elastic materials. Some materials only have elastic
deformation if the stress is not large, but plastic deformation will happen to them when the stress is
beyond a limit.
Stress–strain curve is a graphical representation of the relationship between stress, derived from
measuring the load applied on the sample, and strain, derived from measuring the deformation of the
sample, i.e. elongation, compression, or distortion. The nature of the curve varies from material to
material.
Hook´s law describes the principle of elastic deformations: the principle that the stress imposed on a
solid is directly proportional to the strain produced, within the elastic limit.
For ideal elastic material the modulus of elasticity is constant and the function is linear:
σ
σ
E= = constant
ε
ε
The stress-strain curve can also be used to qualitatively describe and classify the material. Typical
regions that can be observed in a stress-strain curve are:
1. elastic region,
2. yielding,
3. strain hardening,
4. necking and failure.
A stress-strain curve with each region identified is shown in Fig. 3.3.
- ability of materials to prevent the surface damage causing by point load or by scratch. It can be
finded by various techniques, the best known are:
- surface scrutching test by Mohs hardness scale
- Brinell test (HB)
- Vickers test (HV)
- Rockwell test (HR)
All of them are based on indentation of harder body into the material to be tested.
Thermal conductivity
- ability of material to conduce the heat. This is an important parameter for assurance of indoor
temperature is required.
It is expressed by: Thermal conductivity coefficient λ [W.m .K ] - a heat rate transmitted by material
-1 -1
2
with 1m of length and 1m of cross section area at 1 K of heat gradient (difference of temperature).
The best heat conductors are metals.
-1 -1 -
Good thermal insulating materials have λ< 0,35 W.m .K , high effective insulations have λ< 0,1 W. m
1 -1
.K .
Thermal conductivity depends on: composition and structure, porosity, moisture
Values of thermal conductivity coefficients of some typical building materials are given in Tab: 3.2.
λ [W.m .K ]
-1 -1
Building material
Glass 0,76
Wt
t=
Wi
ABSORBER (soft acoustic material) BARRIER (hard acoustic material)
• The "Noise Reduction Coefficient" (NRC) is a measure of how much sound is absorbed by a
particular material, and is derived from the measured Sound Absorption Coefficients. It is a
single-number index determined in a lab test and used for rating how absorptive a particular
material is. Values range from zero (perfectly reflective) to 1 (perfectly absorptive). NRC values
fore some common building materials are given in Tab.: 3.3.
Table 3.3: Noise Reduction Coefficients (NRC) for Common Building Materials
(Source: http://www.acoustics.com/101.asp)
Material NRC
Gypsum .05
Marble .00
Plaster .05
Terrazzo .00
3.6 Durability
Durability describes the resistance of materials against the complex of exterior actions. In the process
of usage, materials are subjected to physical, chemical, biological and mechanical factors.
- Physical actions: weather – alternative temperatures (freeze-thaw cycles), alternative humidity
(wet-dry cycles), sun shine. These can cause an expansion or conctraction of materials, then
they will be destroyed gradually by the long-term and repeated actions.
- Chemical actions: aggressive water (acid, alkali, salt solutions, sewage water), gas, CO2.
These can cause the changes in composition of materials and destroy them.
- Biological actions: insects, fungi, mildew. These can molder or rot materials, such as the
decomposition of wood.
- Mechanical actions: manner and type of stress, abrasion. These can cause cracs, loss of
stability and destruction of material.
Durability depends on: kind of these factors and on the own internal properties of the material.
Durability is time till the material resists these factors and at the same time, satisfy the function
required in construction it is embedded. It is a comprehensive property of materials. Materials of
different compositions and structures have different degree of durability.
One of very frequent action over the European conditions are freeze-thaw cycles, that is why the frost
resistance of materials are very important parameter of materials´durability.
It is described as the ability of saturated material to withstand freeze-thaw cycles without being
destroyed and its strength doers not decrease seriously. If water presented in porous system freeze,
its volume increase (9%) and cause internal strain – it leeds to damage of microstructure and defects
of constructions.
Frost resistance depends on: internal and external factors. The internal factors are the composition,
structures, porosity, the characteristics of pores, strength, water resistance… The external factors are
the water filling degree within a materials´pores, freezing temperature, freezing speed, freeze-thaw
frequency …
Ways of utilisation:
- directly as building material (facing stone, paving blocks, crushed stone for road base...)
- as the component of building materials (concrete)
- as the raw for other building materials manufacturing (glass, rock wool...)
Igneous
Igneous rocks are rocks formed from a molten or partly molten material called magma.
Magma forms deep underground when rock that was once solid melts. Overlying rock
presses down on the magma, and the less dense magma rises through cracks in the rock.
As magma moves upward, it cools and solidifies. Magma that solidifies underground usually cools
slowly, allowing large crystals to form. Magma that reaches Earth’s surface is called lava. Lava
loses heat to the atmosphere or ocean very quickly and therefore solidifies very rapidly,
forming very small crystals or glass.
Igneous rocks commonly contain the minerals feldspar, quartz, mica, pyroxene, amphibole,
and olivine. Igneous rocks are named according to which minerals they contain. Rocks rich in
feldspar and quartz are called felsic; rocks rich in pyroxene, amphibole, and olivine, which all
contain magnesium and iron, are called mafic. Common and important igneous rocks are
granite, rhyolite, gabbro, and basalt. Granite and rhyolite are felsic; gabbro and basalt are mafic.
Granite has large crystals of quartz and feldspar. Rhyolite is the small-grained equivalent of granite.
Gabbro has large crystals of pyroxene and olivine. Basalt is the most common volcanic rock.
General properties: high strength, low water absorption, very good frost resistance, resistance
against wearing, low thermal insulating ability
Typical kinds: granite, syenite, dolerite, basalt
Utilisation: facing stone, paving blocks, crushed stone for road and railway base, stairs, curbstones
Sedimentary
Sedimentary rock forms when loose sediment, or rock fragments, hardens. Geologists place
sedimentary rocks into three broad categories:
- clastic rocks, which form from clasts, or broken fragments, of pre-existing rocks and
minerals
- chemical rocks, which form when minerals precipitate, or solidify, from a solution,
usually seawater or lake water; and
- organic rocks, which form from accumulations of animal and plant remains. It is
common for sedimentary rocks to contain all three types of sediment. Most fossils are
found in sedimentary rocks because the processes that form igneous and
metamorphic rocks prevent fossilization or would likely destroy fossils.
General properties compared with magmatic ones: higher porosity and water absorption, lower
strength, durability and easier workability
The most common types of clastic rocks are sandstone and shale (also known as
mudrock). Sandstone is made from sand, and shale is made from mud. Sand and mud form
when physical or chemical processes break down and destroy existing rocks. The sand and
mud are carried by wind, rivers, ocean currents, and glaciers, which deposit the sediment
when the wind or water slows down or where the glacier ends. Sand usually forms dunes in
deserts, or sandbars, riverbeds, beaches, and near-shore marine deposits. Mud particles are
smaller than sand particles, so they tend to stay in the wind or water longer and are
deposited only in very still environments, such as lake beds and the ocean floor.
Sedimentary rock forms when layers of sand and mud accumulate. As the sediment accumulates,
the weight of the layers of sediment presses down and compacts the layers underneath. The
sediments become cemented together into a hard rock when minerals (most commonly quartz
or calcite) precipitate, or harden, from water in the spaces between grains of sediment,
binding the grains together. Sediment is usually deposited in layers, and compaction and
cementation preserve these layers, called beds, in the resulting sedimentary rock.
Utilisation: facing stone, paving blocks, curbstones.
When sediments remain incoherent, these materials are in grainy form: sand, gravel, dirt, clay, kaolin
(white clay).
Utilisation: concrete, mortar, earthworks, bricks, porcelain, linings; quartz sand for glass production
The most common types of chemical rocks are called evaporates because they form by
evaporation of seawater or lake water. The elements dissolved in the water crystallize to
form minerals such as gypsum and halite. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) is used to manufacture
plaster and wallboard; halite is used as table salt.
The most common organic rock is limestone. Many marine animals, such as corals and
shellfish, have skeletons or shells made of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). When these animals
die, their skeletons sink to the seafloor and accumulate to form large beds of calcium
carbonate. As more and more layers form, their weight compresses and cements the layers
at the bottom, forming limestone. Details of the skeletons and shells are often preserved in
the limestone as fossils.
Utilisation: limestone (CaCO3) for lime production; magnesite (MgCO3) for fire resistant products;
dolomite (CaCO3.MgCO3) for lime or glass production.
Figure 4.2: An example of sedimentary rock
(Source: http://lifeasahuman.com/2012/feature/off-season-in-the-annapolis-
valley/attachment/dscn3194_resize/)
Metamorphic
Metamorphic rock forms when pre-existing rock undergoes mineralogical and structural
changes resulting from high temperatures and pressures. These changes occur in the rock
while it remains solid (without melting), because each mineral is stable only over a specific
range of temperature and pressure. If a mineral is heated or compressed beyond its stability
range, it breaks down and forms another mineral.
In a metamorphic rock, one mineral assemblage changes to another when its atoms move
about in the solid state and recombine to form new minerals. This change from one mineral
assemblage to another is called metamorphism. As temperature and pressure increase, the
rock gains energy, which fuels the chemical reactions that cause metamorphism. As
temperature and pressure decrease, the rock cools; often, it does not have enough energy to
change back to a low-temperature and low-pressure mineral assemblage. In a sense, the
rock is stuck in a state that is characteristic of its earlier high-temperature and high-pressure
environment. Thus, metamorphic rocks carry with them information about the history of
temperatures and pressures to which they were subjected.
Compositional layering, or bands of different minerals, can also occur and cause foliation.
Properties: typical property is foliation and that is why the strength along the layers is lower than
across the layers.
Utilisation: they are utilised seldom in building industry, because of easy destruction to thin and flat
pieces and very heterogeneous properties.
Important kinds: they can be found in the Tab. 4.1. Metamorphosed limestone - marble is considered
one of most valuable building materials. It is easily dressed to a smooth surface and polished. It
resists frost and moisture well, but like all limestones it does not withstand fire. Marble can
be obtained in many colours, some of which are white, gray, red, blue, green, and black.
One of the most important characteristics of marble is that it is easy to carve; the finer the
grains of the stone, the more suitable it is for this purpose.
Table 4.1: Examples of transformation of rocks
(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/ulrick04/bt-building-stones)
Figure 4.4: Bush hammer Figure 4.5: Traditional stone-cutting tools: double-
(Source: face hammer (a), face hammer (b), the pick (c),
http://stonesavvy.blogspot.sk/2012/04/c the ax, or peen hammer (d), the tooth ax (e), the
ounter-top-stone-surface- bush, hammer (f),the crandall (g), the patent
series_25.html) hammer (h), the hand hammer (i), the mallet (j).
(Source:
http://chestofbooks.com/architecture/Building-
Construction-V2/Stone-Cutting-
Tools.html#.VDuOJP1xmM8)
Figure 4.6: Modern sawing of stones – boards production
Figure 4.7: Example of surface finishing of marble - honed surface laying on top of a polished surface
(Source: http://stonesavvy.blogspot.sk/search/label/surfaces)
Natural stone
It is defined as building material in pieces, of various shapes and size 150 – 1 000 mm.
Nonsorted is used for road and railway build – up, sorted up to 350 mm for foundations or basement
walls. Big blocks of stone are used for banks, shores, or earthworks stabilising. Large size blocks
3 3
blasted from the quarry face, from approximately 0.5 m to 1.25 m , are called rip rap or rock armour
and are used in coastal and river flood defense schemes to shore up sea fronts and river banks.
Natural stone with treated dimensions and shape is used for paving of slopes and gutters, regulation
of rivers, plinth walling and cyclopean masonry (cobweb masonry).
Stone products
Stone products are worked from good chippable, polishable and durable rocks. They are very costly,
because of high portion of hand-work, but of very long life time and easy maintenance.
Various kinds of blocks (ashlars, cobblestones) for stone masonry and plates for veneers, sidings are
produced (see Fig. 4.8 and 4.9)
- Veneer is a non load-bearing facing of stone attached to a backing, of an ornamental nature
though it protects and insulates.
- Dimension stone is a square block of stone, often brick-sized – for ashlar masonry.
- Rubble consists of rough fragments of broken stone that have at least one good face for
exposure in a wall
- Small pieces of various shapes for Venetian mosaic (see Fig. 4.10)
- Traffic-related stone:
Paving blocks – they are worked from good chippable and durable rocks. They are sorted as:
Big: 160x160 mm and up to 300 mm length
Smallish: edge is 60-1200 mm
Mosaic: edge is 40-60 mm
Curbstones – they can be lineal or curved and with some end and surface design. They are
used along pavements, parking sites, platforms or highways to maintain the integrity of
sidewalks and borders.
- Flagstone: is a shallow naturally irregular-edged slab of stone, sometimes sawed into a
rectangular shape, used as paving (almost always pedestrian).
- Stone construction elements: stair treads, columns, windowsills ...
- Crushed stone: Crushing can be done in three or four stages, primary, secondary, tertiary
and, in some quarries, a quaternary. Each stage of crushing produces progressively smaller
sized stones. In order to produce a usable end-product, the crushed rock has to be screened
into various size categories. Crushed and screened rock is called aggregate and it is used
mainly for mortars and concretes production – see chapter 5.
-
Figure 4.10: Some examples of geometric patterns for traditional mosaic pavements
According to size:
- fine aggregate - aggregate sizes up to 4 mm
- coarse aggregate - aggregate sizes above 4 mm
- Crushed stone aggregate is produced from many natural deposits including: limestone, granite,
trap rock and other durable mineral resources. Production of these products requires blasting and
excavating the broken stone from quarries followed by progressive stages of crushing, screening,
washing and blending. Products may range in size from Rip-Rap (large size blocks blasted from
3 3
the quarry face, from approximately 0.5 m to 1.25m ), where each stone may weigh several tons,
to manufactured sand for use in concrete and asphalt products. Crushed stone is used in the
construction of highways, railroads, airports, water and sewage systems, as well as in civil
engineering building in the mortars and concretes.
- Sand and gravel aggregate is produced in each of aggregate Industries' regional business units.
These resources, harvested from deposits, are processed by a series of crushing, screening and
washing operations. The aggregate produced is subsequently used in the manufacture of ready
mixed concrete, asphalt, pre-cast concrete products and as natural mineral base and for many
other uses in most construction projects.
- Foamed blast furnace slag (FBS) is a by-product of iron slag produced in a similar way to
granulated blast-furnace slag but with a controlled amount of water, applied to the molten slag to
trap the steam in the mass, giving a porous, pumice-like product. This product is then crushed and
screened to sizes suitable as lightweight aggregate.
- Fly Ash Aggregates can be produced by pelletization of fly ash - pellets can be bound by thermal
fusion or chemically, using cement or lime to produce synthetic coarse and fine aggregates
- Polystyrene Aggregates: crushed waste expanded polystyrene is used in combination with
normal weight aggregates to produce lightweight concrete, having better thermal - insulation
properties
- Expanded Clays, Shales and Slates: certain clays, shales, and slates expand several fold when
heated to a semiplastic stage (as a result of the formation of gas within the mass of the material at
the fusion temperature) and develop a cellular internal structure. Heavier expanded clay, shale and
slate aggregates can be used for structural lightweight concretes.
- Recycled Concrete Aggregate (RCA) is produced by crushing sound, clean demolition waste of
at least 95% by weight of concrete, and having a total contaminant level typically lower than 1% of
the bulk mass. Other materials that may be present in RCA are gravel, crushed stone, hydraulic-
cement concrete or a combination thereof deemed suitable for premix concrete production.
- Recycled Concrete and Masonry (RCM) is graded aggregates produced from sorted and clean
waste concrete and masonry typically for road subbase applications. The material may contain
small quantities of brick, gravel, crushed rock or other forms of stony material as blended material.
Fine recycled aggregate may also be referred to as crushed concrete fines.
- Reclaimed Aggregate (RA) can be reclaimed from concrete returned to a batching plant by
separating the aggregates from the water-cement slurry using one of a number of alternative
technologies, most of which are based on washing the material with water. Aggregates are
screened for later use and the water may be reclaimed, depending on the technology adopted.
- Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) is a reuse of old asphalt concretes as the aggregate base
for new asphaltic concrete.
- Glass Cullet may be pulverised into a sand-like product, for which there are limited applications as
non-structural concrete aggregate, fill material and for drainage.
- Scrap Tyres are used in the form of tyre chips and crumb rubber aggregate for concrete
production. Another development is in the use of finely ground scrap or crumb rubber in asphalt.
- Air-cooled Blast Furnace Slag (BFS) is a by-product of iron manufacturing, in which silica and
alumina constituents combine with lime to form a molten slag collected on the top of the iron in a
blast furnace. The slag issues from the furnace as a molten stream at 1400–1600°C. If this is
allowed to cool slowly, it solidifies to a grey, crystalline, stone-like material, known as air-cooled
slag. This product is then crushed and screened to sizes suitable as coarse aggregate.
- Electric Arc Furnace Slag (EAF) is a by-product of steel formed in an electric arc furnace. In the
process, steel scrap and fluxes are added to a refractory lined cup-shaped vessel. This vessel has
a lid through which carbon electrodes are passed. An arc is induced between the scrap and
electrodes and the resultant heat generated melts scrap and fluxes. Steel and slag are also
separated similarly to the steel furnace slag process. EAF slag has been found to contain low
sulphur and hence the potential to be used as concrete aggregate.
- Steel Furnace Slag (BOS) is a by-product of steel formed in the Basic Oxygen System (BOS).
BOS slag is tapped from the vessel after the exothermic refinement of molten iron and recycled
steel in the presence of fluxes and oxygen. It consists of calcium silicates and ferrites combined
with fused oxides of iron, aluminium, calcium, magnesium and manganese. After air-cooling, the
material has a predominantly crystalline structure and is crushed and screened for use as coarse
aggregate. BOS slag is used as asphalt aggregate or for road base and subbase. Steel slag
aggregate should not be used as aggregate in cement concrete due to a potential durability
problem caused by lime expansion.
- Furnace Bottom Ash (FBA) is formed when ash adheres as hot particles to the furnace walls,
agglomerates and then falls to the base of the furnace where it is collected for disposal. Bottom ash
and boiler slag make up approximately 10% of the total ash produced and range in grain size from
fine sand to coarse lumps. Bottom ash has chemical compositions similar to fly ash. Coarse FBA is
used as a fine aggregate for lightweight blocks, a road-base component, for agricultural drainage
mediums and as engineered bulk fill.
- Organic Materials: certain organic materials are suitable for lightweight aggregates such as rice
husks, woodchips and sawdust. Woodchips and sawdust consist largely of cellulose, but they also
contain soluble sugars, acids, resins, waxes, and other organic substances in varying quantities.
Some of these have inhibiting effects on the setting and hardening of cement. Many patents have
been registered on methods of pre-treating sawdust in order to avoid these deficiencies.
- Crusher Fines is a sand-size material produced as a result of the crushing and screening
operations within a quarry plant. It is most commonly produced from hard rock quarry operations
but may also be generated from the crushing of gravel deposit materials which liberate suitable
fines. Unlike manufactured sands, which are designed and manufactured to provide material with
consistent engineering properties, crusher fines are not generally designed to have any specific
property other than maximum size. Where source rock and quarry processing are consistent with
suitable properties, crusher dusts have been used as coarse sand replacements in some concrete;
more commonly they are used as the finer filler fractions in asphalt.
Note, that recycled and re-used aggregates can be used for mortars/concretes production only
in limited dosage.
The effect of a collection of various sizes in reducing the total volume of voids between aggregates is
also illustrated by the simple method shown in Fig. 5.2.
Figure 5.2: The level of liquid in the graduates, representing voids, is constant for equal absolute
volumes of aggregates of uniform but different size. When different sizes are combined, the void-
content decreases. The illustration is not to scale.
(Source: http://www.ce.memphis.edu/1101/notes/concrete/PCA_manual/Chap05.pdf)
Glass is a mixture of a number of metallic silicates, one of which is usually that of an alkali metal. It
may be considered as a solidified super cooled solution of various metallic silicates having infinite
viscosity. For the purpose of classification glass may be grouped into the following three categories:
1. Soda-lime glass. Na2O, CaO, 6SiO2
2. Potash-lime glass. K20, CaO, 6SiO2
3. Potash – Lead glass. K20, PbO, 6SiO2
• Stabilizers make the glass strong and water resistant. Calcium carbonate, often called
calcined limestone, is a stabilizer. Without a stabilizer, water and humidity attack and dissolve
glass.
The raw materials used in manufacturing glass (sand, lime (chalks) and soda or potash) are fused
over 1000° C. Oxides of iron, lead and borax are added to modify hardness, brilliance and colour. The
functions of the various ingredients are as follows.
Silica is used in the form of pure quartz, crushed sandstone and pulverised flint; should be free from
iron contents for best quality glass. Since it melts at very high temperatures (1710° C) carbonates of
sodium or potassium are added to lower down the fusing temperature to about 800° C. These also
make liquid silica more viscous and workable.
Lime is used in the form of limestone, chalk or pure marble and sometimes marl. The addition of lime
makes the glass fluid and suitable for blowing, drawing, rolling, pressing or spinning. It also imparts
durability and toughness to glass. Excess of lime makes the molten mass too thin for fabrication.
Soda acts as an accelerator for the fusion of glass and an excess of it is harmful.
Potash renders glass infusible and makes glass fire resistant.
However, the soda makes the glass water soluble, which is usually undesirable, so "lime" - calcium
oxide (CaO), some magnesium oxide (MgO) and aluminium oxide Al2O3 are added to provide for a
better chemical durability. The resulting glass contains about 70 to 72 percent silica by weight and is
called a soda-lime glass. Soda-lime glasses account for about 90 percent of manufactured glass.
As well as soda and lime, most common glass has other ingredients added to change its properties.
Lead glass, such as lead crystal or flint glass, is more 'brilliant' because the increased refractive index
causes noticeably more "sparkles". Lead oxide imparts colour, brightness and shine. When 15–30% of
it added to substitute lime it lowers the melting point, imparts good workability, while its transparency is
lost with the glass becoming brittle and crystalline.
Boron may be added to change the thermal and electrical properties.
Adding barium increases the refractive index. Thorium oxide gives glass a high refractive index and
low dispersion, and was formerly used in producing high-quality lenses, but due to its radioactivity has
been replaced by lanthanum oxide in modern glasses. Large amounts of iron are used in glass that
absorbs infrared energy, such as heat absorbing filters for movie projectors, while cerium(IV) oxide
can be used for glass that absorbs UV wavelengths (biologically damaging ionizing radiation).
Cullets are broken glasses added to act as a flux to prevent loss of alkali by volatisation during the
process of forming glass and also to lower the fusion temperature. However, flux may reduce the
resistance of glass to chemical attack, render it water-soluble or make it subject to partial or complete
devitrification (crystallisation) on cooling. These crystalline areas are extremely weak and brittle.
Stabilizers are added to overcome these defects.
Typical compositions of individual kinds of glass are given in Tab. 6.1.
• Glass fibers:
Fiberglass is the original fiber reinforcement of modern composites. Glass fiber offers an excellent
combination of properties from high tensile strength to fire resistance. They can be used in short-fiber
forms as a dispersed reinforcement, as well as in in the fabric form to produce a wide range of
woven/flat reinforcements. The basic properties of such fabrics are:
Dimensional Stability: glass fiber is a dimensionally stable engineering material. Glass fiber does not
stretch or shrink after exposure to extremely high or low temperatures. The elongation at break is
around 4.8% with a 100% elastic recovery when stressed close to its point of rupture.
Moisture Resistance: glass fibers do not absorb moisture or change physically or chemically when
exposed to water.
High Strength: the high strength-to-weight ratio of glass fiber makes it a superior material in
applications where high strength and minimum weight are required. In textile form, this strength can be
unidirectional or bidirectional, allowing flexibility in design.
Fire Resistance: glass fiber is an inorganic material and will not burn or support combustion. It retains
approximately 25% of its initial strength at 1000°F (540°C).
Chemical Resistance: most chemicals have little or no effect on glass fiber. The inorganic glass
textile fibers will not mildew, rot or deteriorate. Glass fibers are affected by hydrofluoric, hot phosphoric
acids and strong alkaline substances.
Electrical Properties: glass fiber is an excellent material for electrical insulation.
Ways of production
Drawing: The molten glass is extruded to the bushing for formation glass into many fibers with small
diameters.
Spinning: The most common process used is the rotary process. Here, the melted glass enters a
rotating spinner, and due to centrifugal force is thrown out horizontally. By this technique, the staple is
produced (that is, clusters of short lengths of fiber), suitable for glass wool insulations.
• Foamed glass:
The foamed glass aggregate is produced from cleaned recycled glass. It is a lightweight, extremely
fine-pored expanded glass with millions of hermetically sealed pores. Since no diffusion can take
place, the material is watertight and achieves an efficient barrier against soil humidity. It is especially
suited for usage in the construction of roads, as frost-heave insulation as well as a bulk lightening
material. It is also excellent as an all-round building insulator (foundation and frost heave insulator, flat
roof insulator in the structure of inverted roofs), as well as a bulk lightening material for foundations.
Crushed foamed glass can also be used as a capillary blocker.
• Melting: the raw materials undergo fusion at high temperature in a furnace. The batched raw
materials pass from a mixing silo to a five-chambered furnace where they become molten at a
temperature of approximately 1500°C.
• Forming: the molten glass is given a shape and allowed to solidify (production of flat and
container glass); the formation of fibres as continuous filaments or into glass wool mats is
carried out (production of glass wool) by special fiberisation processes. In the case of floating,
glass from the melter flows gently over a refractory spout on to the mirror-like surface of
o o
molten tin, starting at 1,100 C and leaving the float bath as a solid ribbon at 600 C.
• Curing for wool: the binder-coated fibreglass mat is allowed to cure (production of glass wool)
• Annealing: internal thermally induced stresses in the glass articles are removed by heat
treatment. Despite the tranquillity with which float glass is formed, considerable stresses are
developed in the ribbon as it cools. Too much stress and the glass will break beneath the
cutter. To relieve these stresses, the ribbon undergoes heat-treatment in a long furnace
known as a lehr. Temperatures are closely controlled both along and across the ribbon.
Pilkington has developed technology which automatically feeds back stress levels in the glass
to control the temperatures in the lehr.
o cooling the glass wool mat, and backing, cutting, and packaging the insulation, as well as
quality control (production of glass wool);
o quality control, cutting, and for hand-shaped glass, further decorative treatment such as
engraving or polishing (special glass);
• Post processes may include tempering of glass or coatings application on glass surfaces to
change optical or thermal insulation properties of flat glass products, to add functionality to the
glass products or to increase scratch resistance of the glass surfaces.
6.5 Some examples of manufacturing the glass products
• Glass products generally
7 BUILDING CERAMICS
Fired clay has very suitable combination of properties for construction purposes – no other material
has such combinations, often very opposite, but lucrative for building aims:
- Low apparent density – adequate stability
- High compressive strength – low heat conductivity
- Further: optimal porosity (size and distribution), optimal water-vapour diffusion, and sound
absorption.
- Disadvantages: brittleness, low bending strength
7.1 Basic classification of building ceramics
• Additional:
They are added into the ceramic body in limited amount and affect some final properties.
- Grogs – eliminate risk of shrinkage cracks and deformation of products (ash, sand, slag –
granularity 0,05-2,0 mm)
- Pore creating materials – they assist the pores creation in body and in such a way minimise the
volume weight and increase the thermal insulation parameters. Such materials added into
ceramic paste burn out during the burning stage of production and leave the pores (coal dust,
wooden saw dust)
- Melting materials – they act easement of sintering process and higher solidity of ceramic body
(feldspar…)
7.3 Manufacturing technology
• geological survey of deposit
excavation • excavators, dredgers, scrapers, bulldozers…
of raw • maturation on dumps
Run of firing:
• heating – up to 700°C: for smooth transition to firing temperature
• hardening – up to 900°C comes the compaction of body, above the 900°C
the process of sintering and creation of melt like body starts
• cooling – till the ambient temperature; process have to be smooth
Brickware
- products with more than 10% of porosity, without surface coating; assigned for external utilisation
have to be frost resistant, solid or perfored by various holes, tongues…
Classification from construction placement point of view:
• products for vertical constructions: external or internal walls, dividing walls
• products for horisontal constructions: structural floors
• roof tiles
• brick linings and floor tiles
• products for special aims
ARMO
Floor block KSV 45 Supporting beam
HURDIS
Roof tiles
There is wide variety of these products on the market. They are used as roof cladding for sloped roofs
and have a nib (stub) for joining purpose. There are high quality requests: colour constancy, frost
resistance and they must be water proofing.
Drainage tubes
Cearmic tiles
They are thin walled materials of plate like shape and nice look. They protect constructions from
moisture and gas penetration, provide resistant surface of floors and uplift hygienic parameters of
construction surfaces and maintenance. They uplift the resistance of constructions towards the
weather influences and mechanical wear.
Kinds of products: linings – for vertical facings, veneers
floor tiles
They are manufactured from homogenous mixture of clay, sand, meltings and others by formation,
drying and burning.
They are of various qualities in accordance with utilization purpose: what is the ambient they are built-
in and what actions they must to resist.
Definitive properties depend on porosity (burning quality) and surface finishing mostly.
Ceramic body can be white or coloured; the surface treatment is glaze mostly.
Properties required:
• accuracy of dimensions – because of high aesthetic requests. They must be produced in some
settled dimensions as well, in order to trouble free combinations. In our is settled scale (modulus)
100 mm; and all building materials manufactured as units (individual pieces) have to be
manufactured in multiple or quotient of this value.
Sanitary ware
Accessories of hygienic rooms (sanitary) of civil buildings, enterprises, hospitals, laboratories …
They are of porous ceramic body, always with glazed surface treatment. Disadvantageous is their
brittleness.
Kinds of products:
• wash-basins – wall or with jamb
• toilet bowls – wall or standing on floor
• bidets
• urinals – bowls, slabs
• special laboratory, industrial and medicinal products
Refractory ceramics
Refractories are materials that provide linings for high-temperature furnaces and other processing
units. Refractories must be able to withstand physical wear, high temperatures (above 538°C), and
corrosion by chemical agents. There are two general classifications of refractories, clay and nonclay.
Clay refractories are produced from fireclay (hydrous silicates of aluminium) and alumina (57 to 87.5
percent). Other clay minerals used in the production of refractories include kaolin, bentonite, ball clay,
and common clay. Nonclay refractories are produced from a composition of alumina (<87.5 percent),
mullite, chromite, magnesite, silica, silicon carbide, zircon, and other nonclays.
Refractories are produced in two basic forms, formed objects, and unformed granulated or plastic
compositions. The preformed products are called bricks and shapes. These products are used to form
the walls, arches, and floor tiles of a various high-temperature process equipment glass furnaces,
metallurgical furnaces). Unformed compositions include mortars, gunning mixes, castables (refractory
concretes) and ramming mixes. These products are cured in place to form a monolithic, internal
structure after application.
Acid resistant ceramics
Sewer drain pipes are made of fire-resistant or refractory clay. The presence of a thin layer of glaze
determines water resistance and high resistance to tubing effects of acids and alkalis. Pipes carry a
150 - 600 mm, length 800 - 1200mm. High chemical resistance allows for removal of industrial pipes
for water containing alkali and acid.
Acid products - acid-proof brick. Used for lining machines, flues and gutters, for floors in shops with
aggressive media, for lining digesters and in agriculture (feeders, silage containers …).
Acid-tubes have thin baked crock, outer and inner sides coated with acid resistant coating. Apply for
the chemical industry.
8 BINDERS
Binders are substances which are used to bind inorganic and organic particles and fibres to form
strong, hard and/or flexible components. This is generally due to chemical reactions which take place
when the binder is mixed with water and/or other materials, or just exposed to air.
The main groups of binders are as follows:
• Inorganic (mineral): mineral binding materials are materials that set and harden after being
combined with water, as a result of chemical reactions with the mixing water, and that, after
hardening, retain strength and stability. These can be divided into two categories:
− Air hardening/Non-hydraulic binders, which can only harden in the presence of air. Also, they
are not durable under humid conditions
− Hydraulic binders which require water to harden and develop strength. They also are durable
in humid conditions.
• Organic:
− Bituminous binders
− Synthetic binders
CaO
HM =
SiO 2 + Al 2O3 + Fe 2O3
According to the value of HM, we can differ whether the binder dispose of hydraulicity or it only is the
air type of binder.
HM < 3:strong hydraulic binders
HM = 3-6: middle hydraulic
HM = 6-9: weak hydraulic
HM > 9: air hardening binders
Clay: it is the most common non-hydraulic binder, which is present in most soils, causing them to
harden on drying and soften when wet. Its main uses are in earth constructions and in the
manufacture of burnt clay products.
Lime: another common non-hydraulic binder is high calcium or magnesium lime. It is the high-
temperature product of the calcination of limestone. Although limestone deposits are found in every
state, only a small portion is pure enough for industrial lime manufacturing. To be classified as
limestone, the rock must contain at least 50 percent calcium carbonate. When the rock contains 30 to
45 percent magnesium carbonate, it is referred to as dolomite, or dolomitic limestone. Lime can also
be produced from aragonite, chalk, coral, marble, and sea shells.
Lime is used in different forms:
• as burnt lime or quick lime (CaO)
• as hydrated lime Ca(OH)2
Lime is manufactured in various kinds of kilns by one of the following reactions:
When limestone is affected by heat or acid it transforms into a series of unstable chemical
compounds, before eventually turning back into Calcium carbonate. This process is known as the
'Lime Cycle' (Fig. 8.1).
Portland cement
Powdered hydraulic binder; mix of clinker (basic component) and additives (they regulate some
properties of cement).
Production of clinker (see Fig. 8.2): materials that contain appropriate amounts of calcium
compounds, silica, alumina and iron oxide, i.e. limestone and clay are ground and mixed with water to
form slurry, which is fed into the upper end of the slightly inclined, refractory lined rotating furnace,
which can be more than 100 m long. Hot air of temperatures between 1300° and 1400° C is blown in
at the lower end, drying the slurry, which is then sintered and fused into hard balls known as clinker.
These drop out of the kiln, are cooled and interground in a ball-mill with about 3 % gypsum to retard
the setting of the cement. The finer it is ground, the higher is the rate of the setting and strength
development reactions. The wet process, described here, has largely been superseded by the dry
process, which needs less energy to dry the raw material feed.
The appropriate mix design of raw materials for clinker production, as well as quality of resulting
clinker is evaluated by 3 basic modules (hydraulic, silicate and aluminate):
CaO
HM =
SiO 2 + Al 2O 3 + Fe 2O 3
SiO 2
SM =
Al 2O 3 + Fe 2O 3
Al 2O 3
AM =
Fe 2O 3
• Hydration process:
The setting and hardening are the result of chemical and physical processes that take place between
Portland cement and water, i.e. hydration. To understand the properties and behaviour of cement and
concrete some knowledge of the chemistry of hydration is necessary. Three principal reactions occur:
Almost immediately on adding water some of the clinker sulphates and gypsum dissolve producing an
alkaline, sulfate-rich, solution.
Soon after mixing, the (C3A) phase (the most reactive of the four main clinker minerals) reacts with the
water to form an aluminate-rich gel. The gel reacts with sulfate in solution to form small rod-like
crystals of ettringite. (C3A) reaction with water is strongly exothermic but does not last long, typically
only a few minutes, and is followed by a period of a few hours of relatively low heat evolution.
The first part of this period, up to perhaps half-way through, corresponds to when concrete can be
placed. As the period progresses, the paste becomes too stiff to be workable. At the end of the period,
the alite and belite in the cement start to react, with the formation of calcium silicate hydrate (CSH)
and calcium hydroxide Na(OH2). This corresponds to the main period of hydration, during which time
concrete strengths increase. The individual grains react from the surface inwards, and the anhydrous
particles become smaller. (C3A) hydration also continues, as fresh crystals become accessible to
water and creates calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH).
The period of maximum heat evolution occurs typically between about 10 and 20 hours after mixing
and then gradually tails off. In a mix containing PC only, most of the strength gain has occurred within
about a month. Where PC has been partly-replaced by other materials, such as fly ash, strength
growth may occur more slowly and continue for several months or even a year (see Fig. 8.3)
Ferrite reaction also starts quickly as water is added, but then slows down, probably because a layer
of iron hydroxide gel forms, coating the ferrite and acting as a barrier, preventing further reaction.
Typical development of the degree of hydration and compressive strength of a Type I Portland cement
over time is given in Fig. 8.4.
Figure 8.3: Rate of feat evolution
(Source: http://matse1.matse.illinois.edu/concrete/prin.html)
Figure 8.4: Typical development of the degree of hydration and compressive strength of a Type I
Portland cement over time.
(Source: http://iti.northwestern.edu/cement/monograph/Monograph5_1.html)
Tricalcium Silicate (C3S) hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early
strength. In general, the early strength of portland cement concrete is higher with increased
percentages of C3S.
Dicalcium Silicate (C2S) hardens slowly and contributes largely to strength increases at ages
beyond 7 days.
Hydration of Calcium silicates in cement is described by next formulas:
Tricalcium Aluminate (C3A) liberates a large amount of heat during the first few days of hardening
and, together with C3S and C2S may somewhat increase the early strength of the hardening
cement (this effect being due to the considerable heat of hydration that this compound evolves). It
does affect set times.
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite (C4AF) contributes very slightly to strength gain. However, acts as a
flux during manufacturing. Contributes to the color effects that makes cement gray.
Natural:
They are produced from natural mineral deposits (e.g., volcanic ash or pumicite, diatomaceous earth,
opaline cherts and shales), or by heat treatment of some materials (e.g., metakaolin or calcined clay,
calcined shale, rice hull ash, calcined shale).
Processed/manufactured:
- GBFS (granulated blast furnace slag) is a by-product of the iron manufacturing process.
- Fly ash (FA) from the pollution-control equipment of coal-burning power plants.
- Silica fume (SF) is a by-product of manufacturing silicon metals and ferro-silicon alloys.
According to chemical/mineralogical composition, they exhibit pozzolanic or latent hydraulic reactions.
Position of GBFS, FA and SF in these terms is given in Fig. 8.5 and 8.6.
Figure 8.5: Composition of different SCM´s using ternary diagram
For above mentioned properties, SCM´s the can play an important role. The basic effects of SCM´s on
the properties of hardened cement are given in Fig. 8.8.
Effect on the properties of fresh paste should be also mentioned here. SCM´s can positively affect the
workability of mixture, but most of them elongate the setting time – this causes lower early strengths.
Figure 8.8: Benefitional effect of SCM´s on the pore structure of hardened cement
• Types of cement:
The actual kinds and notifications of cement are different in individual countries being defined by
corresponding standard. As examples, types of cements according to European standard, as well as
American standard are given here.
EN Cement types and composition: see the Tab. 8.2
Table 8.2: European standard EN 197-1 cement composition
The choice of applicable type of cement depends on: type of structure, environment acting on
structure, and procedure of structure production.
CEM I – is recommended for wide range of uses: for concrete and mortars production, production of
plain and reinforced concrete structures, concrete blocks, precast units. It is improper for foundation
constructions, rugged (massive) constructions, for constructions to be exposed to the aggressive
environment (mainly sulphates) or to high temperatures.
CEM II/A-S or CEM II/B-S – is the most utilized type because of lower hydration heat and better
resistivity to aggressive attack. It is suitable for almost all manners of utilization; especially for massive
constructions and constructions being in contact with waste water.
CEM III – there is good for rugged constructions, massive blocks or large areas concrete placing,
dams, concrete to be in contact with aggressive surroundings – soil, water.
Sulfate-resistant PC: it is a cement in which the C3A is kept low enough for only a small amount of
gypsum (which is a sulfate) to have to be added; thus, the risk of the formation of an excessive
amount of cracks is reduced, it is better sulfate attack resistance and volume stability. Sulphate
Resistant Cement is used in projects such as dams that are exposed to high amounts of sulfates. It is
also used wherever there are constructions that are in direct contact with clay soil, which contains a
large amount of sulfate salt, such as foundations and pillars.
Low-heat Portland cement: it is cement in which the amount of C3A is reduced and that of C2S
increased instead. Low Heat Cement is specially engineered cement for use where the heat evolved
during the cement hydration process needs to be reduced. In mass concrete situations using normal
type cements, this heat of hydration can cause significant temperature gradients within the structure
and thermal cracking may result. The use of Low Heat Cement (Type LH) can minimize this effect.
9 MORTARS
The term mortar is used to indicate a paste prepared by adding required quantity of water to a mixture
of binding material like cement, gypsum or lime and fine aggregates like sand. The two components of
mortar namely the binding material and fine aggregates are sometimes referred to as matrix. The
durability, quality and strength of mortar will mainly depend on quantity and quality of the matrix.
• Based on strength:
Building mortars are subdivided into nine grades on the basis of compressive strength from 0.4 to 30.0
MPa.
For preparing mortar, water is added to intimate mixtures of binding material and sand. The water to
be used for this purpose should be free from clay, earth and other impurities. Water which is fit for
drinking should only be used for preparing mortar. Mortar may be prepared by manual mixing or by
mechanical mixing. Mechanical mixing is preferred when mortar is required in large quantities to be
used in continuous order.
Mixing in mechanical mixer: In this case, binder and sand in desired proportion are fed in the mixer
and mixed dry. Water is then added gradually and the wet mixing a continued for at least one minute
to obtain the mortar of desired consistency. It is necessary to ensure that only the quantity of mortar
which can be used within half an hour of its mixing should be prepared at a time. This is essential as
after 30 minutes the mortar begins to set.
Manual mixing: In this case of traditional mixing, specified quantity of sand is spread and levelled on
clean dry masonry platform. Required quantity of binders is emptied over the sand layer. The
ingredients are then mixed thoroughly by turning them over the sand layer. Dry mixing is continued till
the mix have attains a uniform colour. A batch of dry mix is then put in the shallow masonry tank and
just sufficient quantity of water is added to bring the mortar to the consistency of a paste. The quantity
of dry mix taken in each batch should be such the mortar formed each time is consumed within half an
hour.
9.3 Characteristics of mortars
The chief properties of hardened mortar are strength, development of good bond with building units,
resistance to weathering and those of green mortar mixes are mobility, placeability and water
retention. In addition, the mortar should be cheap and durable and should not affect the durability of
building units in contact. The joints made with mortar should not develop cracks.
• Strength
The strength of masonry depends upon both the mortar and the building unit (brick, stone or block). A
very strong mortar with weak building units will be of little use. It is also important to consider whether
full strength is required within a short time. In cold weather, when the strength of lime or cement mixes
develops slowly, this is likely to affect the choice of mix. Strong cement mortars are most likely to lead
to shrinkage cracks, and should, therefore be avoided except where high strength is an essential
requirement. On the other hand the use of much weaker mortar say, 1:10 cement mortar is not
satisfactory since reduction in cement content leads to less workability, less cohesion and will produce
porous joints of low frost resistance. Strength of hardened mortar depends on the activity of binding
materials, the water-cement ratio, consumption of binding material and the quality of sand. It has been
found that:
- The density and strength of mortars made of the same class of aggregate decrease as the
proportion of fine aggregate is increased.
- It requires about twice as much cement to produce a mortar of given strength when fine sand
is used as it does with coarse sand.
- When the percentage of mixing water is increased beyond that required to form a placeable
mix, the density and strength of mortar reduces. The proportionate effect is greatest at the
early ages.
- Even small percentage of mica if present considerably lowers the tensile strength and
adversely affects the compressive strength.
- There is a loss of compressive strength by the replacement of less than 25 per cent of cement
by hydrated lime.
- Cement lime mortars are helpful in autogenous healing of cracks.
• Cement mortar
Cement mortar can be prepared by mixing cement, sand and water in desired proportions. Portland
cement and blast furnace slag cement form excellent mortars for walls built with bricks, stones and
large blocks. Pozzolana Portland cement and sulphate-resisting cement form mortars which are used
for constructions exposed to aggressive and waste waters. Cement mortars are used for plastering,
rendering smooth finishes and damp proof courses.
The mix proportions of cement mortar are given in Tab. 9.1.
• Lime mortar
Lime mortar is made by mixing lime, sand and water. Lime used for mortar may be fat lime (quick or
hydrated lime) or hydraulic lime. Fat lime has high calcium oxide content. Its hardening depends on
loss of water and absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and possible recrystallisation in
due course. Hydraulic lime contains silica, alumina and iron oxide in small quantities. When mixed with
water it forms putty or mortar having the property of setting and hardening under water.
Slaked fat lime is used to prepare mortar for plastering, while hydraulic lime is used for masonry
construction and are most suitable for construction of chimneys and lightly loaded superstructure of
buildings.
The mix proportions of lime mortar for various types of works are given in Tab. 9.2
Lime mortars have plasticity and placeability, good cohesion with other surfacings and little shrinkage.
They harden and develop strength very slowly continuously gaining strength over long period. Fat lime
mortars do not set but stiffen only as water is lost by absorption (by masonry units) and evaporation.
The gain in strength is a very slow reaction of lime with carbon dioxide absorbed from air.
• Lime-cement mortar
Also known as guarded mortar or gauged mortar is made by mixing cement and lime. The advantages
of lime-cement mortar are increased water retentivity, workability, bonding properties and frost
resistance. The mortar gives good and smooth plaster finish and is used in buildings.
Preparation: For low lime content, cement and sand are first mixed dry. Lime putty is dissolved in
water and added to the dry mix. The mix is then worked thoroughly with spades till uniform
consistency is obtained. For high lime content lime cement mortar is made in the mills; lime and sand
are first mixed separately in the form of paste for the entire day’s requirement. Then cement is mixed
with lime mortar in batches to be consumed in a hour time. The mix proportions of lime-cement mortar
are given in Tab. 9.3.
• Selection of mortar
Proper selection of mortar for actual nature of work is given in Tab. 9.4.
Table 9.4: Proper selection of mortar for actual nature of work
• Polymer-modified mortars
Repairing and patching concrete surfaces makes up a lot of our company’s work. There seem to be
many different types of polymer modifiers for cement and concrete [10].
Modifying cement formulations with polymers provides many important properties that make a variety
of applications possible, including concrete patch and repair, decorative cement overlays, ceramic tile
adhesives, and many others. To get the performance desired for any of these applications, it helps to
understand some of the basics of why polymers are added to cement formulations.
The first thing to understand is that polymers are primarily used to modify mortars (portland cement +
water + sand aggregate), not concrete (mortar + larger aggregates such as gravel or stone), due to
the relative cost involved. The main exceptions are polymer-modified concrete for bridge deck
overlays and road repair work. Most polymer-modified cement applications involve mortar that is not
more than an inch or two thick.
Many different types of polymers can be used in mortars, including latex polymers, redispersible dry
polymers, water soluble polymers and many others.
10 CONCRETE
Concrete - a composite man-made material is the most widely used building material in the
construction industry. It consists of a rationally chosen mixture of binding material, well graded fine
and coarse aggregates, water and both admixtures and additives (to produce concrete with special
properties). In a concrete mix, cement and water form a paste or matrix which in addition to filling the
voids of the fine aggregate, coats the surface of fine and coarse aggregates and binds them together.
Notice:
Composite materials (or composites for short) are engineered materials made from two or more
constituent materials that remain separate and distinct on a macroscopic level while forming a single
component.
There are two categories of constituent materials: matrix and reinforcement. At least one portion
(fraction) of each type is required. The matrix material surrounds and supports the reinforcement
materials by maintaining their relative positions. The reinforcements impart special physical properties
to enhance the matrix properties. A synergism produces material properties unavailable from naturally
occurring materials. Due to the wide variety of matrix and reinforcement materials available, the design
potential is incredible. In the case of concrete and mortar, the aggregates play as reinforcement.
Except for mixing water, curing water is necessary in concrete technology – it is required to care the
concrete in moist state after the placing into the mould. For the function of curing water, see the
chapter 10.3.8.
There is a definite optimum water requirement for a particular concrete. Generally, the excess water
may leak through the form work, resulting in honeycombed concrete and on evaporation makes the
concrete porous. On the other hand lesser water makes it difficult to work with concrete and because
of nonuniform mixing the resultant concrete is weaker in strength. The amount of water must therefore
be limited to produce concrete of the quality required for a job.
The mixing water shall comply (as all other components, too) with the requirements of the national
standards or regulations valid in the place of use of the concrete. Water shall not contain harmful
constituents in such quantities as may be detrimental to the setting, hardening and durability of the
concrete or cause corrosion of the reinforcement. In general in Europe, drinking water from public
supply is suitable for making concrete.
10.2.2 Admixtures
Admixtures are organic or non-organic materials in form of solids or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics. In normal use the admixtures make up less than 5% of the
cement weight and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing. The most used types of
admixtures are:
• accelerators: speed up the hydration (strengthening) of the concrete.
• retarders: slow the hydration of concrete.
• air-entrainers: add and distributes tiny air bubbles to the concrete, which reduces damage due
to freeze-thaw cycles.
• plasticizers: can be used to increase the workability of concrete, allowing it be placed more
easily with less compactive effort. Superplasticizers allow a properly designed concrete to flow
around congested reinforcing bar. Alternatively, they can be used to reduce the water content
of a concrete (termed water reducers) yet maintain the original workability. This improves its
strength and durability characteristics.
10.2.3 Additives
In fact, they are a pozzolanas ot latent hydraulic materials (also known as Supplementary
Cementitious Materials – SCM´s) - a siliceous materials which whilst itself possessing no cementitious
properties, either processed or unprocessed and in finely divided form, react in the presence of water
with free lime released during the hydration of cement at normal temperatures to form compounds of
low solubility having cementitious properties. Currently their principal use is to replace a proportion in
cement when making concrete. The advantages gained are economy, improvement in workability of
concrete mix with reduction of bleeding and segregation. Other advantages are greater
imperviousness to freezing and thawing and to attack by sulphates and natural waters. In addition the
disruptive effects of alkali-aggregate reaction and heat of hydration are reduced. It is generally held
that the addition of natural pozzolanas reduces the leaching of soluble compounds from concrete and
contributes to the impermeability of the concrete at the later ages.
Additives are mostly very fine powdered materials, which improve some technological properties of
fresh concrete (pumpability, solidity, water proofness) and mechanical properties of hardened one
(strength). They are added to the concrete at the rate of 10-40% of the cement weight. The main
justification for using pozzolanas is the possibility of reducing costs. If they are to reduce costs, they
must be obtained locally and it is for this reason that they have not so far been much in use.
Secondary benefit of their utilisation lies in environmental aspect, because a lot of them are industrial
wastes. Their application for concrete production can help to minimize the undesirable waste.
Classification:
All pozzolanas are rich in silica and alumina and contain only a small quantity of alkalis. Pozzolanas
are classified as natural and artificial. Following are these two basic groups of pozzolanas:
• Natural pozzolanas:
- clays and shales which must be calcined to become active
- diatomaceous earth and opaline cherts and shales which may or may not need calcination
- volcanic tuffs and pumicites. Tuffs (solidified volcanic ash) may be ground to desired fineness
for use.
- trass - a light-colored variety of volcanic ash resembling pozzolana
• Artificial pozzolanas:
- fly ash: a by-product of coal-fire electric generating plants, it is used to partially replace
portland cement by up to 40% by weight
- ground blast-furnace slag: a by-product of steel production
- silica fume: a byproduct of the silicon and ferrosilicon alloys production. Silica fume is a very
reactive pozzolan having a big influence on the increase of strength and durability of concrete.
- rice husk ash: rice husk is used as fuel in the rice mills to generate steam for the parboiling
process. This husk contains about 75 % organic volatile matter and the balance 25 % of the
weight of this husk is converted into ash during the firing process. This RHA contains around
85 % - 90 % amorphous silica.
For the related issue, regarding the pozzolanic/latent hydraulic reactions and function of SCM´s go to
chapter 8 – Binders.
10.3 Production of concrete
The performance of concrete is determined by its microstructure. The microstructure is determined not
only by its composition, but also by all production process, including mixing, placing and curing
conditions.
10.3.1 Concrete composition design
The ultimate properties of concrete is related to water-cement ratio (w/c), the proportion and type of
cement to fillers, and the size, shape, and strength of the aggregate used. Concrete with lower water-
cement ratio (down to 0.35) makes a stronger concrete than using a higher ratio. Concrete made with
smooth pebbles is weaker than that made with rough-surfaced broken rock pieces for example,
pebbles require more bonding material per area than larger rock, which has less surface area to bond
than the smaller "pea gravel".
The ideal proportion of individual components is very important for concrete properties, so the design
must be provided considering the requested final properties of concrete.
General rules:
• ratio of coarse/fine aggregate should be 3:2 or 2:1, i.e. coarse aggregate makes up 60-67% of
weight, fine aggregate makes up 40-33% of weight
• amount of cement should be min. 200 kg for 1 m of plain concrete, min. 240 kg for 1 m of
3 3
reinforced concrete. There must be sufficiency of cement paste in the concrete for encapsulation of
every grain of aggregate. The minimal amount of cement specifies the EN 206-1 considering the
strength class of concrete and influence of environment intensity.
• water-cement ratio (w/c): it is the ratio of weight of water to the weight of cement used in the
concrete mix. It has some important influences on the quality of concrete produced. Concrete with
a low water-cement ratio may become strong and durable, but the mix would become very difficult
to place. If water-cement ratio is increased then the concrete mix would be more workable (or
loose). It is easier to place the concrete in this condition but too much water causes forming of
capillary pores, thereby reducing the strength and durability. The water-cement ratio is a critical
factor in the design of concrete mixes. The rule is, make the concrete with the lowest w/c, providing
for good workability. The practical values are 0.35-0.7, depending on application of plasticitzers.
10.3.2 Batching
For good quality concrete a proper and accurate quantity of all the ingredients should be used. The
aggregates, cement and water should be measured with an accuracy of ± 3% of batch quantity and
the admixtures by 5% of the batch quantity. There are two prevalent methods of batching materials,
the volume batching and the weigh batching. The factors affecting the choice of batching method are
the size of job, required production rate, and required standards of batching performance. For most
important works weigh batching is recommended.
10.3.5 Formwork
It is the term given to either temporary or permanent moulds into which concrete is poured.
Formwork comes in three main types:
• Traditional timber formwork. The formwork is built on site out of timber. It is easy to produce
but time consuming for larger structures, and it has quite a limited lifespan. It is used only for simple
structures.
• Engineered formwork systems. The formwork is built out of prefabricated modules with a steel
frame and is made of a material with the wanted surface structure (steel, timber, etc.) where the
contact surface between the concrete and formwork lies. The two major advantages of formwork
systems, compared to traditional timber formwork, are speed of construction and lower life-cycle costs.
• Stay-In-Place formwork systems. The formwork is assembled on site, usually out of
prefabricated insulating concrete forms. The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured to
provide thermal and acoustic insulation, space to run utilities, and backing for finishes.
Another type is “Stay-In-Place Structural Formwork systems”. The formwork is assembled on site,
usually out of prefabricated fiber-reinforced plastic forms. These are in the shape of hollow tubes, and
are usually used for columns and piers. The formwork stays in place after the concrete has cured and
acts as axial and shear reinforcement, as well as serving to confine the concrete and prevent against
environmental effects, such as corrosion and freeze-thaw cycles.
For the first two types, once the concrete has been poured into formwork and has set (or cured), the
formwork is struck or stripped (removed) to expose the finished concrete. The removal time of the
forms is dependent upon the strength needed to be achieved by the cured concrete. Spectacular
accidents have occurred when the forms have been either removed too soon or under-designed to
carry the load imposed by the weight of the uncured concrete.
10.3.6 Placing
Concrete shall not be placed until the subgrade and forms have been inspected and approved by the
inspector. Concrete shall be discharged into the forms, vibrated and spaded within 90 minutes after
the cementitious materials have been introduced into the aggregates. When air temperatures are high,
this time is reduced to 45 minutes. Concrete shall be deposited as close as possible to its final
position. Concrete in slabs shall be placed at design thickness in one layer. If the surface of a layer in
place will develop its initial set before more concrete is adjacent to it, a construction joint (of the type
shown in the plan) shall be made.
Table 10.2: Modulus of elasticity and tensile strength for most used strength classes
Tensile strength (MPa) 2.2 2.6 2.9 3.2 3.5 3.8 4.1
Durability is highly required parameter of concrete, mainly from environmental and economic
point of view. It is the ability of hardened concrete to resist deterioration caused by weathering,
chemicals, and abrasion while maintaining its desired engineering properties. It is also characterised
as the ability of concrete to withstand the conditions for which it is designed without deterioration for a
long period of years.
• Physical Durability
Physical durability is against the following actions:
- Weather Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by freezing and thawing, wetting and
drying, and heating and cooling
- Erosion Resistance: Resistance to deterioration caused by water flow, traffic, and wind
blasting
- Percolation / Permeability of water
- Temperature stresses i.e. high heat of hydration
• Chemical Durability
Chemical durability is against the following actions:
- Alkali Aggregate Reaction
- Sulphate Attack
- Chloride Ingress
- Delay Ettringite Formation
- Corrosion of reinforcement
• Causes for the lack of durability in concrete
External Causes
- Extreme Weathering Conditions
- Extreme Temperature
- Extreme Humidity
- Abrasion
- Electrolytic Action
- Attack by a natural or industrial liquids or gases
- Biological factors
Internal Causes
- Physical: volume change due to difference in thermal properties of aggregates and binder
- Chemical: alkali aggregate reactions, corrosion of steel
For ensure of good durability, concrete in European area should be designed keeping the
requirements which depends on actual exposure action. The environmental actions are classified as
exposure classes. The concrete may be subject to more than one of the actions to which it is
subjected may thus need to be expressed as a combination of exposure classes.
Figure 10.3: A simple beam loaded in the middle and supported at the ends will tend to deflect or bend
down in the middle, causing tensile stress in the bottom of the beam and tending to pull it apart. That
is, the bottom of the beam is in tension. Reinforcing steel near the bottom of the beam will resist this
tension and hold it together.
Figure 10.4: If the beam is supported in the middle and the ends are loaded (as in a cantilever beam,
such as a balcony), the top of the beam over the support is in tension and will pull apart or crack if
there is no reinforcing steel near the top of the beam.
Figure 10.5: Properly placed reinforcement in this cantilever beam will resist tension and control
cracking.
Figure 10.6: Incorrectly placed or missing reinforcement is not effective in resisting tension and will
allow uncontrolled cracking in the beam
(Source: http://www.concrete.org/Portals/0/Files/PDF/fE2-00.pdf)
• Prestressed concrete
It is a method for overcoming concrete's natural weakness in tension. It can be used to produce
beams, floors or bridges with a longer span than is practical with ordinary reinforced concrete.
Prestressing tendons (generally of high tensile steel cable or rods) are used to provide a clamping
load which produces a compressive stress that offsets the tensile stress that the concrete member
would otherwise experience due to a bending load – for principle, see Fig 10.7. Prestressing can be
accomplished in two ways:
- Pre-tensioned concrete is cast around already tensioned tendons. This method produces a
good bond between the tendon and concrete, which both protects the tendon from corrosion
and allows for direct transfer of tension. The cured concrete adheres and bonds to the bars
and when the tension is released it is transferred to the concrete as compression by static
friction. However, it requires stout anchoring points between which the tendon is to be
stretched and the tendons are usually in a straight line. Thus, most pretensioned concrete
elements are prefabricated in a factory and must be transported to the construction site, which
limits their size. Pre-tensioned elements may be balcony elements, lintels, floor slabs, beams
or foundation piles.
- Post-tensioned concrete is the descriptive term for a method of applying compression after
pouring concrete and the curing process (in situ). The concrete is cast around a plastic, steel
or aluminium curved duct, to follow the area where otherwise tension would occur in the
concrete element. A set of tendons is fished through the duct and the concrete is poured.
Once the concrete has hardened, the tendons are tensioned by hydraulic jacks that react
against the concrete member itself. When the tendons have stretched sufficiently, according to
the design specifications, they are locked in position and maintain tension after the jacks is
removed, transferring pressure to the concrete. The duct is then grouted to protect the
tendons from corrosion.
Prestressed concrete is the predominating material for floors in high-rise buildings, foundations for
residential buildings in soft soil areas and bridges.
The advantages of prestressed concrete include lower construction costs; thinner slabs - especially
important in high rise buildings in which floor thickness savings can translate into additional floors for
the same (or lower) cost and fewer joints, since the distance that can be spanned by post-tensioned
slabs exceeds that of reinforced constructions with the same thickness. Increasing span lengths
increases the usable unincumbered floorspace in buildings; diminishing the number of joints leads to
lower maintenance costs over the design life of a building, since joints are the major locus of
weakness in concrete buildings.
Figure 10.7: In a prestressed simple beam, the prestressing steel is placed near the bottom of the
beam, just like regular reinforcing steel. But in the prestressed beam, the prestressing causes the
unloaded beam to bend upward in the middle, opposite to the downward bending caused by the
applied load. The combined effect is a beam that bends less, and therefore cracks less, under load.
(Source: http://www.concrete.org/Portals/0/Files/PDF/fE2-00.pdf)
• Fiber-reinforced concrete
Fiber-reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete. Fiber-
reinforced normal concrete are mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements, but can be
considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, pillars, foundations etc) either alone or with
hand-tied rebars.
Fiber (steel or plastic fibres) reinforced concrete is less expensive than hand-tied rebar, while still
increasing the tensile strength many times. Shape, dimension and length of fibre are important. A thin
and short fibre, for example short hair-shaped glass fiber, will only be effective the first hours after
pouring the concrete (reduces cracking while the concrete is stiffening) but will not increase the
concrete tensile strength. A normal size fibre for European shotcrete (1 mm diameter, 45 mm length)
will increase the concrete tensile strength.
Steel is the strongest commonly-available fiber, and come in different lengths (30 to 80 mm in Europe)
and shapes. Steel fibres can only be used on surfaces that can tolerate or avoid corrosion and rust
stains. In some cases, a steel-fiber surface is faced with other materials.
Spun basalt fibre is stronger and less expensive than glass, but historically, has not resisted the
alkaline environment of portland cement well enough to be used as direct reinforcement. New
materials use plastic binders to isolate the basalt fiber from the cement.
The premium fibers are reinforced plastic fibres, which are nearly as strong as steel, lighter-weight and
corrosion-proof.
.
Figure10.8: Overall steps in manufacture of autoclaved aerated concrete
(Source: http://www.masoncontractors.org/2008/10/16/using-autoclaved-aerated-concrete-correctly/)
• No-Fines concrete
There is used only one fraction of coarse aggregate here, without the fine portion. Lightening is
reached by the voids between the grains. Grains are bonded by cement paste only in the contact
points. When mixing this concrete, the idea is to use just enough wet cement to coat the
aggregate so it will adhere to the surrounding particles. It can be made from porous or solid
aggregate. Because of large pores between grains, the strength is lower, but there is no capillary
moisture movement. It is also the high thermal insulating properties here. Ways of application: Low-
volume pavements, residential roads, alleys, and driveways, parking lots, sidewalks and pathways,
foundations/floors/walls for greenhouses and low-cost houses.
Some examples of no-fines concrete are given in Fig. 10.11.
Metals are employed for various engineering purposes such as structural members, roofing materials,
damp proof courses, pipes, tanks, doors, windows etc. Out of all the metals, iron is the most popular
metal and it has been used in construction activity since pre-historic times. For the construction
purposes, a specific group of metals are used.
For the purpose of study, metals are grouped in the following two categories:
• Ferrous metals: Ferrous metals contain iron as their main constituent.
• Non-ferrous metals: Non-ferrous metal does not contain iron as their main constituent
Pig Iron
The crude impure iron, which is extracted from iron ores, is known as pig-iron and it forms the basic
material for the manufacture of cast-iron, wrought iron and steel. The pig iron is usually manufactured
by the smelting.
Smelting: The impurities are knocked off and the ore is then calcined to drive off moisture. The
calcined ore is smelted in special type furnace known as blast furnace. The raw material consists of
iron ores, the fluxing materials like limestone and fuel like coal, charcoal is allowed to through throat
portion of the furnace. By the reduction, the pig iron collects in the hearth of furnace. The iron is
deoxidised and a part of sulphur is also removed. The slag formed is removed and hot gases dust
escapes through outlet, which is provided in the throat portion of furnace as shown in Fig 11.1. The
molten metal is tapped from the furnace and is cast in the form of pigs.
Composition of pig iron: Pig iron contains 3–4% carbon, 0.5–3.5% silicon, 0.5–2% manganese,
0.02–0.1% sulphur and 0.03–1% phosphorus.
Fig 11.1 Blast Furnace
(Source:
http://www.mrcorfe.com/KS4/Applied/Unit2/CountrysideEnvironment/ManEnvrion/BlastFurnace.php)
Cast iron
Cast iron is manufactured by re-melting pig iron with coke and limestone. This re-melting is done in a
furnace known as Cupola furnace, which is more or less same as blast furnace. Its shape is cylindrical
with diameter about 1m and height of about 5m. The raw materials are led from the top and the
furnace is fired. The impurities of pig iron are removed to some extent by oxidation. The molten cast
iron is led into moulds of required shapes to form what are known as cast iron castings and slag is
removed from the top of cast iron at regular intervals.
Composition of cast iron:
• Cast iron contains about 2 to 4 percent of carbon.
• Manganese makes cast iron-brittle and hard, so it may be kept below 0.75 percent.
• Phosphorous makes brittle and percentage may be 1 to 1.5 percent.
• Silicon decreases shrinkage and ensures softer and better castings and it may be less than
2.5 percent.
• Sulphur makes cast iron brittle and hard and should be kept below 0.10 percent.
Properties of cast iron:
Cast iron is hard and brittle. It can neither be riveted nor welded. It is strong in compression (600
2 2 -3
N/mm ) but weak in tension (150 N/mm ) and shear. Its specific gravity is 7 500 kg.m . It has low
melting point (1 200°C). It cannot be magnetized and is not suitable for forging. With proper
adjustment in composition, cast iron may be rendered white by cooling rapidly or grey by cooling
slowly from the molten state. Other parameters:
• If placed in salt water, it becomes soft.
• It can be hardened by heating and sudden cooling.
• It cannot be magnetized.
• It does not be rust easily.
• It is fusible.
• It is not ductile and cannot be adopted to absorb shocks and impacts.
• It shrinks on cooking.
• It lacks plasticity and hence it is unsuitable for forging work.
• It is weak in tension and strong in compression.
• Two pieces of cast iron cannot be connected by the process of riveting or welding (They are to
be connected by nuts and bolts).
Uses cast iron:
• For making cisterns, water pipes, gas pipes and sewers, manhole covers and sanitary fittings.
• For making ornamental castings like brackets, gates, lampposts etc.
• For making parts of machinery which are not subjected to shock loads.
• For manufacture of compression members.
• For preparing rail chairs, carriage wheels etc.
Wrought Iron
Wrought iron is almost pure and it hardly contains carbon more than 0.15 percent. But the process of
its manufacture is laborious and tedious. Wrought iron is manufactured by four operations:
• Refining
• Pudding
• Shinging
• Rolling
Properties of steel
• Carbon content: Variation in carbon percentage produces steel of different grades. Carbon
always assists in increasing the hardness and strength of steel and decreases the ductility of
steel.
• Presence of impurities:
- Silicon content is about 0.30 to 0.40 percent, elasticity and strength of steel are considerably
increased.
- Sulphur content between 0.02 to 0.10 percent, no appreciable effect on ductility or strength
however mealleability and weld ability decreases.
- Phosphorous content below 0.12 percent reduces shock resistance, ductility and strength of
steel.
- Manganese content 0.3 to 1.00 percent, the steel becomes very brittle and hence, it loses its
structural value
• Heat treatment processes: It is possible to alter the properties of steel by heating and
cooling under controlled conditions. The following are the purposes of heat treatment
- To alter magnetic properties of steel
- To change the structure of steel
- To increase resistance to heat and corrosion
- To increase surface hardness
- To make steel easily workable
- To vary strength and hardness
The principal processes involved in the heat treatment of steel:
- Annealing - to make steel soft
- Case hardening - the core of specimen remains tough and ductile
- Cementing - the skin of the steel is saturated with carbon (880 to 9500°C)
- Hardening - it is reverse process of annealing to make hard
- Normalising - to restore steel to normal condition and it is adopted when structure of steel is
seriously disturbed for any reason
- Tempering - this process is applied to steel, which are treated with hardening process
• Magnetic properties of steel: Steel widely used in electrical machinery, generates,
transformers etc. For making steel suitable for such use, its magnetic properties are given
supreme importance and these properties are obtained by carefully adjusting its chemical
composition.
- Carbon – carbon content as low as possible and should not exceed 0.10 percent.
- Silicon-presence of silicon results in considerable increase of electrical losses and hence it
highly undesirable.
- Sulphur and phosphorous: Combines content of sulphur and phosphorous exceeds 0.3
percent, magnetic properties of steel are greatly affected.
- Manganese: If manganese content exceeds 0.3 percent, it proves to be injurious to the
magnetic properties of steel.
Uses of steel
• Rolled steel sections
Structural steel can be rolled into various shapes and sizes in rolling mills (see Fig. 11.2). Usually
sections having larger moduli of section in proportion to their cross-sectional areas are preferred. Steel
sections are usually designated by their cross-sectional shapes. The shapes of the rolled steel
sections available today have been developed to meet structural needs. Cross-section and size are
governed by a number of factors: arrangement of material for optimum structural efficiency; functional
requirements (surfaces that are easy to connect to, flat surfaces suitable for supporting other
materials, etc.,) dimensional and weight capacity of rolling mills, and material properties which, for
example, inhibit the hot rolling of wide thin elements because of excessive warping or cracking that
might occur.
The types of rolled structural steel sections are as follows (see Fig. 11.3):
- Rolled steel I-sections
- Rolled steel channel sections / hollow sections
- Rolled steel T-sections
- Rolled steel angle-sections
- Rolled steel tube-sections
- Rolled steel bars
- Rolled steel flats)
- Rolled steel plates
- Rolled steel sheets / profiled sheets
- Rolled steel strip
Figure 11.2: Rolling mill
(Source: http://www.steelconstruction.info/Steel_construction_products)
11.2.1 Aluminium
Aluminium is an important non-ferrous metal, occurring in abundance on the surface of earth in
various forms such as oxides, sulphates, silicates, phosphates etc. Bauxite (Al2O3, 2H2O) is hydrated
oxide of aluminium produced commercially. Aluminium extraction from bauxite is as follows:
- Bauxite is purified
- It is then dissolved in fused cryolite which is double fluoride of aluminium and sodium.
- This solution is then taken to an electric furnace and aluminium is separated out by
electrolysis.
Properties:
- It is good conductor of heat and electricity
- It is a silvery white metal with bluish tinge and it exhibits luster on a freshly broken surface.
- It is rarely attacked by nitric acid, organic acid or water. It is highly resistant to corrosion.
- It is light in weight, malleable and ductile
- It is very soft.
- It melts at about 6 580°C.
- It possesses great toughness and tensile strength
- It readily dissolves in hydrochloric acid
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- Its specific gravity is about 2700 kg.m .
Uses:
This metal is used for making parts of aeroplane, utensils, paints, electric wires, window frames,
glazing bars, correlated sheets, structural members, posts, panels, balustrades, etc.
11.2.2 Copper
The important ores of copper are cuprite Cu2O, Copper glance Cu2S, copper pyrites CuFeS2,
Malachite Cu2CO3(OH)2.
Properties:
- It becomes brittle just below its melting point
- It can be worked in hot or cold condition but it cannot be welded.
- It has a peculiar red colour
- It is a good conductor of heat and electricity
- It is attacked by steam at white heat.
- It is not attacked by dry air, but moist air gases a green coating to copper surface.
- It is not attacked by water at any temperature
- It is melleable, ductile and soft
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- Its specific gravity is 8 900 kg.m
Uses:
The market forms of copper are ingots, sheets, tubes and wires. It is extensively used for making
electric cables, alloys, household utensils, electroplating, lighting conductors, dowels in stone
masonry, roofing, sheeting etc.
11.2.3 Zinc
The main source of zinc is the sulphide ore zinc blende or black jack (ZnS, 67 per cent zinc). The
other ores for extraction of zinc are zinc carbonate, calamine (ZnCO3, 52 per cent zinc) and zinc
silicates-hemimorphite and willemite. The sulphide ore is finely ground and calcined in reverberatory
furnace until nearly all the sulphur is expelled. Carbonate ores and silicate ores are often calcined in
shaft furnace before being distilled.
Properties:
The most important property of zinc is its resistance to atmospheric corrosion. Ductility is
good and it can be deformed into desired shapes. Lead (< 0.1 per cent) makes the zinc roll easier;
however, it softens, weakens and ductility is reduced. Iron and cadmium embrittle and harden zinc and
are, therefore, a detriment in final products to be rolled or used for galvanising. They should not
exceed 0.02 per cent. Zinc, either rolled or cast, shows no well-defined yield point.
Uses:
It is used to produce brass, some of the bronzes, as a protective coating on iron and steel, boiler
tubes, fruit jar covers and cans for resisting corrosion and for negative pole pieces of batteries.
11.2.4 Lead
Mainly used in its pure form, lead is the densest, softest and the weakest metal. The principal ore is
lead sulphide, galena (PbS, 86.6 per cent lead). Lead is extracted by reducing the sulphur content by
roasting the raw ore in pots or sintering it in shallow pallets. It is then smelt in a blast furnace along
with flux and coke. Lead, zinc, copper, arsenic, etc., are taken out of the blast furnace and separated
alternately on the basis of their different melting points.
Properties:
Pure lead can be scratched even with finger nail, highly malleable and can be rolled, into thin foils. It
has a blue grey colour and dull metallic lusture when freshly fractured. When exposed to moist air it
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loses lusture due to oxidation. Its relative density is 11 340 kg.m and melting temperature is 327° C.
The softness and specific gravity of lead are reduced because of the impurities such as antimony,
arsenic, zinc and copper. Magnesia (2 per cent) raises the hardness abruptly.
Uses:
It finds its principal use in paints as base, lead pipes and joints in sanitary fittings and in batteries.
11.2.5 Nickel
Nickel is generally extracted from pyrite or silicate ores.
Properties:
A brittle metal approaching sliver in colour nickel takes good polish and at ordinary temperatures does
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not tarnish or corrode in dry air. It has specific gravity 8 300 kg.m , when cast and
-3
8 700 kg.m when rolled. Its melting point is 1 500° C. It is almost as hard as soft steel far more
malleable, and when rolled and annealed, is somewhat stronger and almost as ductile. Nickel resists
alkaline corrosion, but gets readily dissolved in nitric acid and aquaregia. The presence of carbon,
arsenic, sulphur leads to brittleness. Small amounts of magnesium render it more ductile whereas iron
makes it hard.
Uses:
Nickel is used in making nickel steels, coin and wires, as catalyst and for moisture-proof packings.
Nickel is widely used as an alloying element in steel and cast iron and as an electro-deposited coating
over steel to give corrosion protection. Nickel is also used to form alloys with such elements as
copper, chromium and iron.
12 WOOD
Wood is the oldest material used by humans for construction after stone. It is a commonly used
construction material in many parts of the world because of its reasonable cost, ease of working,
attractive appearance and adequate life if protected from moisture and insects. The basic
characteristics of wood are following:
• exceptionally strong relative to its weight
• a good heat and electrical insulator
• of increasing importance
• a renewable and biodegradable resource
However, forests are a valuable natural resource that must be conserved, particularly in areas with
marginal rainfall. As good a material as wood may be, there are regions where other materials should
be considered first, simply on a conservation basis.
Timber: The wood which is suitable or fit for engineering construction is called timber. Wood for
building is available from many different species with widely varying characteristics. Some species are
used in the form of small poles for light construction, while other species are allowed to mature so that
timber (lumber in many countries) may be sawn from the large logs. The species that produce small,
inexpensive poles in rather short growing periods often grow in the fringes of agricultural land and can
be used without danger to the ecology of the region.
Strength in wood is its ability to resist breaking when it is used in beams and columns. Not only is
strength related to the species, but also to moisture content (MC) and defects. Strength is also quite
closely related to density.
Hardness is the resistance to denting and wear. While hardwoods are more difficult to work, they are
required for tools, tool handles, flooring and other applications subject to wear, or where a high polish
is desired.
Stiffness is resistance in deflection or bending when loaded. Stiff woods are not necessarily very
strong. They may resist bending up to a point and then break suddenly.
Toughness is considerable deflection before breaking. Even after fracturing, the fibres tend to hang
together and resist separation. Tough woods are resistant to shock loading.
Warping is the twisting, bending or bowing distortions shown by some woods. The method of sawing
and curing affects the amount of warping, but some species are much more prone to warping than
others.
Nail-holding resistance for hardwoods is greater than for softer woods. However, woods that are so
hard that they tend to split when nailed, lose much of their holding ability. Pre-boring to 75 percent of
the nail size avoids splitting.
Great technological properties – workability, divisibility, connectivity, easy assembly, transportation,
and storage. The workability, such as sawing, shaping and nailing, is better for soft, low-density woods
than for hardwoods, but usually they cannot be given a high polish.
Natural-decay resistance is particularly important in the warm and humid regions. A wide range of
resistance is shown by different species. However, for all species, the heartwood (the darker centre
area of the tree) is more resistant than the sapwood (the lighter outer area of the tree). In addition to
selection for natural-decay resistance, wood preservatives should be considered where contact with
the ground is likely.
Paint-holding ability differs between woods and, as a general rule, this should be considered when
selecting materials.
Other properties: minimal level of natural radiation, wooden materials absorb electromagnetic smog,
neutral magnetic and electromagnetic properties, aesthetic properties – natural texture, colour, aroma,
which favorably influence mood of the man.
Decay, which results from moisture levels between 21 percent and 25 percent in the presence of air,
reduces the strength of the wood and spoils its appearance. Decay appears due to rot, fungi and
insects
Wet rot, is a decomposition of sap and fibers of the living tree set up by the access of water through
wounds in the barks.
Dry rot, is a decomposition of converted timber induced by the commonest and most destructive dry
rot fungi or weeping fungus.
Fungi, feeding on wood can be divided into three main categories: staining fungi, moulds and decay
fungi. Most fungi thrive under moist conditions. Staining fungi live mainly on the sapwood but they may
penetrate deeply into the wood and spoil the timber’s attractive appearance. Moulds do not penetrate
below the surface and do not seem to affect the strength of the wood, but they look unsightly. Decay
fungi eat the cell walls of the wood. This causes the tree to lose its strength and often reduces it to a
crumbling, rotting mass. These decay fungi never attack timber that is seasoned to a moisture content
of less than 20 percent and kept well ventilated and dry.
Insect damage, caused by termites, beetles or borers (see Fig.12.4). The main species of borer that
attack tropical woods are the pinhole borer and the Lyctus, or powderpost beetle. The pinhole borer
attacks newly felled logs and sometimes standing trees. The attack can occur within hours of felling.
The beetles do not normally continue to operate in seasoned timber. The powderpost beetle attacks
seasoned tropical hardwoods – particularly those that contain starch on which the larvae feed. Timber
is sometimes sprayed in the yard to protect it until it is transported. Termites are normally of two kinds:
the dry wood types that are able to fly and the subterranean type. Termites usually operate under
cover and it is only after the first signs of damage appear that the full extent is realized. Flying termites
usually enter the end-grain of untreated timber and build up a colony from inside, finally devouring all
the interior wood and leavingonly a thin skin behind. Some subterranean termites, white ants, operate
from a central colony and travel in search of food. Their nests or hills sometimes achieve great size
and house millions of ants. While no timber is completely immune to attack from ants or other insects,
there are great variations among the species. The density of the timber is no guide to its resistance to
termite damage, as some of the lighter timbers are more immune than heavier varieties. Weathering is
the disintegration of wood caused by alternate shrinkage and swelling as a result of rain, rapid
changes in temperature, humidity and the action of sunlight. Painting, when properly carried out, does
much to prevent weathering. The paint must be of exterior quality, however, and applied according to
the maker’s instructions.
Fire, is also damaging factor for timber. As timber has tendency to burn, so fire can damage it easily.
Figure 12.4: Termites, Beetles and Borers and corresponding forms of wood decay
(Source: http://www.slideshare.net/emersondejesus1/chapter-7-timber)
Veneer
It is thin sheet of wood, 0.4 – 0.6 mm in thickness obtained by different knife cutting process.
Plywood
Plywood is produced by gluing together three to seven veneers (plies) that have been peeled from
logs. The grain of each successive veneer is angled at 90° from the previous one, resulting in a board
that has considerable strength and rigidity in all directions (see Fig. 12.7). Waterproof glue is most
commonly used, giving a product that is highly resistant to moisture. Waterproof glue panels should
always be chosen for farm buildings. As the wood itself is not waterproof, the panels are still subject to
swelling and shrinkage from moisture changes.
They are made of strips of wood between 8 mm and 25 mm wide, glued together and covered with
one or more veneers on each side. At least one pair of corresponding veneers will have the grain
at right angles to the grain of the core. If the finish grain is to run parallel with the core, there must
be at least two veneers per side. Blockboard panels are often used for doors.
OSB panels
(Oriented Strand Board) is an engineered wood-based panel consisting of strands of wood which are
bonded together with a synthetic resin; the strands are pressed together in layers. In the outer layers
strands are generally oriented longitudinally in line with the panel length, whereas in the middle layers
strands generally lie in a cross wise direction.
The wood species used in OSB manufacture include both softwoods (spruce, pine) and some
hardwood. Wood strands are cut tangentially from debarked logs which are held longitudinally against
rotating knives. The ribbon of strands produced is usually about 75 mm wide and this breaks up on
handling to produce individual strands which are typically 100 mm along the grain and from 5 to 50
mm across the grain.
After drying, these strands are sprayed with a synthetic resin binder. The resin types typically used
include Phenol formaldehyde (PF), melamine fortified Urea Formaldehyde (MUF) or isocyanate
(PMDI), all of which are moisture resistant binders. In Europe, it is common to use a combination of
binders, typically PMDI would be used in the core and MUF in the face layers and this has the
advantage of reducing press cycles whilst imparting a bright appearance to the surface of the panel.
Panel density (and thus panel mass) varies depending upon the product, being affected by the timber
3
species and the manufacturing process. Typical densities are 600-680kg/m .
Four grades of OSB are defined in EN 300 in terms of their mechanical performance and relative
resistance to moisture. These are:
OSB/1 - General purpose boards and boards for interior fitments (including furniture) for use in dry
conditions.
OSB/2 - Load-bearing boards for use in dry conditions.
OSB/3 - Load-bearing boards for use in humid conditions
OSB/4 - Heavy-duty load-bearing boards for use in humid conditions.
When it comes to new construction projects, OSB’s versatility makes it easy to work with a variety of
applications, including:
• Wall sheeting – excellent strength and racking performance under all types of exterior cladding.
• Roof sheeting – uniformly sound and extra rigid to handle snow and wind loads, sacking for
pitched tiles on slated roofs, structural decking on joists for flat roofs.
• Subfloors – strong, rigid and impact-resistant for underlayment, carpet or tiles.
• Single-layer floors – use OSB directly under carpet, lightweight concrete or hardwood.
• Underlayment – uniformly thin yet strong and finely sanded, OSB provides a smooth and uniform
base for vinyl or tiles.
• I-joists – a high quality support system that minimizes deflection, provides for long spans and
minimizes floor squeaking. Because it’s engineered, OSB can be custom manufactured to meet
specific requirements in thickness, density, panel size, surface texture, strength and rigidity. OSB
is also highly workable, making it easy to saw, drill, nail, plane, file, glue, paint and sand. This
makes it an excellent choice for the replacement of ageing or unwanted building components, as
well as new additions to existing structures. OSB is also used as concrete shuttering or
framework.
Glued laminated timber, commonly referred to simply as “glulam”, is the building material for load-
bearing structures in residential and large-scale buildings, as well as for structural engineering. Glulam
consists of at least four softwood boards or planks glued together under high pressure with their fibers
aligned parallel to each other and kiln dried. Glulam products provide dimensional stability, accuracy
and precision of fit. Cracking is kept to a minimum, while up to 80% more load-bearing capacity than
conventional structural timber of the same cross section is attainable.
The main role of insulating materials is to protect both the constructions and internal environment of
buildings to external influences.
Classification from function point of view:
Water-proof - water and moisture insulations
Thermal insulations - loss of heat prevention
Sound insulations - prevention of noise and vibrations transfer in constructions
Special insulations - chemical aggressive agents prevention
fire resistant
radiation resistant
There is the possibility of production of asphalt shingles by cutting from the asphalt felts in practise.
They are used for covering of sloped roofs.
Breathable Membranes: A three layer highly breathable, fully waterproof membrane, constructed
from high tensile spun-bonded polypropylene layers, around a microporous polypropylene film. The
outer layer forms the functional waterproof surface; the middle layer is the breathable waterproof
membrane and the inner layer protects the membrane from abrasion and damage, also giving
additional strength. This enables the fabric to allow moisture vapour to pass through, whilst remaining
fully waterproof.
Breathable roofing underlay positioned immediately above the insulation layer in a warm pitched roof,
or in a cold pitched roof (ventilated or unventilated) . Breathable roofing underlay for use under tiles
and sheeted roofs, over open rafters or on to fully boarded substrates. Breather membrane for timber
frame wall construction.
It often is in form of 3-layers laminate: PP nonwoven + PE film + PP nonwoven
The basic parameter describing the thermal insulating ability is the thermal conductivity coefficient
λ. Thermal insulating materials should be of λ < 0,3 W.m .K . We can consider also the “high
-1 -1
The R (thermal resistance) is also defined for constructions - value of a material indicates its
resistance to heat flow (ability of material to assure the thermal protection respectively). R-values are
measured at 75 °F (22 °C) and are calculated from the thermal conductivity λ and the thickness d of
materials: R = d/λ .
How much insulation the building should have depends on the building design, climate, energy costs,
budget, and personal preference. Each country has different recommendations as to what R-values
each component of a house should have.
Fiber insulations
• Fiber glass - made from molten glass, usually with 20% to 30% recycled industrial waste and
post-consumer content. Nonflammable, except for the facing (if present). Sometimes, the
manufacturer modifies the facing so that it is fire-resistant. Some fiberglass is unfaced, some is paper-
faced with a thin layer of asphalt, and some is foil-faced.
Manufacturing process
After the fusion of a mixture of natural sand and recycled glass at 1,450 °C, the glass that is produced
is converted into fibers. The original feature of process lies in the combination of centrifugal drawing of
the glass and its refining in a flow of hot gas. The cohesion and mechanical strength of the products
are obtained by the presence of a binder that “cements” the fibers together. Ideally, a drop of bonder is
placed at each fiber intersection. This fiber mat is then heated to around 200 °C (to polymerize the
resin), and is calendered to give it strength and stability.
The final stage involves cutting the wool and packing it in rolls or panels under very high pressure
before palletizing the finished product in order to facilitate transport and storage.
Thanks to its intertwined flexible fibers, glass wool offers excellent fire-resistant properties, as a
thermal insulation material (for example in loft of wall cavity insulation) and is also widely used as an
absorbant material in acoustic treatments such as sound insulation, absorbant ceiling tiles. Its light
weight, flexibility and elasticity make it easy to install, which is another essential condition for effective
insulation
The best known products: TEL-MINERALWOLLE, THERWOOLIN
• Rock wool - also known as mineral wool or mineral fiber. Made from rock (basalt, diabase), or
blast furnace slag. Usually gray with black specs, or white, and more brittle, denser, and more
resistant to airflow than fiberglass.
Manufacturing process
Rockwool is a furnace product of molten rock, at a temperature of about 1600°C, through which is
blown a stream of air or steam. More high tech production techniques are based on spinning molten
rock (lava) on high speed spinning wheels. The final product is a mass of fine intertwined fibres with a
typical diameter of 6 to 10 micrometers. Mineral wool may contain a binder and an oil to reduce
dusting and making it water repellent (hydrophobic).
The best known products: NOBASIL, ORSIL, ROCKWOOL, ISOVER
Foam insulations
Basically it is Spray polyurethane foam – (see Fig. 13.8).