LINGUISTICS 2

M1 LESSON 2.1
INSTRUCTOR: LE NGUYEN NHU ANH
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• Contents:
– A first look at verbs
– The complements of lexical verbs
• Transitive verbs
• Intransitive verbs
• Ditransitive verbs
• Intensive verbs
• Complex transitive verbs
• Prepositional verbs
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• A first look at verbs:
– The basic sentence consists of a Noun Phrase (functioning as
subject) followed by a Verb Phrase (functioning as predicate).
– The one constituent that a Verb Phrase (VP) must contain is a verb
(V). VPs are centred on V.
– 2 kinds of verb in English: LEXICAL & AUXILIARY
– A full VP must contain a LEXICAL VERB and it may contain
AUXILIARY VERBS.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• A first look at verbs: Lexical verbs
– take VERBAL INFLECTIONS -s, -ing, -ed, -en.
– In VPs containing only a lexical verb, that verb will always carry a
present or past meaning.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• The complements of lexical verbs
Phil dreads affectionate cats
– VP: dreads affectionate cats
– V: dreads
– Relation between the V (dreads) and the NP (affectionate cats) is a
head–complement relation. It’s a two-way (mutual) dependency
between the verb (as head) and the NP (its complement).
Phil sunbathed affectionate cats.
The presence of the NP depends on the type of verb
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• The complements of lexical verbs
– Lexical verbs are sub-categorised according to what other
elements must appear with them in the VP.
They are sub-categorised in terms of what complements they
demand.
– All VPs can include (optional) modification by a PP.
Phil sunbathed beside a stream.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• Six sub-categories of lexical verbs
Transitive

Intransitive

Ditransitive
Lexical verbs
Intensive

Complex
transitive

Prepositional
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• TRANSITIVE VERBS
– A transitive verb is one which requires a single Noun Phrase to
complement it.
– Example: dread, make, spot, throw, inspect, etc.
– The NP that complements a transitive verb is said to function as its
DIRECT OBJECT.
– When the form of an NP is determined by its complement relation
with another constituent, it is said to be GOVERNED by that other
constituent (in this case, the verb).
NP a sister of the V
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• TRANSITIVE VERBS When an NP is the sister
of a V bearing the [trans]
feature, we know that the
NP is functioning as
DIRECT OBJECT.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• INTRANSITIVE VERBS
– An intransitive verb is one that does not require any further
constituent as a sister in the VP.
– ‘INtransitive’ means ‘has (and needs) no complement’
An intransitive verb counts as a complete VP in its own right.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• DITRANSITIVE VERBS
– Ditransitive verbs require TWO NPs as complements.
William gave Millie some bleach.
Indirect Direct
Object Object
– INDIRECT OBJECT: the recipient or beneficiary of the action.
– DIRECT OBJECT: complements a transitive verb.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• DITRANSITIVE VERBS
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
The indirect object NP
• DITRANSITIVE VERBS corresponds to a
Prepositional Phrase (PP) in
a position following the
direct object.
The PPs that correspond in
this way with indirect objects
are always introduced by
either to or for.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• DITRANSITIVE VERBS
– Indirect objects can take the form of either an NP or a PP
containing to or for.
PPs that correspond to indirect objects are part of the
complementation of ditransitive verbs and need to be represented
as sisters of V within the basic VP.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• INTENSIVE VERBS
– Intensive verbs require a single complement, which can take the
form of an Adjective Phrase, a Noun Phrase or a Prepositional
Phrase. (Ex: the verb “BE” [the copula])
Example:
– Ed is rather extravagant. (AP)
– Sigmund was an auctioneer. (NP)
– Oscar and the First Mate were in the engine room. (PP)
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• INTENSIVE VERBS
– The complement of an intensive verb functions (more specifically)
as a predicative (Example: become, seem, appear, turn, remain,
look, taste, feel, smell, sound.)
– Predicatives are used to attribute PROPERTIES to the things or
people referred to by other expressions.
– Compare:
Sigmund was an auctioneer.
Sigmund spotted an auctioneer.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• INTENSIVE VERBS
– [38] Max turned a subtle shade of green.
– [39] Max turned another card.
– [40] Tarzan felt a tap on his shoulder.
– [41] Tarzan felt a real idiot.
– [42] The leopard-skin pillbox hat didn’t become her.
– [43] The hat became a very useful wastepaper basket.
– [44] The captain sounds an absolute tyrant.
– [45] The captain sounded the ship’s horn.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• INTENSIVE VERBS
– [38] Max turned a subtle shade of green.
– [41] Tarzan felt a real idiot.
– [43] The hat became a very useful wastepaper basket.
– [44] The captain sounds an absolute tyrant.
These NPs function as predicatives
SUBJECT-PREDICATIVES
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• INTENSIVE VERBS
– An [INTENS] verb takes
a subject-predicative.
– A [trans] verb takes a
direct object.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS
– Complex transitive verbs take two complements: a direct object
(NP) and an object-predicative.
– The predicative can take the form of an AP, an NP or a PP.
[48] Jack finds his own jokes extremely funny. (AP)
[49] They made Stella their spokesperson. (NP)
[50] Liza put the liquor under her bed. (PP)
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS
– The predicative in a complex transitive VP characterises (attributes
a property to) the direct object, not the subject, => ‘OBJECT-
PREDICATIVE’.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• COMPLEX TRANSITIVE VERBS

Ambiguous
sentence

(a) Max found an amusing companion for Bill.

(b) Max found Bill to be an amusing companion.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
– Glance (at NP), reply (to NP), refer (to NP), listen (to NP) and worry
(about NP) are examples of prepositional verbs – complemented by
a Prepositional Phrase.
The PP that
complements a
[prepositional] verb
= a PREPOSITIONAL
COMPLEMENT
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• PREPOSITIONAL VERBS
– Three kinds of VP consisting of [V + PP]:
(a) V[intens] + PP. => The PP is a complement (subject predicative);
(b) V[prep] + PP. => The PP is a complement (prepositional
complement);
(c) V[intrans] + PP. => The PP is an optional modifier
Prepositional verbs are called ‘prepositional’ because they can only
be complemented by a PP.
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• SUMMARY
V+NP

V+(PP)

V+NP+NP

V+NP+PP

V+NP/AP/PP

V+NP+NP/AP/PP

V+PP
2.1 The basic Verb Phrase
• SUMMARY
 LINGUISTICS 2
M1 LESSON 2.2
INSTRUCTOR: LE NGUYEN NHU ANH

ALLPPT.com _ Free PowerPoint Templates, Diagrams and Charts

2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Contents:
– Adjunct adverbials (VP adverbials)
– Levels of Verb Phrase
– The mobility of adverbials
– Phrasal verbs
– Ellipsis
– Sentence adverbials (S adverbials)
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Adjunct adverbials (VP adverbials)

[intrans]

[trans]

When a constituent functions within a VP as the PPs in [1] and [2] are
functioning, it is said to function as an ADJUNCT ADVERBIAL (or
simply ADJUNCT). They are also called VP-adverbials.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Adjunct adverbials (VP adverbials)
[intens]
[3] Ed was rather extravagant in the bazaar.
[intens]
[4] Oscar was in the engine-room during the whole voyage.
[trans]
[5] The king of Sicily imprisoned them for reasons of state.
[ditrans]
[6] William gave Millie some bleach on her birthday.
[complex]
[7] Liza kept the liquor under the bed as a precaution.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Adjunct adverbials (VP adverbials):
– Manner
– Means
– Purpose
– Reason
– Place
– Time (duration and frequency)

• Answer questions: Where? Why? When? How? What for? How long? How
often? How many times?
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Adjunct adverbials (VP adverbials):
– PPs & AdvP can function as adjunct adverbials
• Adverbial => Function (Not included in phrase markers)
• Adverb & Adverb Phrase => Category

Example:
[8] Sam sunbathed frequently.
[9] He spotted the wildcats quite accidentally.
10] She put it under the bed surreptitiously
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Adjunct adverbials (VP adverbials):
– Adverbs relating to time (not identified by –ly morphology)
– Certain NPs can function as (temporal) adverbials: last year,
yesterday, tomorrow, the day before yesterday, the day after
tomorrow, this afternoon…

ADJUNCTS are optional (their occurrence is not determined by the

verb and its sub-category)
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Levels of Verb Phrase
Max spotted those wildcats in the spring

modifier

Complement
=> A unit of sense

X ✓
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Levels of Verb Phrase
– Adjunct adverbials are MODIFIERS of VPs => Sisters of VP
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS

[17] Bevis mended his bike in the garage and Max did so in the garden.
*
[18] Bevis put his bike in the garage and Max did so in the garden.
 “do so” replaces a Verb Phrase => Pro-VP
 Expressions that replace phrases to avoid repeating information are called
PRO-FORMS
 Pronouns are pro-forms because they replace NPs.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS

Tip from the author of the book: Having drawn the immediate
VP of S (the predicate), always ask yourself:

Does that VP include an adjunct

adverbial? If it does, then it must have
another VP as one of its constituents. And
so on, for every VP.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• The mobility of adverbials
– Adverbials can appear in all sorts of positions in the sentence.
[28] Very surreptitiously, she put it under the bed.
[29] She very surreptitiously put it under the bed.
[30] She put it very surreptitiously under the bed.
[31] She put it under the bed very surreptitiously.

– They can’t come between the V and its direct object.

2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• The mobility of adverbials
She hardly slept last night.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• The mobility of adverbials
She hardly slept last night.
=> Last night, she hardly slept.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• The mobility of adverbials
– The position of the adverbial can make a difference to the meaning.
They slowly answered all the questions.
=> They were slow in answering the whole batch of questions.
They answered all the questions slowly.
=> They answered each individual question slowly.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Phrasal verbs
– He called [up the street].
– He called up the boss. => transitive phrasal verb
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Phrasal verbs
– A phrasal verb consists of a verb + a particle
– Examples:
TRANS: call off, look up, put down, hand down, hand over, sound out,
drink up. , call up

TRANS and INTRANS: give up, give in, throw up. (These have different
[trans] and [intran] senses.)
PREP: put up (with NP), go along (with NP), run out (of NP), sign up (
for NP).
INTENS: turn out, end up, wind up.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Phrasal verbs
– A defining characteristic of particles is that they can appear in a position
AFTER the direct object NP
He called up the boss. => He called the boss up.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Phrasal verbs
– Particle movement provides a reliable test for distinguishing between [phrasal
verb + (direct object) NP] and [verb + PP]
– The particle can only move over a direct object NP. It can’t move over a PP or a
subject-predicative NP
He turned out a brilliant lawyer
NOT He turned a brilliant lawyer out
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Phrasal verbs
– Now decide, for each of the following VPs, whether it includes a transitive
phrasal verb + NP [1] or a prepositional verb + PP [2]

(a) shouted out the answers (b) looked out the window
(c) hangs about the office (d) handed over the money
(e) viciously turned on John (f) saw through the term
(g) gave in my essay (h) saw through her disguise
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Phrasal verbs
– Now decide, for each of the following VPs, whether it includes a transitive
phrasal verb + NP [1] or a prepositional verb + PP [2]

(a) shouted out the answers (b) looked out the window
(c) hangs about the office (d) handed over the money
(e) viciously turned on John (f) saw through the term
(g) gave in my essay (h) saw through her disguise
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Ellipsis
– [41] William gave some bleach to Millie.
– [42] William gave Millie some bleach.
– [43] William gave some bleach. <= No indirect object

When a sentence is actually used by a speaker (i.e. when a speaker

actually utters it), almost anything can be omitted, provided the omitted
elements can be understood from the context in which it is used.
The omission from sentences of grammatically obligatory elements
capable of being understood in the context of use is called ELLIPSIS.
Syntax is concerned with the form of SENTENCES, without taking into
account the effects of UTTERING sentences in a context.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Ellipsis
– William gave some bleach.
E => ellipted element
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Ellipsis
– Compare
• Max played his tuba in the street.
• Max played in the street.
AND
• Jean ate the couscous rapidly.
• Jean ate rapidly.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Ellipsis
– Compare
• Max played his tuba in the street.
• Max played in the street.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Ellipsis
– Compare
• Jean ate the couscous rapidly.
• Jean ate rapidly.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Sentence adverbials (S adverbials)
– DISJUNCT ADVERBIALS
– CONJUNCT ADVERBIALS
Compare
[51a] Buster admitted everything frankly.
[51b] Buster admitted everything, frankly.

[52a] Max can only do the tango rather awkwardly.

[52b] Max can only do the tango, rather awkwardly.

[53a] Helmut interfered between you and me.

[53b] Helmut interfered, between you and me.

Disjunct adverbials
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Sentence adverbials (S adverbials)
– DISJUNCT ADVERBIALS provide some comment by the speaker/writer about
what she is reporting or about how she feels she herself is expressing what
she has to say.
– The adverbial doesn’t actually modify anything within the sentence.
– Much more natural interpretation when the adverbial occurs at the beginning
of the sentence.
[51c] Frankly, Buster admitted everything.
[52c] Rather awkwardly, Max can only do the tango.
[53c] Between you and me, Helmut interfered.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Sentence adverbials (S adverbials)
– Instead of modifying some element within the sentence, the S-adverbial
relates to the sentence as a whole, considered as a unit.
[51a] Buster admitted everything frankly. [51b] Buster admitted everything, frankly.
2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Sentence adverbials (S adverbials)
– CONJUNCT ADVERBIALS indicate what kind of relation holds between the
sentences they modify and the preceding or following discourse.
=> link distinct and grammatically unconnected sentences into a coherent and
structured discourse.

In short, you are fired.

2.2. ADVERBIALS AND OTHER MATTERS
• Sentence adverbials (S adverbials)
LINGUISTICS 2
M1 LESSON 2.3
INSTRUCTOR: LE NGUYEN NHU ANH
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Contents:
– Part I: Lexical and auxiliary verbs
• Tense and time
• The contrast between lexical and auxiliary verbs
• Modal auxiliaries (MOD)
• The perfect auxiliary – have (PERF)
• The progressive auxiliary – be (PROG)
• The passive auxiliary – be (PASS)
• Where auxiliaries fit in the structure of VP
• Auxiliary VPs and adverbials
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Contents:
– Part II: Constructions that depend on auxiliaries
• Passive sentences
• Negative sentences and auxiliary do
• Questions — fronting the tensed auxiliary
 Part I:
Lexical and auxiliary verbs
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Every full (non-elliptical) VP includes a lexical verb and it
may contain one or more auxiliary verbs.

PRIMARY AUXILIARIES MODAL AUXILIARIES

be, have, do can/could, will/would,
shall/should, may/might,
must, need
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Basic principles:
– A) it is always just the first verb – whether lexical or auxiliary –
that displays the tense distinction between PRESENT and PAST;
– B) auxiliary verbs (if present) always PRECEDE the lexical verb;
– C) the form of a verb is determined by the verb that precedes it.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Tense and Time
– Verb forms that are TENSED are traditionally called FINITE verb
forms.
– All other verb forms are NON-FINITE (not tensed).
– Every sentence must contain a finite verb.
– In the absence of any auxiliary, it is the lexical verb that is tensed
(finite).
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Tense and Time
– English has just TWO tenses: Present and Past.
– Future time is expressible in a variety of ways but there is no
future tense.
– There is no simple correlation between the grammatical category
TENSE and the notion of TIME.
[10] The boat leaves at ten tonight. (Present tense – future time)
[11] If he gave me the bleach tomorrow, I’d use it. (Past tense – future
time)
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• The contrast between lexical and auxiliary verbs
– In QUESTIONS, auxiliary verbs can move in front of the subject NP.
A lexical verb cannot.
– The NEGATIVE PARTICLE (not or n’t) can attach to an auxiliary verb
but never to a lexical verb.
– Auxiliary verbs never take an NP complement.
– When a verb follows a lexical verb, it can be introduced by THE
INFINITIVE PARTICLE to but not when it follows an auxiliary verb.
He needs to go.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Modal auxiliaries (MOD)
– MODALS are always tensed (finite). They do not have untensed (non-finite)
forms. => always come FIRST in any sequence of verbs.
PRESENT: can, will, shall, may
PAST: could, would, should, might
* must and need don’t have a past tense form.
– MODALS never show subject-verb agreement.
– In a sequence of verbs, there can be only one modal verb
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• The perfect auxiliary — have (PERF)
– Auxiliary have is described as the ‘perfect’ auxiliary. Perfect have is always
followed by another verb (ellipsis aside)
– Have provides a way of referring to past TIME independently of past TENSE.
– The verb that follows perfect have always appears in its (non-finite) PERFECT
PARTICIPLE FORM.
– PARTICIPLE FORMS are non-finite.
– MOD before PERF before Lexical V.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• The progressive auxiliary — be (PROG)
– Progressive be demands that the following verb has the (non finite) -ING form
=> the PROGRESSIVE PARTICIPLE
– PROG can co-occur with MOD, with PERF and with both MOD and PERF:
[38] You may be wondering about the future. (MOD+PROG)
[39] Millie has been using the bleach. (PERF+PROG)
[40] Bill might have been teasing you. (MOD+PERF+PROG)
– MOD before PERF before PROG before Lexical V.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• The passive auxiliary — be (PASS)
– Sentences that include the passive auxiliary verb be are said to be in the
PASSIVE VOICE.
– Following passive be, a verb adopts the PASSIVE PARTICIPLE FORM
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• The passive auxiliary — be (PASS)
– PASS can co-occur with any combination of other auxiliaries:

– MOD before PERF before PROG before PASS before Lexical V.

2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Where auxiliaries fit in the structure of VP
– Each auxiliary verb is the head of its VP and takes a VP complement.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Auxiliary VPs and adverbials
– Assumption 1. If an adverbial precedes a verb, assume it modifies the following
VP.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Auxiliary VPs and adverbials
– Assumption 2. Assume that sentence-final adverbials modify (and form a VP
constituent with) the lexical VP.

One exception to
Assumption 2: TIME
ADVERBIALS
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Auxiliary VPs and adverbials
– Kim and Peter are going to India next week now.
 Part II:
Constructions that depend on
auxiliaries
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Passive Sentences In passive sentences, a gap is
– Max was fired by the boss. created in the object position left
by the movement of the object to
subject position.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Passive Sentences
– Otto was driven mad by the noise.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Passive Sentences
– With ditransitive verbs, it is always the first object that becomes subject in the
passive (leaving the other object in position).
[82a] Max sent the boss an anonymous letter. (NP + NP: iO + dO)
=> [82b] The boss was sent (•) an anonymous letter.
[83a] Max sent an anonymous letter to the boss. (NP + PP: dO + iO)
=> [83b] An anonymous letter was sent (•) to the boss.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Negative sentences and auxiliary do
– The negative particle not is placed immediately after the tensed auxiliary.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• Questions — fronting the tensed auxiliary
C: Complementiser
The Complementiser is sister of
S and daughter of S’
Could Simon have written these words?
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
Hasn’t Oleg been arrested?
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• More on have and be
– Have can behave like an auxiliary or like a lexical verb even when it is
functioning as a lexical verb. All the following are grammatical:
– Functioning as a lexical verb, behaving like a lexical verb:
[99a] Do we have any garlic?
[99b] We don’t have any garlic.
– Functioning as a lexical verb, behaving like an auxiliary:
[100a] Have we any garlic?
[100b] We haven’t any garlic.
2.3 AUXILIARY VPs
• More on have and be
– Be is more regular in its irregularity: it always behaves like an auxiliary –
whether functioning as auxiliary or lexical.
[101a] Was Kubla extravagant?
[101b] Kubla wasn’t extravagant.