PERMUTATIONS

02 APRIL 2024
REVISION: 1649

AZIZ MANVA
[email protected]

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.8 Equations and Algebra with Permutations 63
TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................. 2
1. PERMUTATIONS ...................................... 3 2. PATHS .................................................... 64
1.1 Factorials 3 2.1 Paths on Lattice Grids 64
1.2 Factorials: Applications 15 2.2 Parity/Multiple Hops(Number Line) 73
1.3 Permutations 21 2.3 Counting Methods 79
1.4 More with Permutations 31 2.4 Diagonal Paths and Delannoy Numbers 86
1.5 Restricted Permutations 41 2.5 Hexagonal Grids and Backtracking 89
1.6 Rotational Symmetry 54 2.6 Further Topics 91
1.7 Reflectional Symmetry 61

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1. PERMUTATIONS
1.1 Factorials
A. Explicit Definition
A explicit (or a closed-form) definition is one that gives a direct formula for calculating the value of a factorial.

1.1: Definition
Factorials can be defined as the product of the first 𝑛 natural numbers, for natural number 𝑛:
𝑛! = 1 × 2 × 3 × … × 𝑛

0 is not a natural number but it is useful to define

0! = 1

One reason for defining 0! as 1 will be seen when when we do the formula for permutations and combinations.

Example 1.2
Find the factorials of the numbers from 1 to 8.
Then memorize them!!

1! = 1
2! = 1 × 2 = 2
3! = 1 × 2 × 3 = 6
4! = ⏟
1 × 2 × 3 × 4 = 4 × 3! = 4 × 6 = 24
𝟑!
5! = 5 × 4! = 5 × 24 = 120
6! = 6 × 5! = 720
7! = 7 × 6! = 5040
8! = 7! × 8 = 5040 × 8 = 40,320

Note: The factorials from 0 to 9 should be committed to memory.

Example 1.3
Find
A. 2! + 3! + 4!
B. 5! + 4! − (3!)2 − (2!)2 − (1!)2

Part A
2! + 3! + 4! = 2 + 6 + 24 = 32
Part B
5! + 4! − (3!)2 − (2!)2 − (1!)2 = 120 + 24 − 36 − 4 − 1 = 144 − 41 = 103

Example 1.4
A. What is the value of (𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥)! ÷ (𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1)! in simplest form? (MathCounts 2007 Chapter
Countdown)
2
B. What is the value of (√4! ∙ 3!) (MathCounts 2007 State Countdown)

Part A
Simplify the given expression to get:

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(𝑥 + 1 − 𝑥)! ÷ (𝑥 − 𝑥 + 1)! = (1)! ÷ (1)

Substitute 1! = 1
=1÷1=1

Part B
2
(√4! ∙ 3!) = 4! ∙ 3! = 24 ∙ 6 = 12 ∙ 12 = 144

B. Recursive Definition
A recursive definition defines a factorial in terms of factorials of smaller values.

1.5: Recursive Definition

𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!, 𝑛≥1

Base Case: 0! = 1

(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2) … (3)(2)(1) = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!

𝑛! = 𝑛 ⏟
(𝑛−1)!

Recursively, 𝑛! can be defined in terms of the factorial of the number one less than it.
As would be expected, both the definitions are equivalent.

Example 1.6
Use the recursive definition to calculate 5! given that 4! = 24

5! = 5 × 4! = 5 × 24 = 120

Example 1.7
Use the recursive definition to expand 100! till it has 5 terms

100!
= 100 ∙ 99!
= 100 ∙ 99 ∙ 98!
= 100 ∙ 99 ∙ 98 ∙ 97!
= 100 ∙ 99 ∙ 98 ∙ 97 ∙ 96!
= 100 ∙ (100 − 1) ∙ (100 − 2) ∙ (100 − 3) ∙ (100 − 4)!

Example 1.8
Use the recursive definition to write each part below in the form 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!, that is, as a number multiplied by a
factorial:
A. 7!
B. 12!
C. 100!
D. 𝑥!
E. 𝑧!

7! = 7 × 6!
12! = 12 × 11!
100! 100 × 99!

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𝑥! = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)!
𝑧(𝑧 − 1)!

Example 1.9
Use the recursive definition to write each part below in the form 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)!, that is, as a number
multiplied by a factorial:
A. 7!
B. 12!
C. 100!
D. 𝑥!
E. 𝑧!

7! = 7(6)(5!)
12! = 12(11)(10!)
𝑥! = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)!
𝑧! = 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)!

1.10: Cancellation
𝑥!
=𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)!

Expand 𝑥! = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)! using the recursive definition

𝑥! 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)!
= =𝑥
(𝑥 − 1)! (𝑥 − 1)!

Note: Do not memorize the formula. Instead, do the calculation by expanding this out:
5! 5 × 4! 5
= = =5
4! 4! 1

Example 1.11
Simplify:
8!
A. 7!
9!
B. 8!
12!
C. 11!
7!
D. 5!
6!
E.
3!

Parts A-C
We can expand the factorials using the recursive definition and then cancel:
8 × 7!
=8
7!
9 × 8!
=9
8!
12 × 11!
= 12
11!
Part D
We have to use the recursive definition twice and then cancel:

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7 × 6 × 5!
= 7 × 6 = 42
5!
Part E
We have to use the recursive definition thrice and then cancel:
6 × 5 × 4 × 3!
= 6 × 5 × 4 = 120
3!

Example 1.12
9! ∙ 5! ∙ 2!
8! ∙ 6!
What is the value of the expression above (MathCounts 2007 State Countdown)

𝟗! ∙ 𝟓! ∙ 2!
𝟖! ∙ 𝟔!
Note that we can “cancel” the:
➢ 9! in the numerator with the 8! in the denominator
➢ 5! in the numerator with the 6! in the denominator

This leaves us with:

9×2
= =3
6
C. Binomial Coefficients
Binomial coefficients are expressions that we will see when we use the formula for combinations. They occur
very frequently in counting problems. And they are also important in probability and algebra.

Example 1.13
14!
What is the value of ? (MathCounts 2004 State Countdown)
5!9!

14! 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10 × 𝟗! 14 × 13 × 12 × 11 × 10
= = = 14 × 13 × 11
5! 9! 5! 𝟗! 120

We can rewrite this and make use of the important calculation 7 × 11 × 13 = 1001:
= 2 × 7 × 13 × 11 = 2002

Example 1.14: Equations

Solve for the variable.
𝑧!
A. (𝑧−1)!
= 7
(𝑥+1)!
B. 𝑥!
=6
(𝑦+3)!
C. (𝑦+2)!
= 11
𝑛!
D. (𝑛−2)!
= 110
(𝑎+1)!
E. 𝑎+1
= 720

Part A
𝑧! 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)!
= =𝑧=7
(𝑧 − 1)! (𝑧 − 1)!
Part B

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(𝑥 + 1)! (𝑥 + 1)𝑥!
= =𝑥+1=6⇒𝑥 =5
𝑥! 𝑥!
Part C
(𝑦 + 3)! (𝑦 + 3)(𝑦 + 2)!
= = 𝑦 + 3 = 11 ⇒ 𝑦 = 8
(𝑦 + 2)! (𝑦 + 2)!
Part D
𝑛! 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)!
= = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) = 110 = 11(10) ⇒ 𝑛 = 11
(𝑛 − 2)! (𝑛 − 2)!

Note that in the above equation, we get a quadratic but we do not need the usual method since we can solve it
directly by factoring the RHS.
Part E
(𝑎 + 1)! (𝑎 + 1)(𝑎!)
= = 𝑎! = 720 ⇒ 𝑎 = 6
𝑎+1 𝑎+1

Example 1.15
𝑝!
A. (𝑝−2)!
(𝑡−1)!
B. (𝑡+1)!
(𝑚+1)!
C. 𝑚
𝑘!
D. (𝑘−4)!
𝑥! 𝑦! 𝑧!
E. (𝑥−1)!
+ (𝑦−2)! + (𝑧−3)!
(𝑁−1)!(𝑁)
F. (𝑁+1)!
(MathCounts 1995 Warm-Up 8)

𝑝! 𝑝(𝑝 − 1)(𝑝 − 2)!

= = 𝑝(𝑝 − 1)
(𝑝 − 2)! (𝑝 − 2)!

(𝑡 − 1)! (𝑡 − 1)! 1
= =
(𝑡 + 1)! (𝑡 + 1)(𝑡)(𝑡 − 1)! (𝑡 + 1)(𝑡)
(𝑚 + 1)! (𝑚 + 1)(𝑚)(𝑚 − 1)!
= = (𝑚 + 1)(𝑚 − 1)!
𝑚 𝑚
𝑘! 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 − 3)(𝑘 − 4)!
= = 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2)(𝑘 − 3)
(𝑘 − 4)! (𝑘 − 4)!
𝑥(𝒙 − 𝟏)! 𝑦(𝑦 − 1)(𝒚 − 𝟐)! 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)(𝒛 − 𝟑)!
+ + = 𝑥 + 𝑦(𝑦 − 1) + 𝑧(𝑧 − 1)(𝑧 − 2)
(𝒙 − 𝟏)! (𝒚 − 𝟐)! (𝒛 − 𝟑)!
(𝑁 − 1)! (𝑁) 𝑁! 1
= =
(𝑁 + 1)! (𝑁 + 1)! 𝑁 + 1
D. Converting into Factorial Form

Example 1.16
𝑘(𝑘 + 1)

(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) … (2)(1) (𝑘 + 1)!

𝑘(𝑘 + 1) = (𝑘 + 1)(𝑘) ∙ =
(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) … (2)(1) (𝑘 − 1)!

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Example 1.17
𝑥!
Write the following in factorial form as (𝑥−1)!
A. 7
B. 9

6! 7!
7=7× =
6! 6!
9!
9=
8!

Example 1.18
𝑥!
We wish to write numbers in the form (𝑥−2)!.
20!
A. Explain why 20 = 18! is not correct.
𝑥!
B. Determine a way to write 20 as (𝑥−2)!.
𝑥!
C. Determine a way to write 72 as (𝑥−2)!.

20! 20 × 19 × 18!
= = 20 × 19 ≠ 20
18! 18!
5!
20 = 5 × 4 =
3!
9!
72 = 8 × 9 =
7!

Example 1.19
Write the following variables in factorial form:
A. 𝑞
B. 𝑤
C. 𝑎
D. 𝑔
Write the following variables in factorial form:
E. 𝑗(𝑗 − 1)
F. 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2)
G.

𝑞!
𝑞=
(𝑞 − 1)!
𝑤!
𝑤=
(𝑤 − 1)!
𝑎!
𝑎=
(𝑎 − 1)!
𝑔!
𝑔=
(𝑔 − 1)!
(𝑗 − 1)! 𝑗!
𝑗(𝑗 − 1) = 𝑗 ∙ =
(𝑗 − 2)! (𝑗 − 2)!

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(𝑥 − 3)! 𝑥!
𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) = 𝑥(𝑥 − 1)(𝑥 − 2) × =
(𝑥 − 3)! (𝑥 − 3)!

Example 1.20
𝑙3 − 𝑙

𝑙 3 − 𝑙 = 𝑙(𝑙 2 − 1) = 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)(𝑙 − 1) = (𝑙 + 1)(𝑙)(𝑙 − 1)

(𝑙 + 1)(𝑙)(𝑙 − 1)(𝑙 − 2)! (𝑙 + 1)!
= =
(𝑙 − 2)! (𝑙 − 2)!

Example 1.21
Write 𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) … (𝑘 − 18) in factorial form by adding a factorial for a denominator.

We “complete” the factorial by multiplying and dividing by (𝑘 − 19)!

𝑘(𝑘 − 1)(𝑘 − 2) … (𝑘 − 18)(𝒌 − 𝟏𝟗)! 𝑘!
=
(𝒌 − 𝟏𝟗)! (𝑘 − 19)!

Example 1.22: Factorial Expressions

Simplify
1 7! 2 1 9!
[ ( )] ÷ [ ( )]
3 2! 5! 4 3! 6!

1 7 × 6 × 𝟓! 2 1 7×𝟔 2
[ ( )] =[ ( )] = 72 = 49
3 2 × 𝟓! 𝟑 𝟐
1 9 × 8 × 7 × 𝟔! 1 9×8×7 1 𝟗×𝟖×7 3×7
× = × = × = = 21
4 3! 𝟔! 4 3! 𝟒 𝟐×𝟑 1
49 7
=
21 3

1.23: Nested Factorials

Factorials can be nested one inside the other.
Nested factorials are solved inside out.

Example 1.24
Evaluate (1!)! + (2!)! + (3!)!

(1!)! + (2!)! + (3!)!

Evaluate the quantities inside the brackets. Substitute 1! = 1, 2! = 2,3! = 6:

(1!)! + (2!)! + (3!)! = 1! + 2! + 6! = 1 + 2 + 720 = 723

Example 1.25
(3!)!
(𝐀𝐇𝐒𝐌𝐄 𝟏𝟗𝟗𝟔)
3!

Wrong Solution

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(3!)! 1!
= =1
3! 1
Correct Solution
(3!)! 6!
= = 5! = 120
3! 6

Example 1.26
(0!)‼ … !! + ⏟
⏟ (2!)‼ … !! + [(3!)!]!
(1!)‼ … !! + ⏟
𝒑 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒒 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔 𝒓 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔
𝒑>𝟎 𝒒>𝟎 𝒓>𝟎

0! = 1
(0!)! = 1! = 1
[(0!)!]! = [1!]! = 1! = 1
(0!)‼ … !! = 1

1! = 1
(1!)! = 1! = 1
(1!)‼ … !! = 1

2! = 2
(2!)! = 2! = 2
[(2!)!]! = [2!]! = 2! = 2

[(3!)!]! = [6!]! = 720!

1 + 1 + 2 + 720! = 4 + 720!

Example 1.27: Nested Factorials

((3!)!)!
Given that 3!
= 𝑘 ∙ 𝑛!, where 𝑘 and 𝑛 are positive integers and 𝑛 is as large as possible, find 𝑘 + 𝑛. (AIME I
2003/1)

((3!)!)! (6!)! 720!

= =
3! 6 6

Split the factorial using the recursive definition:

720 × 719!
= 120 × 719!
6

We can identify 𝑘 and 𝑛 as:

𝑘 = 120, 𝑛 = 719 ⇒ 𝑘 + 𝑛 = 839
E. Factoring

1.28: Factoring
𝑛! + (𝑛 − 1)!

Split the first term using the recursive definition:

𝑛(𝑛 − 1)! + (𝑛 − 1)!

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Factor (𝑛 − 1)!
(𝑛 − 1)! [𝑛 + 1]

For example:
4! + 5! = 4! + 4! (5) = 4! (1 + 5) = 4! (6)

Example 1.29
Factor out the lowest factorial in each expression:
A. 5! − 4!
B. 9! + 10!
C. 8! + 6!
D. 8! − 6!
E. 𝑛! + (𝑛 + 1)!
F. 𝑎! + (𝑎 + 1)!
G. 3! + 4! + 5!
H. 3! − 4! + 5!

Parts A and B
Use the recursive definition to expand and then factor:
5! − 4! = 5 ∙ 4! − 4! = 4! (5 − 1) = 4! (4)
9! + 10! = 9! (1 + 10) = 9! (11)

Parts C and D
Use the recursive definition twice to expand and then factor:
8! + 6! = 6! (8 ∙ 7 + 1) = 6! (56 + 1) = 6! (57)
8! − 6! = 6! (8 ∙ 7 − 1) = 6! (56 − 1) = 6! (55)

Parts E and F
This has variables:
⏟ [1 + (𝑛 + 1)] = 𝑛! (𝑛 + 2)
𝑛! + (𝑛 + 1)! = 𝑛!
𝑻𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒏! 𝒄𝒐𝒎𝒎𝒐𝒏
𝑎! + (𝑎 + 1)! = 𝒂! × 1 + 𝒂! (𝑎 + 1) = 𝑎! (1 + 𝑎 + 1) = 𝑎! (𝑎 + 2)

Parts G and H
3! + 4! + 5! = 3! (1 + 4 + 20) = 3! (25) = 6 × 25 = 150
3! − 4! + 5! = 3! (1 − 4 + 20) = 6(17) = 102

1.30: Cancellation with factoring

Just as factorials can be cancelled, they can also be cancelled after factoring.

Example 1.31
8! + 9!
7! + 8!
𝑎
can be written in reduced form as , where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are integers, and 𝐻𝐶𝐹(𝑎, 𝑏) is 1. Find 𝑎 + 𝑏.
𝑏

Factor 8! in the numerator and 7! in the denominator

𝟖! (1 + 9) 𝟖! (10) 8 × 10 80
= = =
𝟕! (1 + 8) 𝟕! (9) 9 9

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Identify:
𝑎 = 80, 𝑏 = 9 ⇒ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 80 + 9 = 89

Example 1.32
10!+11!+12!
What is the simplified value of ? (MathCounts 2005 State Countdown)
10!+11!

Factor 10! from the numerator and the denominator:

𝟏𝟎! (1 + 11 + 12 × 11) 12 × 12
= = 12
𝟏𝟎! (1 + 11) 12

Challenge 1.33
(MCMC): 5! + 6! + 7! is equal to:
A. 5! × 72
1
B. 6! × (8 + 6)
C. 5780
D. 5880

120 + 720 + 5040 = 5880 ⇒ 𝐷 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡, 𝐶 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡

5! + 6! + 7! = 5! (1 + 6 + 6 × 7) = 5! (7 + 42) = 5! × 49 ⇒ 𝐴 𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡
1 1
5! + 6! + 7! = 6! ( + 1 + 7) = 6! (8 + ) ⇒ 𝐵 𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡
6 6

1.34: Using factoring to find divisors

Factoring will convert addition into multiplication, and is one strategy that can be used to find prime divisors

Example 1.35: Divisors

A. Find the largest prime divisor of 9! + 10!
B. Find the largest prime divisor of 7! + 8!
C. What is the largest prime factor of 5! + 6!? (MathCounts 2009 National Countdown)

Part A
9! + 10! = 9! (1 + 10) = 9! (11)
Largest prime divisor is:
11
Part B

7! + 8! = 7! (1 + 8) = 7!
⏟× 9
𝑳𝒂𝒓𝒈𝒆𝒔𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒔 𝟕
Part C
5! + 6! = 5! (1 + 6) = 5! (7)
Largest prime will be
7
F. Multiplication

1.36: Addition versus Multiplication

Consider numbers being added:

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3 + 6 = (3 × 1) + (3 × 2) = 3(1 + 2) = 3(3) = 9

Compare with numbers being multiplied:

3 × 6 = (3 × 1)(3 × 2) = 32 (1 × 2) = 9(2) = 18
Hence, the three is factored out twice from the second expression.

1.37: Rearranging with multiplication

The product of consecutive multiples of a number can be written in terms of a factorial and a power:
𝑛 ∙ 2𝑛 ∙ 3𝑛 ∙ … ∙ 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑥 𝑥!

𝑛 ∙ 2𝑛 ∙ 3𝑛 ∙ … ∙ 𝑥𝑛
The LHS is a product. Separate out the 𝑛 from each term:
𝑛 ∙ (2 ∙ 𝑛) ∙ (3 ∙ 𝑛) ∙ (4 ∙ 𝑛) … ∙ (𝑥 ∙ 𝑛)

Put all the 𝑛′ 𝑠 together:

𝑛 ∙ 𝑛 ∙ 𝑛 ∙ … ∙ 𝑛 × (2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ … ∙ 𝑥)
⏟
𝒙 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔

Substitute 𝑛 ∙ 𝑛 ∙ 𝑛 ∙ … ∙ 𝑛 = 𝑛 𝑥 and 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ∙ … ∙ 𝑥 = 𝑥!
𝑛 𝑥 𝑥!

Example 1.38
Write as a single term:
5 ∙ 10 ∙ 15 ∙ … ∙ 500

Write each term as a multiple of 5:

(5 ∙ 1) ∙ (5 ∙ 2) ∙ (5 ∙ 3 ) ∙ … ∙ (5 ∙ 99) ∙ (5 ∙ 100)

Rearrange:
5 ∙ 5 ∙ 5 ∙ … ∙ 5 × (1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ … ∙ 100)
⏟
𝟏𝟎𝟎 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆𝒔

Combine the first term as an exponent, and the second term as a factorial:
5100 × 100!

Example 1.39
Simplify
3 ∙ 6 ∙ 9 . . . (3𝑛 − 3) ∙ 3𝑛
3𝑛+1

Factor a 3 out of each term in the numerator:

[(𝟑 ∙ 1)(𝟑 ∙ 2)(𝟑 ∙ 3) . . .3(𝑛 − 1) ∙ 𝟑𝑛]
3𝑛+1

Multiply all the 3′ 𝑠 together. Note that there are 𝑛 3′𝑠:

𝟑𝒏 [1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 . . . (𝑛 − 1)𝑛]
=
3𝑛+1

Substitute 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 . . . (𝑛 − 1)𝑛 = 𝑛!

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3𝑛 𝑛!
=
3𝑛+1
Cancel 3𝑛 :
𝑛!
=
3

Example 1.40
1 ∙ 2 ∙ 4 ∙ 6 . . . (2𝑛 − 2) ∙ 2𝑛
2𝑛!

Factor a 2 out of each term in the numerator:

(2 ∙ 1) ∙ (2 ∙ 2) ∙ (2 ∙ 3) . . . (2(𝑛 − 1)) ∙ (2 × 𝑛) 2𝑛 (𝑛!)
=
2𝑛! 2𝑛!
𝑎 𝑚 1
Use the property 𝑛 = 𝑛−𝑚:
𝑎 𝑎
𝑛!
= 𝑛!−𝑛
2

1.41: Telescoping Series in Factorials

0! + 1 ⋅ 1! + 2 ⋅ 2! + . . . + 𝑛 ⋅ 𝑛! = (𝑛 + 1)!

Collapse the series one term at a time using factoring:

⏟
2 ! + 2 ⋅ 2! + 3 ⋅ 3! +. . . +𝑛 ⋅ 𝑛!
𝟎!+𝟏!=𝟐!

Take 2! common in the second and third terms:

2! (1 + 2) + 3 ⋅ 3! + . . . +𝑛 ⋅ 𝑛!
⏟
=𝟐!×𝟑=𝟑!

Simplify inside the bracket and use the formula 𝑛! = 𝑛(𝑛 − 1)!:
3! + 3 ⋅ 3! + . . . +𝑛 ⋅ 𝑛! = 3! (1 + 3). . . +𝑛 ⋅ 𝑛!

Repeat the above process until we finally get:

= (𝑛 + 1)!

Example 1.42
A. Simplify 0! + 1 ⋅ 1! + 2 ⋅ 2! + . . . +50 ⋅ 50!
B. What is the largest prime divisor of 0! + 1 ⋅ 1! + 2 ⋅ 2! + . . . +100 ⋅ 100!
C. Given that 0! + 1 ⋅ 1! + 2 ⋅ 2! + . . . +25 ⋅ 26! = 𝑛!, what is the sum of digits of 𝑛?

51!
0! + 1 ⋅ 1! + 2 ⋅ 2! + . . . +100 ⋅ 100! = 101! ⇒ Largest prime divisor is 101.
27! ⇒ 2 + 7 = 9
G. Equations

Example 1.43
A. By what integer factor must 9! be multiplied to equal 11!? (MathCounts 2006 School Countdown)
B. Find 𝑛 if 26 × 33 × 𝑛 = 9!
𝑥 𝑥 1
C. Find 𝑥 if: 5! + 6! = 7!

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D. For what value of 𝑛 is 5 × 8 × 2 × 𝑛 = 7!? (MathCounts 2004 Warm-Up 18)

E. If 5! ∙ 3! = 𝑛!, what is the value of 𝑛? (MathCounts 2005 School Countdown)
F. Find 𝑛 such that 25 ∙ 32 ∙ 𝑛 = 8!. (MathCounts 2001 National Countdown)

Part A
11! = 11 × 10 × 9! = 110 × 9!
Part B
9! = 2 × 3 × ⏟
4 ×5× ⏟
6 ×7× ⏟ 9 = 27 × 34 × 5 × 7 ⇒ 𝑛 = 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 5 ∙ 7 = 210
8×⏟
𝟐𝟐 𝟐×𝟑 𝟐𝟑 𝟑𝟐
Part C
Convert all fractions on the LHS to have a denominator of 𝐿𝐶𝑀(5! ,6!) = 6!
6𝑥 + 𝑥 1 7𝑥 1 1 1
= ⇒ = ⇒ 7𝑥 = ⇒ 𝑥 =
6! 7! 6! 7! 7 49
Part D
63
Part E
6
Part F
140

Example 1.44
(MCMC): If 2! + 3! + 4! = 2𝑥 and 𝑥 = 𝑛! – 1, then 𝑛 is the smallest:
A. odd natural number
B. prime number
C. odd prime number
D. non-even prime number

2! + 3! + 4! = 2 + 6 + 24 = 32 = 25 ⇒ 𝑥 = 5 = 𝑛! – 1 ⇒ 𝑛 = 3 ⇒ 𝐶, 𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡

Example 1.45
Show that
(2𝑛)! = 2(𝑛2 )(𝑛2 − 1)(𝑛2 − 22 ). . . [𝑛2 − (𝑛 − 2)2 ][(𝑛2 − (𝑛 − 1)2 ]

(2𝑛)! = (1)(2) … (𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛)(𝑛 + 1)(𝑛 + 2) … (2𝑛 − 1)(2𝑛)

Rewrite each term as a difference from 𝑛:

= [(𝒏 − (𝒏 − 𝟏)][(𝒏 − (𝒏 − 𝟐)] … (𝒏 − 𝟐)(𝒏 − 𝟏)(𝑛)(𝒏 + 𝟏)(𝒏 + 𝟐) … [𝒏 + (𝒏 − 𝟐)][(𝒏 + (𝒏 − 𝟏)](2𝑛)

Multiply from the middle:

= (𝑛)(𝒏𝟐 − 𝟏)(𝒏𝟐 − 𝟐𝟐 ) … [𝒏𝟐 − (𝒏 − 𝟐)𝟐 ][(𝒏𝟐 − (𝒏 − 𝟏)𝟐 ](2𝑛)

Multiply the first and the last terms:

= 2(𝑛2 )(𝑛2 − 1)(𝑛2 − 22 ). . . [𝑛2 − (𝑛 − 2)2 ][(𝑛2 − (𝑛 − 1)2 ]

1.2 Factorials: Applications

1.46: Recursive Definition (Multiple Steps)
𝑛! = ⏟
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)! = ⏟ 𝑛(𝑛 − 1) … (𝑛 − 𝑘)(𝑛 − 𝑘 − 1)!
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)! = ⏟
𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑭𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒙𝒑𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒕𝒐 𝒉𝒂𝒗𝒆 (𝒌+𝟐) 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔

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𝑛(𝑛 − 1) … (𝑛 − 𝑘) ⏟
⏟ (𝑛 − 𝑘 − 1)! ⇒ 𝑘 + 2 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
(𝒌+𝟏) 𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒎𝒔 𝟏 𝑻𝒆𝒓𝒎
Suppose 𝑘 = 1:
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)! ⇒ 𝑘 + 2 = 1 + 2 = 3 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠
Suppose 𝑘 = 2:
𝑛(𝑛 − 1)(𝑛 − 2)(𝑛 − 2)! ⇒ 𝑘 + 2 = 2 + 2 = 4 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

A. Number Theory

Example 1.47
There are many four-digit positive integers in which the product of the digits is equal to 5!. What is the sum of
the largest and smallest such four-digit numbers? (MathCounts 2001 Workout 3)

9889

Example 1.48
Let
𝑥 = largest five − digit number with digital product 5!
𝑦 = 𝑠𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑠𝑡 five − digit number with digital product 5!
𝑦=
What is the digital sum of the difference of the?
5! = 120 = 23 × 3 × 5
85311
⏟ − 11358
⏟ = 73953 ⇒ 𝑆𝑢𝑚 = 27
𝑫𝒆𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒔 𝑨𝒔𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒅𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒔

Example 1.49: Divisibility

How many of the factorials from 1! to 1000! are divisible by 10?

1! = 1,2! = 2,3! = 6,4! = 24, ⏟

⏟ 5! = 120, 𝟔! = 𝟔 × 𝟓!, 𝟕! = 𝟕 × 𝟔! … ⇒ 1000 − 4 = 996
⏟
𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝟏𝟎 𝑨𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒅𝒊𝒗𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒃𝒍𝒆 𝒃𝒚 𝟏𝟎 𝐅𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐚𝐥𝐬 𝐝𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐬𝐢𝐛𝐥𝐞
𝐛𝐲 𝟏𝟎

Example 1.50: Last Digit and Last Two Digits

𝑥𝑛 = 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 𝑛!

What is the remainder when:

A. 𝑥100 is divided by 10
B. 𝑥1000 is divided by 100

Strategy
Finding the remainder when dividing by
➢ 10 is the same as finding the Units Digit.
➢ 100 is the same as finding the last two digits

Part A

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Factorials from 5! will not matter since

5! = 120 = 12 × 10
And factorials larger than 5! Are automatically divisible by 10.

Hence, all we need to do is find the Units Digit of

1! + 2! + 3! + 4! = 1 + 2 + 6 + 24 → ⏟
3
𝑼𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒔
𝑫𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒕

Part B
Factorials from 10! Onwards will not matter since they all have at least two zeros at the end of the number.
Hence, all we need to do is find the last two digits of
1! + 2! + 3! + 4! + 5! + 6! + 7! + 8! + 9!

The factorials uptil 5 should be memorized. Beyond this, we only need to calculate the last two digits of the
answer, dropping the digits beyond, since these do not affect the final answer:
1 + 2 + 6 + 24 + 20 ⏟ + 20 ⏟ + 40 ⏟ + 20 ⏟ + 80⏟ → 13 ⏟
𝟐𝟒×𝟓=𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎×𝟔=𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎×𝟕=𝟏𝟒𝟎 𝟒𝟎×𝟖=𝟑𝟐𝟎 𝟐𝟎×𝟗=𝟏𝟖𝟎 𝑳𝒂𝒔𝒕 𝑻𝒘𝒐
𝑫𝒊𝒈𝒊𝒕𝒔

Example 1.51
If the sum of 1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 49! + 50! is divided by 15, what is the remainder? (MathCounts 2009 National
Countdown)

1! + 2! + 3! + ⋯ + 49! + 50! 1! 2! 3! 50!

= + + +⋯
15 15 15 15 15
5!
Every term after has remainder zero.
15
Hence, we

Example 1.52
8750
What is the remainder when the division implied in the reciprocal of 24! + 25! + 26! is carried out?

8750 24! + 25! + 26! 24! (1 + 25 + 25 × 26) 24! (1 + 25 + 25 × 26)

𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑜𝑓 = = =
24! + 25! + 26! 8750 875 × 10 2 × 54 × 7
24! will have one 2, four 5’s, and one 7 in its factorization.
Hence, remainder is zero.

Example 1.53
What is the greatest perfect square that is a factor of 7!? (MathCounts 2009 Warm-up 2)

144

Challenge 1.54
Find the value of 𝑘 if 1! × 2! ×. . .× 20! = 𝑘𝑛2 , where 𝑛 and 𝑘 are natural numbers and 𝑛 is as large as possible.

1! × 2! × … × 20!

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= 1! × 2 × 1! + 3! × 4 × 3! + 5! × 6 × 5! × … × 19! × 20 × 19!
= 2(1!)2 × 4(3!)2 × 6(5!)2 × … × 20(19!)2
Ignore the perfect squares:
= 2 × 4 × 6 × … × 20
= 220 (1 × 2 × … × 10)
10 2
= (2 ) (1 × 2 × 3 × 4 × 5 × 6 × 7 × 8 × 9 × 10)

Note that
4 = 22
9 = 32
2 × 3 × 6 = 36 = 62
5 × 8 × 10 = 400 = 202

The only number left is

7
Hence,
𝑘=7

Example 1.55
Three positive integers 𝑎, 𝑏, and 𝑐 satisfy 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏 ∙ 𝑐 = 8! and 𝑎 < 𝑏 < 𝑐. What is the smallest possible value of 𝑐 −
𝑎?

30^3 < 8! <40^3

(a,b,c) = (32,35,36)

Example 1.56
What three-digit integer is equal to the sum of the factorials of its digits? (MathCounts 2007 Warm-Up 13)

145

B. Counting Arguments

Example 1.57
(𝑛1 )! + (𝑛2 )! = 𝑁, 𝑛1 , 𝑛2 ∈ 𝕎, 𝑛1 ≠ 𝑛2 , 𝑁 < 24,
A. What are the possible values of N?
B. What is the range of N?
C. How many values of N are repeated more than once? What is the reason for the repetition?
D. What is Max(n2) – Min(N)?
Part A
4! = 24
We can go up to 3! (at max):
0! + 1! = 1 + 1 = 2
0! + 2! = 1 + 2 = 3
0! + 3! = 1 + 6 = 7
1! + 2! = 1 + 2 = 3
1! + 3! = 1 + 6 = 7
2! + 3! = 2 + 6 = 8

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Part B
Range(N) = Max(N) – Min(N) = 8 – 2 =6
Part C
Two values (3, 7)
0! = 1!
Part D
Max(n2) – Min(N) = 3 – 2 = 1

Example 1.58
If 𝑛 ⏟
∈ ℕ
⏟ , 2𝑛 ⏟| 2! + 3! + 5! + 2! × 3! × 4!, then the maximum value of 𝑛 is
𝒃𝒆𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒔 𝑺𝒆𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠
𝒕𝒐 𝑵𝒂𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒂𝒍 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒔

The question is asking for the highest power of 2 that divides the given expression.
Calculate the value of the expression:
2! + 3! + 5! + 2! × 3! × 4! = 2 + 6 + 120 + 2 × 6 × 24 = 128 + 288 = 416

Write 416 as a product of its prime factors:

13 × 32 = 13 × 25
And now that the highest power of 2 that divides this expression is 5. Hence:
𝑛=5

Example 1.59
What is the number of prime divisors of 100!

C. Highest power of a number p in factorial n

1.60: Creating a Zero

10 = 2 × 5
10𝑛 = 2𝑛 × 5𝑛

100 = 4 × 25 = 22 × 52
1000 = 8 × 125 = 23 × 53

Example 1.61
Let 𝑆 be the set of prime numbers greater than or equal to 2 and less than 100. Multiply all the elements of 𝑆.
With how many consecutive zeroes will the product end? (CAT 2000)

One zero means that the number is a multiple of 10.

Two zeroes means that the number is a multiple of 100.
And so on.

Factorize 10:
10 = 2 × 5
This is the only way to get a 10.

Prime numbers from 2 to 100 will be:

2,3,5,7, … ,97

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And there is only 1 two, and 1 five among these prime numbers, which will multiply to give
𝑂𝑛𝑒 𝑍𝑒𝑟𝑜

Example 1.62
For how many positive integer values of 𝑛 is 3𝑛 a factor of 15!? (MathCounts 2003 Chapter Countdown)

Expand 15! Using the definition. There are some numbers which are a multiple of 3. Those are the only numbers
that contribute to the number being divisible by 3𝑛 :

15! = 1 × 2 × ⏟
3 ×4×5× ⏟
6 ×7×8× ⏟
9 × 10 × 11 × 12
⏟ × 13 × 14 × 15
⏟
𝟑𝟏 𝟑𝟏 𝟑𝟐 𝟑𝟏 𝟑𝟏

𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 = 1 + 1 + 2 + 1 + 1 = 6

Example 1.63: Number of zeroes at the end of a factorial

How many zeroes are there at the end of 100!?

The only way to get a zero in terms of prime numbers is 5 × 2, or powers of 5 × 2.

Count multiples of 5:
We count multiples of 25 separately, because counting multiples of 5 counts only one 5 from multiples of 25.

⏟× 𝟏 , ⏟
{5 5 × 𝟐,⏟ 5 × 𝟐𝟎} = {1,2,3, … ,20} ⇒ 20 5′ 𝑠
5 × 𝟑,…,⏟
𝟓 𝟏𝟎 𝟏𝟓 𝟏𝟎𝟎

Count multiples of 25:

{5⏟2 × 𝟏 , 5⏟2 × 𝟐 , … , 5⏟2 × 𝟒} ⇒ {1,2,3,4} ⇒ 4 5′ 𝑠

𝟐𝟓 𝟓𝟎 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 20 + 4 = 24

Shortcut:
100 100
+ 2 = 20 + 4 = 24
5 5

Count Multiples of 2
{2,4,6,8, … ,100} = 50
𝑀𝑖𝑛(24,50) = 24

Example 1.64: Highest power of prime 𝒑 in factorial 𝒏

What is the highest power of 2 that divides 100!

100! = 1 ∙ 2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 … ∙ 100

Counting the multiples of different powers of 2:

100
{2, 4, … ,100} ⇒ = 50
2
100
{4,8, … ,100} ⇒ = 25
4
96
{8, 16, … ,96} ⇒ = 12
8

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96
{16,32, … , 96} ⇒ =6
16
96
{32, 64, 96} ⇒ =3
32
64
{64} ⇒ =1
64

50 + 25 + 12 + 6 + 3 + 1 = 97

Example 1.65: Highest power of prime 𝒑 in factorial 𝒏

What is the highest power of 2 that divides 100!

100 100 100 100 100 100

⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋
2 4 8 16 32 64
4 4 4 36
= ⌊50⌋ + ⌊25⌋ + ⌊12 ⌋ + ⌊6 ⌋ + ⌊3 ⌋ + ⌊1 ⌋
8 16 32 64
= 50 + 25 + 12 + 6 + 3 + 1 = 97

Example 1.66: Using the formula

What is the greatest positive integer 𝑛 such that 3𝑛 is a factor of 200!? (MathCounts 2003 State Team)

200 200 200 200

⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋ = 66 + 22 + 7 + 2 = 97
3 9 27 81
𝑛 = 97

Example 1.67
How many zeros are at the end of (100!)(200!)(300!) when multiplied out? (MathCounts 2003 Chapter Team)

100 100 200 200 200 300 300 300

⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋+⌊ ⌋
5 25 5 25 125 5 25 125
75 50
= ⌊20⌋ + ⌊4⌋ + ⌊40⌋ + ⌊8⌋ + ⌊1 ⌋ + ⌊60⌋ + ⌊12⌋ + ⌊2 ⌋
125 125
= 20 + 4 + 40 + 8 + 1 + 60 + 12 + 2 = 147

1.3 Permutations
A. Arrangements

1.68: Permutation
A permutation is an arrangement or a re-arrangement of objects.

For example,
1234 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 1324
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑐𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝐴𝐶𝐵

Example 1.69
⏟ ⏟ ⏟
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
The seating arrangement above shows three chairs. The position of the chairs cannot be changed.

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A. List the ways in which three people 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 can be seated on the chairs. Hence, count the total
number of ways.
B. Separately, count the number of ways that three people 𝐴, 𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 can be seated on the chairs above
using the multiplication principle.

Part A
The only three possible cases are:
A sits first
𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝐴𝐶𝐵
B sits first
𝐵𝐴𝐶, 𝐵𝐶𝐴
C sits first
𝐶𝐴𝐵, 𝐶𝐵𝐴

Part B
Any of the three people can sit on the first chair:
⏟
3 ⏟ ⏟
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
But, once someone sits on the first chair, only two people are left for the second chair:
⏟
3 ⏟2 ⏟
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
And, we really do not have a choice with respect to the last chair, since we are left with only 1 choice for it:
⏟
3 ⏟
2 ⏟
1
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑
And by the multiplication principle, the options for each chair are independent, and hence the total number of
ways is:
⏟
3 × ⏟ 2 × ⏟ 1 = 3 × 2 × 1 = 3! = 6
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑

Example 1.70
𝑇𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤: ⏟ ⏟ ⏟ ⏟
𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
Four people 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐷 are standing in a row above in the given four positions to get a theatre ticket.
A. Count the number of ways in which they can stand using casework, and the answer to the previous
question.
B. Count the number of ways in which they can stand using the multiplication principle.
Part A
D stands first
The remaining three people 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐶 can stand in six ways, which we listed in the previous question:
𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝐴𝐶𝐵, 𝐵𝐴𝐶, 𝐵𝐶𝐴, 𝐶𝐴𝐵, 𝐶𝐵𝐴
A stands first
If A goes first, and D is available to stand among the three people, there is no difference between A and D.
Hence, the number of ways remains
6
B stands first
By similar logic as above, the number of ways is
6

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C stands first
The number of ways is
6

Total Ways
= 6 + 6 + 6 + 6 = 4 × 6 = 24

Part B
⏟
4 ⏟
3 ⏟
2 ⏟
1 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24
𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒

Example 1.71
What is the number of ways of arranging the letters of the word EXAM?

We solved this question in the chapter on counting strategies using a different method. (It would be a good idea
to go back and see that solution to compare).
Method I: Create four places, and arrange the letters in the places
We can arrange the four letters in four places. For the first letter, we have four choices. Once we have placed the
first letter, we only have three choices of place for the second letter. For the third letter, we only have two
choices, and we have no choice for the last letter:
4 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 3 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟ 2 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟ 1 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑳𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑳𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑳𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓

Method II: Create four places, and arrange letters in each place
For the first place, we have four choices of letters. For the second place, we only have three letters to choose
from. For the third place, we need to choose from the two remaining letters. And for the last place, we have no
choice.
4 𝐿𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 3 𝐿𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 × ⏟ 2 𝐿𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 × ⏟ 1 𝐿𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆

Example 1.72
Five boys want to have a photo session. For the photo session, they are going to sit in a row. What is the number
of different ways in which they can get their photo clicked?

Method I (Choices for each seat)

For the first seat, we have a choice among five boys. For the second seat, since we have already chosen a boy, the
number of choices comes down to four, and so on.
⏟
5 × ⏟ 4 × ⏟ 3 × ⏟ 2 × ⏟ 1 = 5! = 120
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ 𝐹𝑖𝑓𝑡ℎ
𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡
Method II (Choices for each boy):
For the first boy, we have a choice of five seats. For the second boy, since one seat is already occupied, the
number of choices comes down to four, and so on.
⏟
5 × ⏟ 4 × ⏟ 3 × ⏟ 2 × ⏟ 1 = 5! = 120
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑭𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉
𝑩𝒐𝒚 𝑩𝒐𝒚 𝑩𝒐𝒚 𝑩𝒐𝒚 𝑩𝒐𝒚

1.73: Arranging 𝒏 objects in a row (Repetition Not Allowed)

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The number of ways of arranging 𝑛 objects in a row, without repetition,

⏟𝑛 × ⏟ 𝑛 − 1 × …× ⏟ 1 = 𝑛!
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝒕𝒉
𝑳𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

The questions above all lead to the same formula, but use different verbs. It is critical to be able to recognize
that the underlying concept remains:
𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑫𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒕 𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒔 𝒘𝒊𝒕𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒑𝒆𝒕𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
Notes:
1. Without repetition is very important. Later on, we will see that the number of ways to arrange 𝑛 objects
in 𝑟 positions, with repetition is 𝑛𝑟 .

Example 1.74
Find the number of ways of arranging the letters of the given words. Give your answer both as a factorial, and as
a number. (Answer each part separately).
A. DELHI
B. FUJI
C. PHOENIX
D. CAT
E. FRESNO

𝐷𝑒𝑙ℎ𝑖: 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5! = 120
𝐹𝑢𝑗𝑖: 4! = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 24
𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑥: 7! = 7 × 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5040
𝐶𝑎𝑡: 3! = 3 × 2 × 1 = 6
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑛𝑜: 6! = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 720

Example 1.75
What is the number of ways of
A. displaying five distinct books on a shelf in a row?
B. Getting six people to sit in a row on six chairs?
C. Giving a gold, silver, and bronze medal to three students (one medal per student)

⏟
5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 5! = 120
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡
𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑘
6! = 720
3! = 6
B. Permutations
If the arrangement involves leaving some vacant positions, then we must fall back on the multiplication
principle.

Example 1.76
Six boys (𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹) are going for a photo session, where they will be sitting in a row, which has six seats.
How many ways are there to take a photo of:
1. Three people, 𝐴, 𝐵 and 𝐶, sitting in exactly three seats, and leaving the other three seats vacant
2. Two people, 𝐵 and 𝐶, sitting in exactly two seats, and leaving the other four seats vacant
3. Four people, 𝐵, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹, sitting in exactly four seats and leaving two seats vacant

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Part 1
⏟ ⏟ ⏟ ⏟ ⏟ ⏟
𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕
𝟏 𝟐 𝟑 𝟒 𝟓 𝟔
The row has six seats. We will have three seats vacant at the end of the process. The first person will have a
choice of six seats to choose from.
Hence, by the multiplication principle, the final number of ways is:
6 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 5 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 × ⏟
4 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 6 × 5 × 4 = 120
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏

Part II
6 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 5 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 6 × 5 = 30
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏

Part III
6 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 5 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 × ⏟
4 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 × ⏟
3 𝑆𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑠 = 6 × 5 × 4 × 3 = 360
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉
𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏

Example 1.77
Four boys 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷 are sitting for a photo session. There are six available seats. The number of ways in which
they can be seated is counted as follows:
6 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡.
5 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑠𝑒𝑎𝑡
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 6 × 5 = 30

Compare with the previous answer, where we got 360. Which one is correct and why?

30 does not take order into account.

The boys can sit in different orders.
(𝐴𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑣, 𝐴𝑟𝑗𝑢𝑛) ≠ (𝐴𝑟𝑗𝑢𝑛, 𝐴𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑣)

Example 1.78
What is the number of ways of arranging the letters of the word EXA in four places? (One place will remain
empty since we are arranging three letters in four places).

We solved a similar question previously. (It would be a good idea to go back and see that solution to compare).
Method I: Create four places, and arrange the letters in the places
We can arrange the three letters in four places. For the first letter, we have four choices. Once we have placed
the first letter, we only have three choices of place for the second letter. For the third letter, we only have two
choices:
4 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 3 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟ 2 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟ 1 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑳𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑳𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝑬𝒎𝒑𝒕𝒚 𝑺𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆

Method II: Create four places, and arrange letters in each place
If we want to use the second method used in the previous question, we need to modify our thinking slightly.
Think of the empty space as containing a blank letter.
Then, we can proceed as usual: for the first place, we have four choices of letters. For the second place, we only
have three letters to choose from. For the third place, we need to choose from the two remaining letters. And for
the last place, we have no choice.
4 𝐿𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 3 𝐿𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 × ⏟ 2 𝐿𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠 × ⏟ 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑡𝑦 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑷𝒍𝒂𝒄𝒆

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1.79: Arranging 𝒓 out of 𝒏 objects (Permutations)

As we can see from the above questions, the number of ways of arranging 𝑟 distinct objects in 𝑛 positions is:
𝑛!
⏟
𝑛 × ⏟ 𝑛 − 1 × …× ⏟𝑛−𝑟+1= = 𝑛𝑃𝑟
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒕𝒉
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
𝑳𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑳𝒐𝒄𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

The above expression is common enough for it to have a concise notation. Therefore, we write:
𝑛!
= 𝑛𝑃𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
⏟
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑛 𝑜𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠

Example 1.80
King’s High School has a ten km marathon with ten participants. What is the number of ways in which the 1𝑠𝑡,
2𝑛𝑑 and 3𝑟𝑑 prize could be distributed (assuming there are no draws)?

Multiplication Principle
10
⏟ × ⏟
9 × ⏟
8 = 720
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒆 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑷𝒓𝒊𝒛𝒆

Formula
We have three prizes to be distributed among ten participants.

Substitute 𝑟 = 3, 𝑛 = 10 in:
𝑛! 10! 10! 10 × 9 × 8 × 7!
= = = = 10 × 9 × 8 = 720
(𝑛 − 𝑟)! (10 − 3)! 7! 7!

Example 1.81
The integers 2 through 9 are each placed in the figure with one integer in each of
the eight smallest triangles. The integers are placed so that the pairs of integers in
each of the four smallest squares have the same sum.
A. Determine one possible arrangement of numbers.
B. Determine the number of possible arrangements.

Part A
The sum of the numbers from 2 through 9 is
2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 + 7 + 8 + 9 = 44

These numbers are divided into four pairs, each of which has the same
total. Hence, the total must be:
44
= 11
4

Hence, the pairs which need to be formed are:

(2,9)(3,8)(4,7)(5,6)
One possible arrangement is shown in the diagram to the right.

Part B

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The number of ways to place the first number is:

8 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
The moment the first number is placed, the number that is paired with it (the second number in the pair) is
forced to go into the other box in the square, and there is no choice with respect to that number.

For the third number (1st number from the second pair), there are
6 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠

Similarly, for the fifth number (1st number from the third pair), there are
4 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠

Finally, for the seventh number (1st number from the fourth pair), there are
2 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠

⏟
8 × 6 × 4 × 2 = 384
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

C. Permutations

Example 1.82: Writing arrangements as Permutations

Convert the number of arrangements below into factorial notation, and hence into permutation notation.
A. Arranging two objects in seven positions
B. Choosing three scientists out of six scientists to fill the role of Team Leader, Assistant Leader, and
Coordinator for a foreign trip

7! 7!
⏟
7 × ⏟
6 =7×6= = = 7𝑃2
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅
5! (7 − 2)!
𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕 𝑶𝒃𝒋𝒆𝒄𝒕
6!
⏟
6 × ⏟
5 × ⏟
4 =6×5×4= = 6𝑃3
𝑻𝒆𝒂𝒎 𝑨𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕 𝑪𝒐𝒐𝒓𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓
3!
𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒓 𝑳𝒆𝒂𝒅𝒆𝒓

Example 1.83: Writing factorials as Permutations

Convert the factorials given below into permutation notation. Also, interpret them as ways of arranging 𝑟 out of
of 𝑛 objects.
8!
A. 3!
10!
B. 2!
7!
C. 6!
12!
D. 4!
99!
E. 57!
23!
F. 12!
1000!
G. 998!

𝑛!
= 𝑛𝑃𝑟
(𝑛 − 𝑟)!
Part A

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8! 8!
= = 8𝑃5
3! (8 − 5)!
Arranging 5 objects in 8 positions

Part B
10! 10! 10
= = 𝑃8
2! (10 − 2)!
Arranging 8 out of 10 objects

Part C
7!
= 7𝑃1
6!
Arranging 1 object out of 7 OR
Arranging 1 object in 7 places
Part D
12! 12
= 𝑃8
4!
Arranging 8 objects out of 12 OR
Arranging 8 objects in 12 places
Part E
99! 99! 99
= = 𝑃42
57! (99 − 42)!
Arranging 42 objects out of 99 OR
Arranging 42 objects in 99 places
Part F
Part G

23! 23 1000! 1000

{, = 𝑃11 , = 𝑃2 }
12! 998!

Example 1.84
Find the values of the permutations below.
{ 12𝑃3 , 7𝑃2 , 10𝑃4 , }
12! 7! 10!
{ 12𝑃3 = = 12 × 11 × 10 = 1320, 7𝑃2 = = 7 × 6 = 42, 10𝑃4 = = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 = 5040}
9! 5! 6!

Challenge 1.85
𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Define a sparse vector as a vector (row of numbers) where the entries are zero, unless specified otherwise. In
how many ways can I arrange the numbers from 1 to 𝑛 in a sparse vector with 𝑛! entries?
A. (𝑛!) × (𝑛! – 1) × … × [𝑛! – (𝑛 − 1)]
B. (𝑛!) × (𝑛! – 1) × … × (𝑛! – 𝑛)
C. 𝑛!𝑃𝑛
D. 𝑛!𝑃𝑛+1

𝑛!
𝑛!
⏟ × 𝑛! 𝑛! – (𝑛 − 1) =
⏟− 1 × …× ⏟ 𝑃𝑛 ⇒ 𝑂𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝐴, 𝐶
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝒏𝒕𝒉
𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

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Example 1.86
An identity matrix with 𝑛 rows and 𝑛 columns has two of its zero elements changed to the values 𝑎 and b, 𝑎 ≠ 𝑏.
Find the number of such matrices that can be created in terms of 𝑛.

1 0 0
1 0
𝑰𝟐 = [ ] , 𝑰𝟑 = [ 0 1 0]
0 1
0 0 1
The number of elements in a 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrix
= 𝑛2
Out of these there are 𝑛 1’s on the diagonal, leaving:
𝑛2 − 𝑛 𝑧𝑒𝑟𝑜 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠

Out of these, two are changed to 𝑎 and 𝑏

(𝑛2 − 𝑛)(𝑛2 − 𝑛 − 1) =

Example 1.87
A 𝑛 × 𝑚 matrix has each of its elements taken from the set {0,1,2, … , 𝑛𝑚 − 1}. Find the number of matrices that
can be created, in terms of 𝑛 and 𝑚.

(𝑛𝑚)!
D. Distinguishability

Example 1.88
Alice, Bob, Chang, and David need to be seated on four chairs, which have been already numbered one to four. In
how many ways can they be seated if:
A. The positions of the chairs and the people are fixed
B. The positions of the chairs are fixed, but the positions of the people are not.
C. The positions of the chairs are not fixed, but the positions of the people are fixed.
D. The positions of the chairs are not fixed, and the positions of the people are also not fixed.

Chairs
Fixed
If the chairs are fixed, then you cannot move them around, and they can arranged in only
1 𝑊𝑎𝑦
Not Fixed
I will have four places for the four chairs, and then they can be arranged in:
4 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 3 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟ 2 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟ 1 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓

People
Fixed
If the people are fixed, then you cannot move them around, and they can arranged in only
1 𝑊𝑎𝑦
Not Fixed
I will have four places for the four people, and then they can be arranged in:
4 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 3 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟ 2 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟ 1 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 = 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 4! = 24
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒔𝒐𝒏

Answers

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Part A
⏟
1 × ⏟
1 =1
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒔 𝑷𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆
Part B
⏟
1 × 24
⏟ = 24
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒔 𝑷𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆
Part C
24
⏟ × ⏟
1 = 24
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒔 𝑷𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆
Part D
24
⏟ × 24
⏟ = 576
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓𝒔 𝑷𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆

Example 1.89
How many ways are there of painting the numbers from 1 to 6 on the six faces of a die using six distinct colors:
A. If the faces are identical.
B. If the faces have a letter from 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸, 𝐹 marked on them beforehand.

Identical Faces
Since the faces are identical, you are only left with the choice of which color to use for which number:
⏟
6 × ⏟ 5 × 4 × 3 × 2 × 1 = 6!
𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐶𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
𝑓𝑜𝑟 1𝑠𝑡 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

Non-Identical Faces
If the faces are not identical, you must combine two choices.
➢ Choice of where to draw each number
➢ Choice of which colour to use for which number

6!
⏟ × 6!
⏟ = (6!)2
𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑜𝑢𝑟
𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

E. Replacement
When selecting an object from a set, the idea of replacement has great theoretical and practical importance.

Example 1.90
A class of ten students selects the individual who will the class monitor by rotation each week. If a month has
four weeks, then what is the number of possible monthly monitor rosters (𝑀𝑀𝑅) if:
A. Monitors may be repeated
B. Monitors may not be repeated

Part A
We may repeat monitors. So, there is no restriction on the set of choices that we have for the monitor:
10
⏟ × 10 ⏟ × 10 ⏟ × 10 ⏟ = 104 = 10,000
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉
𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌 𝑾𝒆𝒆𝒌

Part B
If the monitors cannot be repeated, then every week, our choice of monitor reduces by 1:
10
⏟ × ⏟ 9 × ⏟ 8 × ⏟ 7 = 10 × 9 × 8 × 7 = 5040 = 7!
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑡ℎ
𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑘 𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑘 𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑘 𝑊𝑒𝑒𝑘

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Example 1.91
𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑠 𝑎 𝑚𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑥𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑛𝑜 𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦
Aarav has a box containing the letters of the English Alphabet. He draws three letters from the box. Find the
number of ways he can do this if:
A. He put each letter back after drawing it from the box.
B. He does not put the letters back after drawing them from the box.
C. He puts the first letter back, but not the second letter.
D. He puts the second letter back, but not the first letter.

Part A
The first letter can be any of the letters of the English Alphabet. Once we select the first letter, we place it back
in the box. Hence, we repeat the same process three times, and for each time, we have 26 choices:
26 × 26 × 26 = 263
Part B
Unlike Part A, we do not replace the letter after drawing it from the box. Hence, the number of available letters
keeps decreasing with each draw:
26 × 25 × 24
Part C
You put the first letter back, so for the second draw, you have 26 options.
But you do not put the second letter back, so for the third draw, you only have 25 options.
26 × 26 × 25 = 262 × 25
Part D
You don’t put the first letter back, so for the second draw, you have only 25 options.
You do put the second letter back, so for the third draw, you have 25 options, the same as before
26 × 25 × 25 = 26 × 252

1.4 More with Permutations

A. Identical Objects
We now look at arranging objects when some of the objects are identical.

The number of ways with identical objects will never be more than if the objects are distinguishable.

Example 1.92: Enumeration

What is the number of ways of arranging the letters of the words:
A. 𝐽𝐸𝐸
B. 𝐽𝑬𝑬
In the first part, the two 𝐸′𝑠 are identical: there is no way to distinguish between them. In the second part, the
𝐸′𝑠 are colored, and hence you can distinguish the red E from the blue E.

To arrange, 𝐽𝐸𝐸, I can only choose the position of the 𝐽, giving three arrangements. To arrange, 𝐽𝑬𝑬, I have more
choice:

Part A 𝐽𝐸𝐸 𝐸𝐽𝐸 𝐸𝐸𝐽 3! 6

= =3
2! 2
Part B 𝑱𝑬𝑬 𝑱𝑬𝑬 𝑬𝑱𝑬 𝑬𝑱𝑬 𝑬𝑬𝑱 𝑬𝑬𝑱 3! = 6

Example 1.93: Enumeration

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What is the relation between the number of ways to arrange 𝐽𝐸𝐸 and the number of ways to arrange 𝐽𝑬𝑬?

𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠(𝐽𝑬𝑬)
𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠(𝐽𝐸𝐸) =
2

Example 1.94: Logical Method

What is the number of ways of arranging the letters of the words:
A. DEAR
B. DEER

The number of ways of arranging DEAR is:

4! = 24
Imagine that the 𝐸’𝑠 are distinct:
𝐷𝐸1 𝐸2 𝑅 → 𝐶𝑎𝑛 𝑏𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑛 4! = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Arrangements in which the two 𝐸’s get interchanged are indistinguishable. Therefore, we are overcounting by
the number of ways in which we can arrange two 𝐸’s.
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠(𝐷𝐸1 𝐸2 𝑅) 4! 24
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠(𝐷𝐸𝐸𝑅) = = = = 12
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠(𝐸1 𝐸2 ) 2! 2

1.95: Permutations with alike objects

The number of arrangements for alike objects is overcounted the number of times that the alike objects could
have been arranged (if they were distinct).

No. of ways to arrange 𝒏 objects, out of which 𝒙, 𝒚 and 𝒛 objects are alike is:
𝑛!
𝑥! 𝑦! 𝑧!

Example 1.96: Repetition in Letters

Find, in factorials, what is the number of ways in which we can arrange the letters of:
A. AIIMS
B. BANANA
C. ALABAMA
D. MISSISSIPPI
E. MASSACHUSETTS

AIIMS
If the letters of AIIMS had all been distinct, we could have arranged them in 5! ways.
But, because the two I’s are not distinct, we have to divide by the number of ways we can arrange two distinct
I’s among themselves:
5!
=
2!
BANANA
If the letters of BANANA had all been distinct, we could have arranged them in 6! ways.
But, because the two N’s are not distinct, we have to divide by the number of ways we can arrange two distinct
N’s among themselves = 2!
Similarly, because the three A’s are not distinct, we have to divide by the number of ways we can arrange three
distinct A’s among themselves = 3!

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𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝐴1 𝑁1 𝐴2 𝑁2 𝐴3 6!
=
𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 × 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁1 𝑁2 3! 2!
ALABAMA
𝐴(𝐴1 𝐿𝐴2 𝐵𝐴3 𝑀𝐴4 ) 7!
= = 7 × 6 × 5 = 210
𝐴(𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴4 ) 4!
MISSISSIPPI
Call the number of ways of arranging 𝑀𝐼1 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝐼2 𝑆3 𝑆4 𝐼3 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝐼4 as 𝐴(𝑀𝐼1 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝐼2 𝑆3 𝑆4 𝐼3 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝐼4 )

𝐴(𝑀𝐼1 𝑆1 𝑆2 𝐼2 𝑆3 𝑆4 𝐼3 𝑃1 𝑃2 𝐼4 ) 11!
=
𝐴(𝐼1 𝐼2 𝐼3 𝐼4 ) × 𝐴(𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆4 ) × 𝐴(𝑃1 𝑃2 ) 4! 4! 2!
MASSACHUSETTS
𝐴(MA1 S1 S2 A2 CHUS3 ET1 T2 S4 ) 13!
=
𝐴(𝐴1 𝐴2 ) × 𝐴(𝑆1 𝑆2 𝑆3 𝑆4 ) × 𝐴(𝑇1 𝑇2 ) 2! 4! 2!

Example 1.97: Arranging Games

I have seven identical copies of 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑢𝑟’𝑠 𝐺𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐼, and ten identical copies of 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑢𝑟’𝑠 𝐺𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐼𝐼. I want to display
them on a shelf to celebrate the release of 𝐵𝑎𝑙𝑑𝑢𝑟’𝑠 𝐺𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝐼𝐼𝐼. In how many ways can I do this? (Answer in
factorial form).

17!
7! 10!

Example 1.98: Repetition in Letters

Let 𝑋 be the number of ways that the letters of THIRUVANANTHAPURAM can be arranged and 𝑌 be the number
𝑋
of ways that the letters of TRIVANDRUM can be arranged. Find 𝑌 .

𝐴(T1 H1 IR1 U1 VA1 𝑁1 A2 N2 T2 H2 A3 PU2 R 2 A4 M) 𝐴(TR1 IVANDR 2 UM)

:
𝐴(𝑁1 𝑁2 ) × 𝐴(𝑇1 𝑇2 ) × 𝐴(𝐻1 𝐻2 ) × 𝐴(𝑅1 𝑅2 ) × 𝐴(𝑈1 𝑈2 ) × 𝐴(𝐴1 𝐴2 𝐴3 𝐴4 ) 𝐴(𝑅1 𝑅2 )

𝟏𝟖! 𝟏𝟎!
:
𝟐! 2! 2! 2! 2! 4! 𝟐!
18 × 17 × 16 × 15 × 14 × 13 × 12 × 11
:1
2! 2! 2! 2! 4!
= 18 × 17 × 15 × 7 × 13 × 11: 1
= 18 × 17 × 15 × 1001: 1

Example 1.99
I have three copies of Tℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑐ℎ (William Shirer), and two copies of
𝐿𝑒𝑠 𝑀𝑖𝑠é𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑠(Victor Hugo). In how many ways can I arrange these books on a shelf if:
A. The books are identical, and I cannot distinguish between them.
B. The books are autographed by the author, with a distinct address to the owner of the book

If the books are identical, we must divide by the number of ways they can be arranged among themselves:
5!
2! 3!
If the books are autographed, and the addresses are distinct, then we can distinguish between the books, and
the number of ways to arrange them is:

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5!

Example 1.100
There are seven wombats in a council. Three of them are hairy-nosed wombats, while the rest are all different
species. If the hairy-nosed wombats are indistinguishable but the other wombats are, how many ways can the
wombats seat themselves in a row? (AOPS Alcumus, Counting and Probability, Correcting for Overcounting with
Division)

The number ways to arrange seven wombats, out of three are indistinguishable, and four are distinguishable is
the same as:
The number of ways to arrange seven letters, out of which three are repeated.
7!
3!

Example 1.101
I have five friends who are sitting in a row to get their photo taken. Two of them are twins, and three of them
are triplets. Find the number of ways that they can take the photo shoot from the points of view given below:
A. The photographer can tell the twins apart from the triplets, but not distinguish between them.
B. The twins can distinguish between themselves, but not among the triplets.
C. The triplets can distinguish between themselves, but not among the twins.
D. The twin’s parents, who can distinguish between the twins, and also distinguish among the triplets.

5! 5! 5!
𝐴: , 𝐵: , 𝐶: , 𝐷: 5!
2! 3! 3! 2!

Example 1.102: Painting Faces of Dice

I have a standard six-sided die, with faces numbered one to six. In how many ways can I paint two faces of the
die:
A. With no restrictions
B. So that the sum of the numbers painted is a prime number
C. So that the sum of the numbers painted is not 7
D. So that the product of the numbers painted is not 6

Part A
I need to select two faces out of the six available faces. This can be done in:
6 × 5 = 30 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

But, once painted, the faces cannot be distinguished.

(6,1) = (1,6)

Hence, we need to divide by the number of faces:

6×5
= 15
2

Part B
1+2=3
1 + 4 = 5,2 + 3 = 5
1 + 6 = 7, 2 + 5 = 7,3 + 4 = 7
5 + 6 = 11

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7 ways in all
Part C
1 + 6 = 7, 2 + 5 = 7,3 + 4 = 7 ⇒ 3 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

= 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 − 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑖𝑠 7 = 15 − 3 = 12

Part D
(1)(6) = (2)(3) = 6 ⇒ 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
6×5
− 2 = 15 − 2 = 13
2

B. Choosing from Identical/Alike Objects

If objects are identical, or equivalently, alike, you cannot distinguish between them. Hence, this will reduce the
number of choices available for selection.

Example 1.103: Borrowing books from a library

A library has twelve identical copies of 𝐻𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑦 𝑃𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑃ℎ𝑜𝑒𝑛𝑖𝑥, seven identical copies of
the 𝐿𝑜𝑟𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑠, and four identical copies of the 𝑂𝑙𝑑 𝑀𝑎𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑎. What is the number of ways that:
A. The books can be arranged
B. Three friends can each borrow distinct books?

Part A:
If we had 23 distinct books, we could have arranged them in
23! 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

But, since the books are identical, we need to divide by the number of ways in which the books can be arranged
among themselves:
23!
12! 7! 4!
Part B:
Since the copies are identical, we cannot distinguish between them, and hence the choice in books comes down
to the choice of title.
⏟
3 × ⏟ 2 × ⏟ 1 = 3! = 6
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅
𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅

Example 1.104: Borrowing books from a library

A library has four copies of 𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝐸𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑒, six copies of The Lord of the Flies, and
three copies of The Art of War. What is the number of ways:
A. Three friends can each borrow a book
B. Three friends can each borrow distinct titles
C. The books can be arranged in a row
Answer each question under two different assumptions (for two different answers):
I. Copies are identical
II. Copies are distinct
Part A: Three Friends borrow a book each
Assumption I: Copies are identical
If books with different but same titles look the same, then the only choice that remains is the choice of title.
Because there are multiple copies of each title, the titles can be repeated.
Hence, the total number of ways is:

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⏟
3 × ⏟
3 × ⏟
3 = 33 = 27
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅
𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅
Assumption II: Copies are distinct
The number of choices for each friend is:
13
⏟ × 12
⏟ × 11
⏟ = 1716
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅
𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅

Part B: Borrow distinct titles

Assumption I: Copies are identical
⏟
3 × ⏟
2 × ⏟
1 = 3! = 6
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅
𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅
Assumption II: Copies are distinct
We first choose the title:
⏟
3 × ⏟
2 × ⏟
1 = 3! = 6
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅
𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝑭𝒓𝒊𝒆𝒏𝒅
Choice of Book within Title:
⏟
4 × ⏟
6 × ⏟
3 = 72
𝑫𝒆𝒄𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑳𝒐𝒓𝒅 𝒐𝒇 𝑨𝒓𝒕 𝒐𝒇 𝑾𝒂𝒓
𝑭𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑭𝒍𝒊𝒆𝒔
Total No. of Ways
6 × 72 = 432
Part C: Arranging books
Assumption I: Copies are identical
13!
4! 6! 3!
Assumption II: Copies are distinct
13! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

C. Always in a particular order

Example 1.105
Find the number of ways in which four people (𝑃, 𝑄, 𝑅, 𝑆) can be seated such that 𝑅 is always to the right of 𝑃.

Enumeration
We can list out all the possible ways in which four people can be arranged 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠:

Start with P Start with Q Start with R Start with S

PQRS PRQS PSQR QPRS QRPS QSPR RPQS RQPS RSPQ SPQR SQPR SRPQ
PQSR PRSQ PSRQ QPSR QRSP QSRP RPSQ RQSP RSQP SPRQ SQRP SRQP
Total 6 6 6 6
Valid 6 3 0 3

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 6 + 3 + 0 + 3 = 12
Overcounting
The total number of ways to arrange four letters is:
4! = 24

Every arrangement of four letters includes within it the letters 𝑅 and 𝑃. These two letters, without
consideration to the arrangement of the other letters can be arranged in

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(𝑅,
⏟ 𝑃) , (𝑃,
⏟ 𝑅) ⇒ 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅

Note that for every arrangement with (𝑅,

⏟ 𝑃) there is an arrangement with (𝑃,
⏟ 𝑅).
𝑵𝒐𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒅
Hence, the final answer is:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 4!
= = 12
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 2!

Example 1.106
In how many ways can the letters in the word 𝑐𝑎𝑠𝑒 be arranged so that the vowels are all in alphabetic order.

𝑒 𝑚𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑏𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎

This is the same question as the previous example:
12

Example 1.107
In how many ways can the letters in the word 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑢𝑠 be arranged so that the vowels are all in
A. alphabetic order
B. reverse alphabetic order
C. alphabetic order or reverse alphabetic order

The total number of ways to arrange four letters is

9!

Part A
We can internally arrange {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} is 5! ways. But we only want one way out of this.
(𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢)
Hence, the final answer is:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 9!
=
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 5!
Part B
We can internally arrange {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} is 5! ways. But we only want one way out of this.
(𝑢, 𝑜, 𝑖, 𝑒, 𝑎)
Hence, the final answer is:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 9!
=
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 5!

Part C
We can internally arrange {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} is 5! ways. But we only want two ways out of this.
(𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢) , (𝑢, 𝑜, 𝑖, 𝑒, 𝑎)

Hence, the final answer is:

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 9!
= ×2
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 5!

D. Arranging Numbers

Example 1.108

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What is the number of ways in which we can obtain unique four-digit numbers from the digits 1, 2, and 3 if any
one of the digits is to be repeated twice?

The number of ways of making numbers with 1,2,3,4 is

4! = 24

The number of ways of making numbers with 1,1,2,3 (since one digit is repeated):
4!
= 12
2!

The number of ways of making numbers with 1,2,2,3 (since one digit is repeated):
4!
= 12
2!

The number of ways of making numbers with 1,2,3,3 (since one digit is repeated):
4!
= 12
2!
Total number of ways
= 12 + 12 + 12 = 12 × 3 = 36

Example 1.109
Permutations with the Multiplication Rule and Addition Rule
Sum of Numbers in Units Digits
Sum of Face Values of Digits
Sum of Place Values of Digits

E. Rank of a Permutation

1.110: Alphabetical/Dictionary Arrangement of Permutations

We can arrange the permutations
➢ of a set of letters the way they be arranged in a dictionary.
➢ Of a set of numbers in ascending or descending order

If we arrange the permutations of the letters of any word as in a dictionary (that is, alphabetically), then we can
obtain the position at which the word itself would be listed.

1.111: Rank of a Permutation

Rank of a permutation is the position at which the given arrangement will occur if the permutations are
arranged in alphabetical order.

Example 1.112
A. List the permutations of {𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶} in dictionary order. What is the rank of 𝐵𝐶𝐴?
B. Consider the three-digit numbers formed by 2,7,0 where all three digits are used and digits are not
repeated. List these numbers in ascending order. What is the rank of 702?

Part A
𝑃(𝐴𝐵𝐶) = {𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝐴𝐶𝐵, 𝐵𝐴𝐶, 𝑩𝑪𝑨, 𝐶𝐴𝐵, 𝐶𝐵𝐴}
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 4
Part B

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{207 < 270 < 702 < 720}

𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 3

Example 1.113: Rank of a Word

What is the 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 of each word below:
A. AIIMS
B. JEE
C. NEET
D. WITH

AIIMS
This is arranged alphabetically.
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 1
JEE
Arrangements starting with E
𝐸𝐸𝐽, 𝐸𝐽𝐸 ⇒ 2 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
𝐽𝐸𝐸 ℎ𝑎𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘 3
NEET
The number of arrangements starting with E are
3! = 6
NEET is 1st arrangement with N:
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑘 = 6 + 1 = 7
WITH
Starting with H, I, & T
= 3! 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ = 3! × 3 = 18
Starting with WH
= 2! = 2
Starting with WIH
=1
WITH
= 18 + 2 + 1 + 1 = 23𝑛𝑑 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

Example 1.114
If the letters of the word 𝑀𝑂𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑅 be permuted and all the words so formed (with or without meaning) be
listed as in a dictionary, then the position of the word 𝑀𝑂𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑅 is: (JEE Main 2005; JEE Main 2016; JEE Main
April 8 2017; JEE Main, Sep 02, 2020-I; JEE Main Sep 06, 2020-I)

𝑀 𝑂 𝑇 𝐻 𝐸 𝑅
Remaining 5 4 3 2 1 0
Letters
Letters Before 𝐸, 𝐻 = 2 𝐸, 𝐻 = 2 𝐸, 𝐻, 𝑅 = 3 𝐸=1 0 0
M
2 × 5! 2 × 4! 3 × 3! 1 × 2! 0 0

Number of arrangements before 𝑀𝑂𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑅

= 240 + 48 + 18 + 2 = 308

𝑀𝑂𝑇𝐻𝐸𝑅 = 308 + 1 = 309

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Example 1.115
The letters of the word 𝑀𝐴𝑁𝐾𝐼𝑁𝐷 are written in all possible orders and arranged in serial order as in a
dictionary. Then, the serial number of the word 𝑀𝐴𝑁𝐾𝐼𝑁𝐷 is: (JEE Main, July 25, 2022-I)

𝑀 𝐴 N 𝐾 𝐼 𝑁 𝐷
Remaining 6 5 4 3 2 1
Letters
Letters Before
M

The letters of 𝑀𝐴𝑁𝐾𝐼𝑁𝐷 when arranged in alphabetical order are:

𝐴, 𝐷, 𝐼, 𝐾, 𝑀, 𝑁

First Letter
We want the first letter to be 𝑀. Hence, we need to count the number of arrangements which have any of
𝐴, 𝐷, 𝐼 𝑜𝑟 𝐾 as the first letter.

Suppose 𝐴 is the first letter. The number of remaining letters is 6. The 𝑁 occurs repeated twice. The number of
words is:
6!
2!
If 𝐷, or 𝐼, or 𝐾 are respectively the first letter, then the number of arrangements remains the same:
6! 720
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 4 × = 4 × = 1440
2! 2

Second Letter
We want the second letter to be 𝐴. This is already in alphabetical order. Hence, there is nothing to count here.

Third Letter
Remaining letters are
𝐷, 𝐼, 𝐾, 𝑁, 𝑵
The letters which come before 𝑁 are 𝐷, 𝐼, 𝐾. Each of these will create
4!
𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠
2!
4!
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 3 × = 3 × 12 = 36
2!
Fourth Letter
Remaining letters are
𝐷, 𝐼, 𝑲, 𝑁
𝑴𝑨𝑵𝐾𝐼𝑁𝐷
The letters which come before 𝐾 are 𝐷, 𝐼 . Each of these will create
2 × 3! = 2 × 6 = 12

Fifth Letter
𝐷, 𝐼, 𝑁
𝑴𝑨𝑵𝑲𝐼𝑁𝐷

The letter which comes before 𝐼 is only 𝐷, 𝐼 . Each of these will create

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1 × 2! = 2

Sixth Letter
𝑴𝑨𝑵𝑲𝑰𝐷𝑁, 𝑴𝑨𝑵𝑲𝑰𝑁𝐷,

Seventh Letter
There is no choice here. The only letter left must go in the seventh position.

1440 + 36 + 12 + 2 = 1491
1491 + 1 = 1492

Example 1.116: Rank of a Number

Rank of a permutation when digits of a number are arranged

1.5 Restricted Permutations

Example 1.117
How many nonnegative n digit integers are there, 𝑛 is a natural number?

We can define this piece-wise as

10, 𝑛 = 1
𝑓(𝑛) = {
9 × 10𝑛−1 , 𝑛 > 1

A. Positional Restrictions
Certain objects are often restricted due to given conditions to only fit into certain positions.

1.118: Prioritizing Restrictions

The rule of thumb when considering restrictions is:
➢ Take care of the restrictions before you do the counting.
➢ If there are multiple restrictions, try to take care of the most restrictive condition first.

➢ Questions with restrictions require large amounts of practice.

➢ There is no “method” that deals with all restrictions.
➢ Specific restrictions have specific techniques to help reduce the counting.

1.119: Specific Groups in Specific Positions

Certain groups can be restricted to specific positions

Example 1.120
Ali, Bonnie, Carlo, and Dianna are going to drive together to a nearby theme park. The car they are using has 4
seats: 1 Driver seat, 1 front passenger seat, and 2 back passenger seats. Bonnie and Carlo are the only ones who
know how to drive the car. How many possible seating arrangements are there? (AMC 8 2003/16)

Take care of the restriction first. We must have someone in the driver’s seat who knows how to drive the car,
bringing down our choices from 4 to 2.
2 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
⏟
𝑫𝒓𝒊𝒗𝒆𝒓′ 𝒔 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕

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Once, we have decided the driver, then there are no restrictions, and hence the remaining three people can sit in
the remaining three seats in:
3 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
⏟ × ⏟
2 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟ 1 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒 = 3! = 6
𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒏𝒕 𝑷𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒆𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒓 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑩𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝟏 𝑩𝒂𝒄𝒌 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝟐

The total number of choices will be, by the multiplication rule:

2 × 6 = 12

Complementary Counting:
If Ali is the driver, there are three people seated in three seats, which can be done in:
3! = 6 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Similarly, if Dianna is the driver, then the remaining three people can be seated in the remaining three seats,
again in
3! = 6

By complementary counting, the number of ways that work is:

4!
⏟ − ⏟ 6 − ⏟
6 = 24 − 12 = 12
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑙𝑖 𝑖𝑠 𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑎 𝑖𝑠
𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝐷𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟

1.121: At One End

If a particular object out of 𝑛 objects must be at the end of an arrangement with 𝑝 places:
➢ Put the required object at the end.
➢ Arrange the remaining 𝑛 − 1 objects in the remaining 𝑝 − 1 places

1.122: At Either End

If a particular object out of 𝑛 objects must be at either end of the arrangement:
➢ Place the particular object at an end, which can be done in 2 ways.
➢ Arrange the remaining 𝑛 − 1 objects in the remaining 𝑝 − 1 places

Example 1.123: Objects at the ends

Five girls, of whom Anshika is one, are seated in a row. Find the number of possible arrangements if Anshika
must always:
A. occupy the left end.
B. be seated at one of the ends.

Part A
Once we fix Anshika as below:
⏟
𝐴𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑘𝑎 × ⏟ × ⏟ × ⏟ × ⏟
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑭𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓

Remaining 5 − 1 = 4 girls to be arranged in four positions, which can be done in

4! = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
Part B
Anshika can sit either on the left or on the right.
𝑂𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡: 𝐴𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑘𝑎
⏟ × ⏟ × ⏟ × ⏟ × ⏟
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑭𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓

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𝑂𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡: ⏟ × ⏟ × ⏟ × ⏟ × 𝐴𝑛𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑘𝑎

⏟
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉 𝑭𝒊𝒇𝒕𝒉
𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓 𝑪𝒉𝒂𝒊𝒓

In either case, the remaining girls can be arranged in 4! ways

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 4! × 2 = 24 × 2 = 48

1.124: Even/Odd Positions

If a class of objects must always be in the odd positions, and another class in the even positions, then:
➢ Arrange the class of objects in odd positions among themselves in 𝑥 ways
➢ Arrange the class of objects in even positions among themselves in 𝑦 ways

Since any arrangement of the odd positions can be combined with any arrangement of the even positions, the
final answer
= 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑤𝑜 = 𝑥𝑦 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 1.125: Even and Odd Positions

Three boys and two girls are seated in a row. Find the number of possible arrangements if the boys occupy the
odd positions.

𝐵𝑜𝑦 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙 𝐵𝑜𝑦 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙 𝐵𝑜𝑦

Now, the boys can be internally arranged in 3! ways

Girls can be internally arranged in 2!
3!
⏟ × 2! ⏟ = 6 × 2 = 12
𝐵𝑜𝑦𝑠 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙𝑠

B. Objects never and always included

1.126: Object never included

When an object is never included, it need not be considered as a part of the analysis.
However, it must be reduced from the available list of objects.

Example 1.127
Sam has seven history books. He decides to display three of them on a bookshelf, but is not going to include
𝑅𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐹𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑖𝑐ℎ 𝑏𝑦 𝑊𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑎𝑚 𝑆ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑟 since the copy is falling to pieces. In how many ways can
he make his display?

There are in all seven books, of which for display, we have only
7 − 1 = 6 𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑠

And then we can arrange the books in

6 × 5 × 4 = 120

Example 1.128: Distinguishability

𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
At a dog show, five dogs each of ⏟
𝐿𝑎𝑏𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑜𝑟 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟, 𝐷𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑑
⏟ , 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑐ℎ
⏟ 𝐵𝑢𝑙𝑙𝑑𝑜𝑔, ⏟
𝑆ℎ𝑖ℎ 𝑇𝑧𝑢, 𝐶ℎ𝑖ℎ𝑢𝑎ℎ𝑢𝑎
⏟ , and
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 1 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 2 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 3 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 4 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 5

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𝑀𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑆𝑐ℎ𝑛𝑎𝑢𝑧𝑒𝑟 are competing. The first three species are Large Dogs, while the next three are Small
⏟
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 6
Dogs.
What is the number of ways in which the 1st and 2nd prizes can be distributed among Small Dogs if:
A. Each dog can be distinguished using the markings on its coat.
B. Individual dogs cannot be distinguished, but different species of dogs can be distinguished.
C. If it is known that the dog winning the 1st prize is from a different species compared to the dog winning
the second prize, how will the answers change for
I. Part A
II. Part B

The large dogs are not a part of the Small Dogs category, so we can just exclude them from the analysis.

The number of dogs in the small dogs category is:

⏟
3 × ⏟
5 = 15
𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝑫𝒐𝒈𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓
𝑺𝒎𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝑫𝒐𝒈 𝑺𝒑𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒆𝒔

Part A
15
⏟ × 14
⏟ = 210
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒

Part B
Since individual dogs cannot be distinguished, you only have a choice of species when distributing the prizes.
⏟
3 × ⏟
3 = 9
𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑠

Part C
15
⏟ × 10
⏟ = 150
1𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒
⏟
3 × ⏟
2 =6
1𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒 2𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑒

1.129: Object always included

Arrange
➢ the object which is always included
➢ the remaining objects in the remaining spaces.

Example 1.130
I am going to arrange three out of eleven books on a shelf. My favorite book, 𝐺𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑊𝑖𝑛𝑑, must be
included. How many ways can I arrange the books?

Step I: Gone with the Wind

⏟ , ⏟ , ⏟
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 1 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 2 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 2
Place it in one of the three places:
3 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Step II: Arrange Remaining Two Books

Fill the remaining two places with two books from the remaining ten books:
10 𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 9 𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑠 = 10 × 9 = 90
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 1 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 2

Multiply the Two Parts

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By the multiplication principle:

3 × 90 = 270

Example 1.131
A group has eleven students, out of whom two study chemistry and the rest study physics. At least two students
of each subject must be included. Five students are to be seated on a row of chairs such that at least two
students of each subject are selected. A single student studies only one subject at a time. In how many ways can
this be done?

The two chemistry students must be selected. They can be seated in

5 × 4 = 20 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

The number of ways to arrange the remaining three seats will be:
9 × 8 × 7 = 504

By the multiplication principle, the total number of ways is:

504 × 20 = 10,080

C. Objects Always Together

Example 1.132
I have five triangles numbered 1 to 5. How many ways can I arrange the triangles in a row such that Triangle 1
and Triangle 2 are always together?

Color triangles 1 and 2 say blue. Color all other triangles green. Forget about the numbers for now.

There are four valid arrangements for the blue triangles:

⏟
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 , ⏟
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 , ⏟
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫 , ⏟
𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫
𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟏 𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟐 𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟑 𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝟒

Also, the blue triangles can be arranged among themselves:

2! = 2

Also, the green triangles can be arranged among themselves:

3! = 6

And, hence the final answer is

4 × 2 × 6 = 48

1.133: 2 Objects Always Together

To arrange 𝑛 objects such that 2 objects are always together:
➢ Tie a string around the 2 objects
➢ The number of objects has reduced by 1
➢ Arrange the resulting 𝑛 − 1 objects
➢ Arrange the 2 objects among themselves in 2! ways.

Example 1.134

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I have five triangles numbered 1 to 5. How many ways can I arrange the triangles in a row such that Triangle 1
and Triangle 2 are always together?

Color triangles 1 and 2 say blue. Color all other triangles green. Forget about the numbers for now.

Tie a rope around the two blue triangles. They have one become object since they will only move together. We
can then arrange 𝚫𝚫𝚫𝚫, which is four objects in
4! = 24 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

But recall that the blue triangle actually is two triangles tied together, and the two triangles can be arranged
among themselves in
2! = 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
And hence, the final answer is:
24 × 2 = 48

Example 1.135
I have two Math books, a Physics book, and a Chemistry book. In how many ways can I pile the books so that the
Math books are always together?

Tie a rope around the two Math books, which leaves us, effectively, with
4 − 1 = 3 𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑠
These three books can be arranged in:
3! = 6
And the two Math Books can be arranged among themselves, in
2! = 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
Hence, the total number of ways is
6 × 2 = 12 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 1.136
Seven dogs are to be arranged in a row for a dog show. The dogs can be distinguished from each other using
their tags. If there are two beagles in the show, and they must always be adjacent, what is the number of ways in
which the dogs can be arranged?

Tie a rope around the two beagles, which leaves us, effectively, with
7 − 1 = 6 𝐷𝑜𝑔𝑠

These six dogs can be arranged in:

6! = 720
And the two beagles can be arranged among themselves, in
2! = 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
Hence, the total number of ways is
720 × 2 = 1440

Example 1.137
𝐴𝑛𝑠𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦
A group of 6 friends goes for a photo shoot and sit in 6 chairs. The identical twins Isabel and Mary insist on
sitting next to each other in separate chairs. In how many ways can this be done if Isabel and Mary
A. can be distinguished from each other
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B. cannot be distinguished from each other

Part B
Tie a rope around Isabel and Mary. We are left with 5 people to be seated in five positions, which can be done in
5! = 120 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

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Part A
We can decide how Isabel and Mary sit among themselves in
2! = 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Hence, by the multiplication principle, the final answer is:

120 × 2 = 240 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 1.138
A group of 6 friends goes for a photo shoot and six chairs are available. Isabel and Mary both insist on sitting on
the same chair, and hence one chair has two people sitting on it. Everyone else occupies a “single” chair (as per
usual). In how many ways can this be done?

Since there are five chairs that will be occupied, choose the empty chair in:
6 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

We now need to arrange six people in five chairs such that Isabel and Mary are in the same chair. This is exactly
what we calculated in the previous question with Isabel and Mary next to each other (but in different chairs)
= 240 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

By the multiplication principle, the final answer is:

6 × 240 = 1440 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 1.139
I have 𝑛 objects to be arranged in a row, out of which two objects must always be together. In terms of 𝑛, How
many ways can I arrange the objects?

Tie a rope around the two objects, which leaves us, effectively, with
𝑛 − 1 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠
The remaining 𝑛 − 1 objects can be arranged in:
(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
And the two objects can be arranged among themselves, in
2! = 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
Hence, the total number of ways is
2(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

1.140: 3 Objects Always Together

To arrange 𝑛 objects such that 3 objects are always together:
➢ Tie a string around the 3 objects
➢ The number of objects has reduced by 2
➢ Arrange the resulting 𝑛 − 2 objects
➢ Arrange the 3 objects among themselves in 3! ways.

Example 1.141
I have five triangles numbered 1 to 5. How many ways can I arrange the triangles in a row such that Triangles 1,
2 and 3 are always together?

(5 − 2)! = 3! = 6
3! = 6

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62 = 36

Example 1.142
Seven dogs are to be arranged in a row for a dog show. The dogs can be distinguished from each other using
their tags. If there are three beagles in the show, and they must always be adjacent, what is the number of ways
in which the dogs can be arranged?

Tie a rope around the three beagles, which leaves us, effectively, with
7 − 2 = 5 𝐷𝑜𝑔𝑠
These five dogs can be arranged in:
5! = 120

And the three beagles can be arranged among themselves, in

3! = 6 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Hence, the total number of ways is:

120 × 6 = 6! = 720

Example 1.143
I have three Math books, two Physics books, and a Chemistry book. In how many ways can I pile the books so
that the Math books are always together?

Tie a rope around the three Math books, which leaves us, effectively, with
6 − 2 = 4 𝐵𝑜𝑜𝑘𝑠
These four books can be arranged in:
4! = 24
And the three Math Books can be arranged among themselves, in
3! = 6 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
Hence, the total number of ways is
24 × 6 = 144 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 1.144
I have 𝑛 objects to be arranged in a row, out of which 𝑟 objects must always be together. In terms of 𝑛 and 𝑟, in
how many ways can I arrange the objects?

1.145: 3 Objects Always Together

To arrange 𝑛 objects such that 𝑟 objects are always together:

Tie a rope around the 𝑟 objects, which leaves us, effectively, with
𝑛 − (𝑟 − 1) 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠

Which can be arrange in

(𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)! 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

And the 𝑟 objects can be arranged among themselves, in

𝑟! 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
Hence, the total number of ways is:
𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟 + 1)! 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

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Example 1.146
Professor Chang has nine different language books lined up on a bookshelf: two Arabic, three German, and four
Spanish. How many ways are there to arrange the nine books on the shelf keeping the Arabic books together
and keeping the Spanish books together? (AMC 8 2018/16)

Since the Arabic books are always together, tie a rope around them, and consider them as one book.
Similarly, since the Spanish books are always together, tie a rope around them, and consider them as one book.

The number of books is then:

⏟
3 + ⏟
1 + ⏟
1 =5
𝐺𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑐 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛𝑖𝑠ℎ
Which can be arranged in
5! = 120 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

The Arabic books can be arranged among themselves in

2! = 2 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
The Spanish books can be arranged among themselves in
4! = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

The total number of ways (by the multiplication principle) is:

120 × 2 × 24 = 240 × 24 = 5760 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 1.147
Four boys and two girls are seated in a row. Find the number of possible arrangements if the boys must always
be together, and the girls must always be together.

There are three things to arrange here:

➢ Do the boys come first, or the girls come first
✓ 2! = 2 choices
➢ Arranging the boys among themselves
✓ 4! = 24 choices
➢ Arranging the girls among themselves
✓ 2! = 2 choices

Then, by the multiplication principle:

2 × 24 × 2 = 96 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

D. Objects Never Together

Counting the number of ways in which two objects are not together is usually complicated and will require
casework. But this can be avoided by using complementary counting.

1.148: 2 Objects Never Together

The number of ways that two objects in a row are never together is
𝑁𝑜𝑡 𝑇𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟

Note that two objects can be to

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝑇𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 + 𝑁𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑇𝑜𝑔𝑒𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟
Rearranging the above gives us the result that we want.

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Example 1.149
A class dinner is to be arranged with six students sitting in a row. However, Alice and Betty, who are former best
friends and now sworn enemies refuse to sit next to each other. In how many ways can the six students be
arranged?

The total number of ways to arrange six people is:

6! = 720

Out of which, the number of ways in which Alice and Betty are together is
(6 − 1)! × 2 = 5! × 2 = 120 × 2 = 240

Hence, the number of ways in which they are never together is:
720 − 240 = 480

Example 1.150
Compare the two situations below, and state the difference between the two:
A. Ten students are to be seated in a row for an exam, and the sixth graders must never be together.
B. Ten students are to be seated in a row for an exam, and the sixth graders must never all be together.

Part A
No two students of sixth grade must be together.
This makes sense for an exam, because students from the same grade are likely to have the same paper.

Part B
You must not have a situation where all four of the sixth graders are seated consecutively.

Example 1.151
Four boys and two girls are seated in a row. Find the number of possible arrangements if the boys are never all
together.

Consider the four boys as a single object. There are then three objects to arrange. In addition, the four boys can
be arranged among themselves in 4! ways
(6 − 3)! ×
⏟ ⏟
4! = 6 × 24 = 144
𝟐 𝑮𝒊𝒓𝒍𝒔+ 𝑾𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆
𝟏 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝒐𝒚𝒔 𝟒 𝑩𝒐𝒚𝒔

Use complementary counting. The number of ways in which the boys are never all together
= 720
⏟ – ⏟144 = 576
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑨𝒍𝒘𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝑻𝒐𝒈𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓

Example 1.152
Four boys and two girls are seated in a row. Find the number of possible arrangements if the girls are never all
together

5!
⏟ × ⏟
2! = 120 × 2 = 240
4 𝐵𝑜𝑦𝑠+ 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒
1 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙 2 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙𝑠

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Complementary Counting
720 – 240 = 480

1.153: Gap Method

Example 1.154
Four girls and three boys are to sit in a row. What is the number of ways in which this can be done
A. if no two girls are together
B. Boys and girls must alternate
C.

Part A
For two girls not be together, a boy must be between two girls:
𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
⏟ 𝐵𝑜𝑦
⏟ 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
⏟ 𝐵𝑜𝑦
⏟ 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
⏟ 𝐵𝑜𝑦
⏟ 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
⏟
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1

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⏟
4 ⏟3 3 − 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙 ⏟
⏟ 2 − 𝐵𝑜𝑦 ⏟
2 − 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙 ⏟
1 − 𝐵𝑜𝑦 ⏟
1 − 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1

3!
⏟ × 4!
⏟
𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝑜𝑦𝑠 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙𝑠
Part B
𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑎𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡 𝐴

Example 1.155
Four boys and three girls are to sit in a row. What is the number of ways in which this can be done if no two
boys are together?

The number of ways to arrange the girls in four positions is 4!, and they can be arranged as below:
𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
⏟ 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
⏟ 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
⏟ 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
⏟
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 4

Now, the boys can be introduced next to the girls, in the positions marked × below.
× 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙
⏟ × 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙 ⏟ × 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙 ⏟ × 𝐺𝑖𝑟𝑙 ⏟ ×
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 1 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 2 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 3 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 4

There are five positions and three boys, so we will be able to arrange them in
5 × 4 × 3 = 60 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 4! × 60

E. Review

Example 1.156
Find the number of ways of arranging three boys and four girls in a row if:
A. There are no restrictions
Sitting Together
B. The boys must be together and the girls must be together
C. The boys must be together
D. The girls must be together
Sitting at the end - Boys
E. There must be a boy on the left end
F. There must be a boy on the right end
G. There must be a boy on both ends
H. There must be a boy on at least one end

No Restrictions
7! = 5040

Boys must be together and girls must be together

Either the boys can come first, or the girls can come first = 2 = 2! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
And the boys can be arranged among themselves in 3! Ways
Similarly, the girls can be arranged among themselves in 4! Ways

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𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 = 2!
⏟ × 3!
⏟ × 4!
⏟
𝑾𝒂𝒚𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝟑 𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝟒
𝒂𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝟐 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒑𝒔 𝑩𝒐𝒚𝒔 𝑮𝒊𝒓𝒍𝒔

Boys must be together

We can decide the starting position for the group of boys, for which we have five choices.
We can arrange the boys among themselves in 3! Ways
We can arrange the girls in the remaining four places in 4! ways

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 = ⏟
5 × 3!
⏟ × 4!
⏟
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝟑 𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝟒
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑩𝒐𝒚𝒔 𝑩𝒐𝒚𝒔 𝑮𝒊𝒓𝒍𝒔

Girls must be together

This is similar to the boys being together, except that we only have four starting positions for the girls:
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 = ⏟
4 × 3!
⏟ × 4!
⏟
𝑺𝒕𝒂𝒓𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑷𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒔 𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝟑 𝑨𝒓𝒓𝒂𝒏𝒈𝒆 𝟒
𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑮𝒊𝒓𝒍𝒔 𝑩𝒐𝒚𝒔 𝑮𝒊𝒓𝒍𝒔

Boy sitting at the left end

We have three choices for a boy sitting at the left hand. Once the boy sits there, there are no further restrictions,
and we can sit the remaining six people in 6! ways
⏟
3 × 6!
⏟
𝑳𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝑬𝒏𝒅 𝑩𝒐𝒚 𝑹𝒆𝒎𝒂𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝒔𝒊𝒙 𝒑𝒆𝒐𝒑𝒍𝒆

Symmetry: Boy sitting at the right end

By symmetry, the boy sitting at the right end is the same as the boy sitting at the left end. Hence, the answer will
be the same.
Note: Symmetry is a very useful and very powerful concept.

Boys sitting at both ends

⏟
3 × ⏟
2 × 5!
⏟
𝐹𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑃𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒

Boy sitting at least one end

3⏟× 6! + 3⏟× 6! − 6⏟× 5! = 6 × 6! − 6 × 5! = 6(6! − 5!) = 6(720 − 120) = 6(600) = 3600

𝑩𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒕 𝑩𝒐𝒚 𝒂𝒕 𝑩𝒐𝒚𝒔 𝒂𝒕
𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒓𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝒆𝒏𝒅 𝒃𝒐𝒕𝒉 𝒆𝒏𝒅

F. Non-Consecutive Objects

1.6 Rotational Symmetry

A. Circular Arrangements

1.157: 𝒏 people around a Circular Table

The number of ways to arrange 𝑛 people around a circular table is
(𝑛 − 1)!

𝑛 people sitting in a row can be arranged in

𝑛! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

But, a circular table can be rotated 𝑛 ways to create

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𝑛 indistinguishable arrangements.

Hence, the number of ways to arrange 𝑛 people around a circular table:

𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑟𝑜𝑤 𝑛!
= = = (𝑛 − 1)!
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑛

𝐶𝐴𝐵, 𝐵𝐶𝐴, 𝐴𝐵𝐶

(Alternate) 1.158: 𝒏 people around a Circular Table

The number of ways to arrange n people around a circular table is
(𝑛 − 1)!

We can arrive at the same result by using a different line of reasoning. If the table has a distinguishing mark on
it, then rotating the table creates a distinct arrangement (not an indistinguishable one)
➢ Create a distinguishing mark by having one person choose a seat.
➢ Arrange remaining (𝑛 − 1) people in (𝑛 − 1)! Ways

Example 1.159
In how many ways can six people be seated around a circular table?
In how many ways can seven people be seated around a circular table?

6!
= 5! = 120
6
(7 − 1)! = 6! = 720

Example 1.160
In how many ways can a seventh person join six people already seated around a circular table? Assume that a
chair will be added for the seventh person to sit at the place that he will sit.

6 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 1.161
Alice, Beatrice, Catherine, and David are seated around a circular table. In how many distinct ways can they do
this?

𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑃𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑅𝑜𝑤 4!

= = 3! = 6
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 4

B. Seating a selection of people

1.162: 𝒏 people, sitting 𝒓 at a time, around a Circular Table

The number of ways to arrange 𝑛 people around a circular table is
𝑛
𝑃𝑟
𝑟

Method I: Permutations
The number of ways to arrange 𝑟 people out of 𝑛 people in a row is:
𝑛
𝑃𝑟

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Since the table can be rotated 𝑟 ways to get 𝑟 identical arrangements, we are overcounting by a factor of 𝑟:
𝑛
𝑃𝑟
𝑟
Method II: Combinations
No. of ways to select 𝑟 people out of 𝑛 people:
𝑛
=( )
𝑟

No of ways of seating 𝑟 people around a circular table:

= (𝑟 − 1)!

Total Ways, by the multiplication principle:

𝑛
𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑃𝑟
= ( ) × (𝑟 − 1)! = × (𝑟 − 1)! = =
𝑟 𝑟! (𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟(𝑛 − 𝑟)! 𝑟

Example 1.163
In how many ways can I get four of six people invited to a party to sit
A. In a row
B. Around a circular table?

Part A
Number of Ways to arrange four people in a row
= ⏟ 6 × ⏟ 5 × ⏟
4 × ⏟
3 = 360
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉
𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕

Part B
We use the number of ways to seat the four people in a row (calculated in Part A above), and divide that by the
overcounting factor:
𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑖𝑥 𝑃𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑅𝑜𝑤 360
= = 90
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 4

Example 1.164
A hotel has invited 8 guests for its anniversary commemoration. It has a row of four seats, and a circular table
with four seats. In how many ways can the guests be seated if the hotel uses:
A. only the row of seats
B. only the table
C. both the row and table

Part A: Row of Seats

⏟
8 × ⏟
7 × ⏟
6 × ⏟
5 = 1680
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉
𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕

Part B: Circular Table

We can arrange four out of 8 people around a circular table in:
⏟
8 × ⏟ 7 × ⏟ 6 × ⏟ 5
𝑭𝒊𝒓𝒔𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅 𝑻𝒉𝒊𝒓𝒅 𝑭𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒕𝒉
𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝑺𝒆𝒂𝒕
= 420
4

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Part C: Row of Seats and the Circular Table

Seat people around the circular table, which can be done in:
420 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Then, out of the eight people, we have seated four people, and we are left with four people.
These four people who can be seated in a row in
24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Hence, the total number of ways is:

420
⏟ × ⏟
24 = 10,080
𝑪𝒊𝒓𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝑹𝒐𝒘
𝑻𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆

C. Always Together and Never Together

Example 1.165
There are five people seated around a circular table, out of which 𝐴 and 𝐵 must always to be together. Count the
number of ways in which this can be done.

Tie a rope around 𝐴 and 𝐵, so that they are always together. Then we now have
5 − 1 = 4 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

Arranging 4 people around a circular table can be done in

(4 − 1)! = 3! = 6 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

But 𝐴 and 𝐵 can be arranged among themselves in

2! = 2 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Hence, the total number of ways is

6 × 2 = 12 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 1.166
There are six people seated around a circular table, out of which 𝐴 and 𝐵 must never be together. Count the
number of ways in which this can be done.

Method I: Complementary Counting

Always Together
Tie a rope around 𝐴 and 𝐵, so that they are always together. Then we now have:
6 − 1 = 5 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒

Arranging 5 people around a circular table can be done in

(5 − 1)! = 4! = 24 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

But A and B can be arranged among themselves in

2! = 2 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Hence, the total number of ways is

24 × 2 = 48 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

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Total
The total number of ways to arrange six people around a table is
(6 − 1)! = 5! = 120

Complementary Counting
By complementary counting, the number of ways to arrange so that 𝐴 and 𝐵 are never together is:
120 − 48 = 72 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Method II: Direct Method

Let the people be 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹. Arrange 𝐴𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹 around the table in
(5 − 1)! = 4! = 24 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

And then B can be added in exactly three positions, making the total
number of ways
= 3 ∙ 24 = 72 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 1.167
A group of ten students includes triplets Alex, Alison and Alice
wearing black, white, and yellow t-shirts respectively. They are to be seated in groups of five around two tables:
one green and one red. The triplets insist on sitting together. Determine the number of seating arrangements
possible. Write your answer as a prime factorization in exponent form.

Choosing the groups

The group with the triplets needs two additional people to be chosen in:
10 − 3 7
( ) = ( ) = 21 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
2 2

Seating the non-triplet group

Five people can sit around a circular table in
(5 − 1)! = 4! = 24 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Seating the triplets

Since the triplets must sit together, consider them as one person:
5 − 2 = 3 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 ⇒ (3 − 1)! = 2! = 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

The triplets are distinguishable and can be arranged among themselves in 3! = 6 ways. The total number of
ways of seating the triplets, by the multiplication principle is:
2 × 6 = 12

Choosing the table

We have the following two choices:
(𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛: 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡, 𝑅𝑒𝑑: 𝑁𝑜𝑛 − 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡), (𝑅𝑒𝑑: 𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡, 𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛: 𝑁𝑜𝑛 − 𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒𝑡)
2 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Final Answer
21 × 24 × 12 × 2 = 26 × 33 × 71

Example 1.168
The Maths Club biennial meeting is attended by the Coach, the Coordinator and six students, two of whom are

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the President and the Vice-President. The coach, Coordinator, President and Vice President are Office Bearers.
Condition I: The coach, and the coordinator must sit next to each other
Condition II: The President and the Vice President must not sit next to each other.
Condition III: No two Office Bearers must sit next to each other.

Find the number of valid seating arrangements that satisfy:

A. Condition I
B. Condition II
C. Condition I and II
D. Condition III

Tie a rope around the teacher and the coordinator. This means they will always be next to each other.
Hence, we only have seven people to be seated.

D. Alternating Objects

1.169: Types of Objects

In a seating arrangement, you may classify people into different categories (male vs female, boy vs girl, married
couples, etc) and impose conditions on the seating arrangement based on those classifications.

Example 1.170
Four boys and four girls are to be seated at a circular table such that boys and girls alternate. Determine the
number of possible arrangements.

For the person at 𝐴: (any gender)

8 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

For the person at B (opposite gender to A)

4 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

The final answer (including dividing by the overcounting factor of 8) is:

8∙4∙3∙3∙2∙2
= 144 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
8

Example 1.171
Four boys and four girls are to be seated at a circular table such that boys and girls alternate. Alice and Darcy
are of opposite gender and must sit next to each other. Determine the number of possible arrangements.

E. Paired Couples Opposite Each Other

Example 1.172
Four married couples (eight people) are to be seated at a circular table such that spouses are opposite each
other. Determine the number of possible arrangements.

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The first seat has a choice of

8 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 → 8 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠

The second seat has a choice of

6 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 → 6 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠

The third seat has a choice of

4 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 → 4 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠

The fourth seat has a choice of

2 𝑝𝑒𝑜𝑝𝑙𝑒 → 2 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠

The final answer (including dividing by the overcounting factor of 8) is:

8∙6∙4∙2
= 48 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
8

Example 1.173
𝑛 married couples (2𝑛 people) are to be seated at a circular table such that spouses are opposite each other and
people seated next to other are of opposite gender. Determine the number of ways this can be done if:
A. 𝑛 = 1
B. 𝑛 = 2
C. 𝑛 = 3

Part A
2! 2
= =1
2 2

Part B
Assuming 𝑀𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 and 𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 the couples are:
{𝑀1 , 𝐹1 }{𝑀2 , 𝐹2 }

If 𝑀1 sits at the top of the table, 𝐹1 must sit opposite him, and then there is no valid
arrangement for the other two positions. Hence,
𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑖𝑏𝑙𝑒 ⇒ 0 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠

Part B
Assuming 𝑀𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝑀1 , 𝑀2 , 𝑀3 and 𝐹𝑒𝑚𝑎𝑙𝑒 = 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3
the couples are:
{𝑀1 , 𝐹1 }{𝑀2 , 𝐹2 }{𝑀3 , 𝐹3 }

For the first person, you have

6 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠

For the person next to the first person, you have

2 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠

For the third person, onwards, you have

1 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒 ⇒ 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑑

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The final answer (including dividing by the overcounting factor of 8) is:

6∙2
= 2 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
6
F. Repeated Objects

Example 1.174
In how many ways can four identical blue chairs and four identical red chairs be arranged around a circular
table?

8!
4!
⏟ × 4!
⏟
𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐵𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠 𝑅𝑒𝑑 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑖𝑟𝑠

G. Specific Places

Example 1.175

H. Definition

1.176: Rotational Symmetry

Example 1.177
Does the object possess rotational symmetry?

1.178: Order of Rotational Symmetry

Example 1.179
Counting order for geometrical shapes

Example 1.180
Counting order for people seated around a table

Example 1.181
Counting order for table with distinguishing mark

1.7 Reflectional Symmetry

A. Definition

1.182: Reflectional Symmetry

Reflection symmetry occurs when objects can be reflected to create an arrangement that is indistinguishable
from the original arrangement.

If you have people sitting in a row, reflecting the arrangement does not give you the same arrangement:
𝐴𝐵𝐶 ⇔ 𝐶𝐵𝐴

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1.183: Arranging beads on a necklace

The number of ways that 𝑛 distinct beads can be arranged to form
a necklace is
(𝑛 − 1)!
2

n distinct beads/keys be arranged on a necklace/keychain, can be

arranged in
(𝑛 − 1)! 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠
However, necklaces have reflectional symmetry, so we are overcounting by a factor of two.

(𝑛 – 1)!
Ways to arrange 𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠 on a necklace =
2

Example 1.184: Reflectional Symmetry

A necklace has 10 beads of different colours. To create an equivalent arrangement, in how many ways, without
changing the relative position of the beads, can the necklace be
A. Reflected
B. Rotated
C. Reflected and Rotated

A = 2, B = 10, C = 10 * 2 = 20

Example 1.185: Reflectional Symmetry

In how many ways can:
A. Five distinct beads be arranged to form a necklace that includes all five?
B. Five identical beads be arranged to form a necklace that includes one or more of them?

(5 − 1)! 4! 24
= = = 12
2 2 2
Since they are identical, the only option is to include more or less of them.
So, five ways.

Concept Example 1.186

Match the columns
Type of Object Symmetry
1. Circular Table I. Rotational
2. Necklace II. Reflectional
A. 1→I, II, 2→I
B. 1→I, 2→I, II
C. 1→I, 2→II
D. 1→I, II 2→II
Circular objects have rotational symmetry. Necklaces have both rotational and reflectional symmetry.
Hence, option B.

B. Special Shapes

Example 1.187

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Starfish

1.8 Equations and Algebra with Permutations

A. Properties of Permutations

1.188: Arranging Zero Objects

𝑛
𝑃0 = 1

The number of ways to arrange zero objects out of 𝑛 objects is 1.

𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑃0 = = =1
(𝑛 − 0)! 𝑛!

1.189: Arranging 𝒏 objects out of 𝒏

𝑛
𝑃𝑛 = 𝑛!

Number of ways to arrange 𝑛 distinct objects is n!:

𝑛 𝑛! 𝑛! 𝑛!
𝑃𝑛 = = = = 𝑛!
(𝑛 − 𝑛)! 0! 1!

B. Equations and Algebra with Permutations

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2. PATHS
2.1 Paths on Lattice Grids
A. Summary of Shortest Path Wordings
Review this after the chapter is over (not now).

2.1: Shortest Path Language

Some ways to write that Jack must take the shortest path to Jill are:
➢ Jack will always move either north or east.
➢ Jack will always move either up or right.
➢ Jack takes the shortest path possible.
➢ Jack takes a 5-step path on the given lines with each step consisting of
a movement from one dot to another dot on the path.
➢ Jack takes a path without backtracking.
➢ Jack always moves on the given lines, so that he moves closer to Jill.

B. Shortest Path

2.2: Paths on a Grid

Paths on a grid are a standard application of permutations and combinations. We list down certain assumptions
that the basic varieties follow:
Arrangements
➢ There is a rectangular arrangement of streets.
➢ Streets intersect at right angles to each other.
Movement
➢ The intersection of streets is where you can turn.
➢ You can move left, right, up, and down. You cannot move diagonally. You can only move towards your
objective.
➢ You need to take the shortest route.

There are many variations on the above question, which change or relax the assumptions given, but we will
address this in later questions.

Example 2.3
Consider the rectangular arrangement of streets shown at the right.
A. What is the minimum number of “hops” needed to travel from A to
B?
B. List all the shortest routes beginning with A, and ending with B.

Part A
The minimum of number of hops is 4. For example, a route that 4 hops is:
𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝑃
𝑃 𝑡𝑜 𝑄
𝑄 𝑡𝑜 𝑅
𝑅 𝑡𝑜 𝐵

In short form, we can write this as:

𝐴𝑃𝑄𝑅𝐵
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Part B
Like this, we can list other routes:
𝐴𝑃𝑂𝑅𝐵
𝐴𝑃𝑂𝑍𝐵
𝐴𝑋𝑌𝑍𝐵
𝐴𝑋𝑂𝑅𝐵
𝐴𝑋𝑂𝑍𝐵

2.4: Travelling in One Direction Only

If you can travel only right (and not left), and only up (and not down), you will need to travel via a shortest
path.

Example 2.5
Listing out the ways in which you can go from A to B can get very cumbersome
if you have a lot of points. Try counting the number of paths using
A. Multiplication rule
B. Permutations

Multiplication Rule
Paths from A (go either to P or to X)
=2

Paths from P are:

1 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝑄, 2 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝑂
Similarly, Paths from X are:
1 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝑌, 2 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑣𝑖𝑎 𝑂

Hence, the final answer is

⏟
2 × ⏟
3 =6
𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠
𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑆𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑃𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

2.6: Right and Up Notation

𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 → 𝑅
𝑈𝑝 → 𝑈

Example 2.7
Write the path APQRB using R and U

𝐴𝑃𝑄𝑅𝐵 ↔ 𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅

C. Number of Shortest Paths

We now introduce a formula for counting the number of paths in a grid. But don’t memorize. Do this based on
the concept.

2.8: Number of Paths in a Grid

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In a grid with a rectangular arrangement like the one shown, the number of
paths with 𝑅 right’s and 𝑈 up is
(𝑅 + 𝑈)!
𝑅! 𝑈!

Example 2.9
A street layout has straight streets that intersect at right angles to each other (see
diagram). What is the number of ways that Tanvi can go from the bottom left of
the grid (Point A) to the top right (Point B) using the shortest path?

The shortest path has two Rights and two Ups, which we can write in short form as
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 𝑈 = 𝑈𝑝 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑈𝑈
Permutations
Any valid shortest part must be a rearrangement of:
𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑅 ′ 𝑠
⏟ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑤𝑜 𝑈 ′ 𝑠
⏟
𝑹=𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑴𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝑼=𝑼𝒑 𝑴𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕

Which is given by
𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠(𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑈1 𝑈2 ) 4! 24
= = =6
)
𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠(𝑅1 𝑅2 × 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠(𝑈1 𝑈2 ) 2! × 2! 4

Combinations
We need to have four steps in our part, like this
⏟ ⏟ ⏟ ⏟
𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡 1 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡 2 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡 3 𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑡 4
If we place R’s in any two of the four slots, then the remaining slots must automatically be occupied by the U’s.
Hence, the number of paths is the same as the number of ways to select two objects out of four objects, which is
given by
4 4×3
( )= =6
2 2

Example 2.10
Consider a street layout like the one that Tanvi has (see question above). Find the number of ways that you can
travel, if you want to go three units up, and four units to the right.

Draw a diagram (seen alongside).

Use U for Up, and R for Right.
Three Units can be represented as
𝑈𝑈𝑈
Four Units right can be represented as
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
And hence any valid path must be a rearrangement of
𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
Which is given by
7! 7 × 6 × 5 × 4! 7 × 6 × 5
𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 4 𝑅 ′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 3 𝑈 ′ 𝑠 = = = = 35
4! 3! 4! × 3! 6

Example 2.11

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Consider a street layout like the one that Tanvi has (see question above). Find the number of ways that you can
travel if you want to go:
A. three units down, and two units to the right.
B. Two units down, and five units to the right.
C. One unit up and five units to the right.
D. Ten units up and two units to the right.

Part A
There are three D’s, and two R’s, giving us:
𝐷𝐷𝐷𝑅𝑅
The DDDRR can be arranged in 5! Ways.
But this overcounts by the number of ways in which
➢ the three D’s can be arranged among themselves, which is:
3!
➢ the two R’s can be arranged among themselves, which is:
2!

And hence the final answer is

5! 5×4
= = 10
3! 2! 2

Part B
7! 7×6
= = 21
2! 5! 2
Part C
6! 6
= =6
1! 5! 1
Part D
12! 12 × 11
= = 66
2! 10! 2

Example 2.12
In the adjoining figure, the lines represent one-way roads allowing travel only
northwards or only westwards. Along how many distinct routes can a car
reach point B from point A? (CAT 2004/68)

𝑈𝑝 3 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 = 3 𝑈′𝑠
𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 5 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠 = 5 𝐿′ 𝑠

These can be arranged in 8! Ways. And to account for overcounting:

8! 8∙7∙6
= = 56
3! 5! 6

D. Restrictions

Example 2.13
An ant begins its path at A, travels only right or down, and remains on the line
segments shown. The number of different paths from 𝐴 to 𝐶 that pass through
𝐵 is: (CEMC Gauss 7 2020/10)

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⏟
2 × ⏟
2 =4
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎
𝑨 𝒕𝒐 𝑩 𝑩 𝒕𝒐 𝑪

Example 2.14
Zeus starts at the origin (0, 0) and can make repeated moves of one unit either up, down, left, or right, but
cannot make a move in the same direction twice in a row. For example, he cannot move from (0, 0) to (1, 0) to
(2, 0). What is the smallest number of moves that he can make to get to the point (1056, 1007)? (Gauss Grade 8
2016/23)

Note the restriction on not making a move in the same direction twice in a row:
𝑅𝑅 → 𝑛𝑜𝑡 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑
𝑅𝑈𝑅 → 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑑

Calculate the Minimum

To reach (1056,1007), Zeus must make:

1056𝑅, 1007𝑈

But, the 1056 right moves have minimum 1055 other moves in between them.
𝑅 − 𝑅 − 𝑅 − ⋯ − 𝑅 ⇒ 1055 𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 1056 𝑅′𝑠

Achieve the Minimum

We now show that the minimum is possible:
⏟
1056 + 1007
⏟ + 24
⏟ + 24
⏟ = 2,111
𝑹𝒊𝒈𝒉𝒕 𝑼𝒑 𝑼𝒑 𝑫𝒐𝒘𝒏

Example 2.15: Tinseltown

Read the information below and answer the questions that follow.
People in Tinseltown are guaranteed to use the shortest route possible for going
from one place to another. The diagram of Tinseltown shows the rectangular layout
of the streets. The green zone is in the middle, while the remaining area is the
business district.
Note 1: Going from 𝐴 to 𝐵 means going up 9 times, and going right 6 times.
Note 2: Write your answers in factorial notation

A. (𝑁𝑜 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠) Vikram wants to go from 𝐴 to 𝐵. Find the number of

possible shortest paths he can take.
B. (𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ 𝑎𝑙𝑤𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡) Danish likes greenery. So, he wants
to go through 𝐺1 . Find the number of paths going from 𝐴 to 𝐵 that Danish
can take.
C. (𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑎 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡) Simon likes greenery, but not the traffic that piles up at 𝐺1 , so he
does not want to go through that intersection. Find the number of shortest paths going from 𝐴 to 𝐵 that
Simon can take.
D. (𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠) Shannon likes greenery even more than Danish. He wants both
𝐺1 and 𝐺2 on his route. Find the number of shortest paths for Shannon going from 𝐴 to 𝐵.

Part A
9 𝑅 ′ 𝑠 and 6 𝑈′𝑠 can be arranged in:

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(9 + 6)! 15!
=
9! 6! 9! 6!
Part B
The number of paths:
6! 9!
𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐺1 = , 𝐺𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝐺1 𝑡𝑜 𝐵 =
4! 2! 5! 4!
And, by the multiplication rule, the final answer is:
6! 9! 6! 9!
× =
4! 2! 5! 4! (4!)2 2! 5!
Part C
15! 6! 9!
−
9! 6! (4!)2 2! 5!
Part D
6! 5! 4! 6! 5! 4!
× × = 4
⏟
4! 2! ⏟
3! 2! ⏟
2! 2! 2 3! 4!
𝐹𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑭𝒓𝒐𝒎
𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝐺1 𝑮𝟏 𝒕𝒐 𝑮𝟐 𝑮𝟐 𝒕𝒐 𝑩

2.16: Questions without a Diagram

If the question does not give a diagram, then you should draw your own.

Example 2.17
Jack wants to bike from his house to Jill's house, which is located three blocks east and two blocks north of
Jack's house. After biking each block, Jack can continue either east or north, but he needs to avoid a dangerous
intersection one block east and one block north of his house. In how many ways can he reach Jill's house by
biking a total of five blocks? (AMC 8 2014/11)

The total number of ways for Jack (including the dangerous intersection) is:
5! 5∙4
= = 10 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
3! 2! 2

The number of ways for Jack to reach the dangerous intersection is

2

The number of ways for Jack to reach Jill from the dangerous intersection
3! 6
= = =3
2! 1! 2

The total number of ways to reach Jill via the dangerous intersection
=2×3=6

Use complementary counting. The number of ways that do not go through the dangerous intersection
= 10 − 6 = 4

Example 2.18
Samantha lives 2 blocks west and 1 block south of the southwest corner of City Park. Her school is 2 blocks east
and 2 blocks north of the northeast corner of City Park. On school days she bikes on streets to the southwest
corner of City Park, then takes a diagonal path through the park to the northeast corner, and then bikes on
streets to school. If her route is as short as possible, how many different routes can she take? (AMC 8 2013/21)

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For Samantha, the number of ways

To go from her house to A:
3! 3
= = =3
2! 1! 1
To go from A to B is
𝐸𝑥𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑙𝑦 1
To go from B to the school is
4! 4∙3
= = =6
2! 2! 2

The total number of ways is:

3 × 6 = 18 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 2.19
In the above question, why are the dimensions of the part not important?

Irrespective of the length and the width of the park,

there is one way to go through it, which is the
diagonal.

Hence, the dimensions are not important.

E. More Restrictions (Challenging)

Example 2.20
Read the information below, and answer the questions that follow.
The figure shows the plan of a town. The streets are at right angles
to each other. A rectangular park (𝑃) is situated inside the town
with a diagonal road running through it. There is also a prohibited
region (𝐷) in the town.
A. Neelam rides her bicycle from her house at A to her office
at B, taking the shortest path. Then, the number of shortest
paths she can choose is (CAT 2008/5)
B. Neelam rides her bicycle from her house at 𝐴 to her club at
𝐶, via 𝐵 taking the shortest path. Then the number of possible shortest paths she can choose is: (CAT
2008/6)

Part A
By the Pythagorean Theorem, a diagonal path will be shorter than the corresponding side-paths. Hence, the
diagonal path through P become mandatory. By the Multiplication Rule
4! 6!
× ⏟
1 × = 6 × 15 = 90
⏟
2! 2! ⏟
2! 4!
𝐼𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘
𝐴 𝑡𝑜 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑘 𝑡𝑜 𝐵

Part B

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As before, we are interested in the shortest path. Hence

➢ Paths that go to the left of the prohibited region (Minimum 10
Steps) will not work
➢ Since they will be longer than paths that go via the right side
of the prohibited region (8 Steps)
Paths from B to C
On the left side of the prohibited region, there are two choices of path
for Neelam:
➢ 𝐵−𝑀−𝐶
➢ 𝐵−𝑁−𝐶
𝑩−𝑴−𝑪
A path which goes via M, must go via K only. Neelam has to make a left turn at some point in her journey. For
this, she has
6 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝑩−𝑵−𝑪
Neelam has to make a left turn at some point in her journey. For this, she has
7 𝐶ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠
The total number of ways that Neelam can go from B to C is
⏟
6 + ⏟
7 = 13
𝐵−𝑀−𝐶 𝐵−𝑁−𝐶

Paths from A to C
By the multiplication rule, the number of paths from A to C is given by:
90
⏟ × 13
⏟ = 1170
𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎 𝑷𝒂𝒕𝒉𝒔 𝒇𝒓𝒐𝒎
𝑨 𝒕𝒐 𝑩 𝑩 𝒕𝒐 𝑪

Example 2.21
Consider the same diagram as given in the original question above. Now
suppose the diagonal road is blocked. Find the number of shortest paths
from 𝐴 to 𝐵.

F. Geometry

Example 2.22
One face of a cube contains a circle, as shown. This cube rolls without sliding on a four-by-four checkerboard.
The cube always begins a path on the bottom left
square in the position shown and completes the
path on the top right square. During each move,
an edge of the cube remains in contact with the
board. Each move of the cube is either to the right
or up. For each path, a face of the cube contacts
seven different squares on the checkerboard,
including the bottom left and top right squares. The number of different squares that will not be contacted by
the face with the circle on any path is (Gauss Grade 7 2013/24)

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G. Three-Dimensional Grid

2.23: Number of Shortest Paths in a 3D Grid

In a three-dimensional grid with a rectangular arrangement, the number of paths with 𝑅 right’s, F Forward’s
and 𝑈 up’s is
(𝑅 + 𝐹 + 𝑈)!
𝑅! 𝐹! 𝑈!

Example 2.24
Consider a 3𝐷 coordinate system. What is the number of shortest paths that go from the origin (0,0,0) to (2,3,4)
if you can only travel one unit in any direction at a time, and you jump from one lattice point to another only.

Note: A lattice point is a point where the coordinates of the points are in integers.

𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑋 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑋𝑋

𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑋 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑌𝑌𝑌
𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑍 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍

I need to arrange the above:

𝑋𝑋𝑌𝑌𝑌𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍

9! 5×6×7×8×9
= = 5 × 7 × 4 × 9 = 1260
2! 3! 4! 2×6

Example 2.25
Consider a 3𝐷 coordinate system. What is the number of shortest paths that go from (1,2,3) to (3,5, −1) if you
can only travel one unit in any direction at a time.

3 − 1 = 2 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑋𝑌 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

5 − 2 = 3 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑌 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
−1 − 3 = −4 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑍 𝑑𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑍𝑍𝑍𝑍

Example 2.26
A spaceship is (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (0,0,0) in a coordinate system. It wants to reach (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (2,3,4) in the coordinate
system. At each minute, the spaceship can travel one unit in the positive 𝑥, 𝑦, or 𝑧 direction. What is the number
of shortest paths that the ship can take?

The ship needs to travel

And the number of paths will be the number of ways of arranging:
𝑅⏟1 , 𝑅2 , 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 ,
⏟ 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , 𝑈3 , 𝑈4
⏟
𝑇𝑤𝑜 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑒𝑒 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑢𝑟 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑠
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑤𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑈𝑝

But note that 𝑅1 is identical to 𝑅2 , and similarly with 𝐹1 , 𝐹2 , 𝐹3 and 𝑈1 , 𝑈2 , 𝑈3 , 𝑈4 .

Hence, we want to arrange

2 + 3 + 4 = 9 𝑂𝑏𝑗𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑠 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ
2 𝑅𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑑
3 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑑

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𝑎𝑛𝑑 4 𝑟𝑒𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑟𝑑 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑑

9! 9×8×7×6×5
= = 1260
2! 3! 4! 2×6

2.2 Parity/Multiple Hops(Number Line)

A. Existence of Path
Parity can be used to show the non-existence of a path.

2.27: Parity
The concept of parity (odd/even) is very important in establishing feasibility in many situations. If a situation is
impossible, then
➢ The number of ways in which it can be done is zero
➢ The probability that it will happen is also zero

𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 + 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛

𝑂𝑑𝑑 + 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑
𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 + 𝑂𝑑𝑑 = 𝑂𝑑𝑑
𝑂𝑑𝑑 + 𝑂𝑑𝑑 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛

Example 2.28
A number which is even is said to have even parity. A number which is odd is said to odd parity.
Identify the parity of the following:
A. 23
B. 6
C. 8134
D. 9999

A. Odd
B. Even
C. Even
D. Odd

Example 2.29
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops one unit at a time, either left, or right. The frog hops 10 times in all
(any mix of left and right). For example, it could hop 6 times right, and 4 times left. Explain why the frog cannot
reach the number 3 at the end of its hopping.

Initial 0 0 0 0
Position
Right 10 9 8 7
Left 0 1 2 3
Final 10 8 6 4
Position

The frog starts from

0 ∈ 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛
And hops an
10 ∈ 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛

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times.

Hence, it must end at a number that is even.

That is, a number with the same parity that it started.

Initial Position 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 Final Position

𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛

Example 2.30
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops 2025 times either left or right. In how many ways can it reach the
number 100.

Initial Position 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 Final Position

𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑂𝑑𝑑 𝑂𝑑𝑑
0 2025 ≠ 100

Since the final position must be odd while the required position (100) is even, the frog cannot reach 100.

Example 2.31: Probability

A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops 2021 times either left or right. Each hop is of distance 1 unit, and the
direction of the hop is chosen randomly. What is the probability that it reaches the number 100 at the end of its
journey?

100
⏟ − ⏟
0 = 100 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝐸𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑟𝑡
𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Note that 100 is an even number.
The minimum number of hops needed to reach 100 is 100.
The second smallest number of hops needed to reach 100 is 102.

In general, the number of hops needed to reach 100 is

100 + 2𝑛 ⇒ 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

The number of hops that the frog actually makes is odd.

Hence, the frog can never reach 100 after 2021 hops.
𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑎𝑏𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 0

Example 2.32
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops exactly 7 times either left or right. In how many ways can it reach the
number 9? The order of the hops is important.

Consider the extreme position. If we have all right hops:

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
the frog will reach
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 7.

It cannot reach the number 9.

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B. Two Extra Hops

2.33: Notation
Indicate a right hop using
𝑅
And a left hop using
𝐿

Example 2.34
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops exactly 7 times either left or right. In how many ways can it reach the
number 5? The order of the hops is not important.

6 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡, 1 𝐿𝑒𝑓𝑡 ⇒ 1 𝑊𝑎𝑦

Note that the two ways below are both the same since order does not matter:
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝑅, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝑅𝑅, 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝑅𝑅𝑅,

Example 2.35
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops exactly 7 times either left or right. In how many ways can it reach the
number 5? The order of the hops is important.

Consider the extreme position. If we have all right hops

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅
the frog will reach
𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 7.

Hence, we must replace one R with one L.

𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿
This L can be placed anywhere among the seven hops, which can be done in:
7 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Method using Permutations

I need to arrange 6 R’s and one L in a row. This means I have seven objects, out of which one object is repeated
six times, and one object occurs once.
7!
= =7
6! 1!

Example 2.36
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops at most 7 times either left or right. If it reaches the number 5, it stops
there. In how many ways can it reach the number 5? The order of hops is important.

Consider the seven hop paths that lead to the number 5:

𝐿𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ⇒ −1,0,1,2,3,4,5
𝑅𝐿𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 1,0,1,2,3,4,5
𝑅𝑅𝐿𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 1,2,1,2,3,4,5
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝑅𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 1,2,3,2,3,4,5
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝑅𝑅 ⇒ 1,2,3,4,3,4,5
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑳𝑹 ⇒ 1,2,3,4, 𝟓, 𝟒, 𝟓
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑹𝑳 ⇒ 1,2,3,4, 𝟓, 𝟔, 𝟓

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Two of the above paths end when the frog reaches the number 5. Hence, the final answer is
5 + 1 = 6 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
C. Extra Hops

Example 2.37
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops exactly 7 times either left or right. In how many ways can it reach the
number 3? Order is important.

The frog needs to go right five times, and left two times. Hence, we need to arrange
5 𝑅 ′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝐿′ 𝑠 ⇒ 𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝐿𝐿

7! 7 × 6 × 5!
= = 21 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
2! 5! 2! 5!

Example 2.38
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops exactly 9 times either left or right. In how many ways can it reach the
number 6? Order is important.

0 + 9 = 9 ⇒ 𝑂𝑑𝑑 ≠ 6 = 𝐸𝑣𝑒𝑛
0 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Example 2.39
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops exactly 10 times either left or right. In how many ways can it reach
the number 6? Order is important.

8 𝑅 ′ 𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 2 𝐿′ 𝑠
10! 10 ∙ 9
= = 45
2! 8! 2

D. Preparing for Probability

Example 2.40
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero hops exactly 9 times either left or right.
A. How many distinct paths does the frog have?
B. In how many of those paths does it reach the number 3?
C. What is the ratio of the answers that you found in Parts A and B?

Review 2.41
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at the number zero hops exactly 𝑛 times either left or right.
A. Show that the number of distinct paths the frog has is 2𝑛 .
B. What are the numbers 𝑚 that it can reach?
C. If the number 𝑚 is reachable, how many paths to 𝑚 are there?
D. What is the ratio of the answers that you found in Parts A and B

𝑛!
𝑛−𝑚
𝑚! ( 2 ) !

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E. Hops of 1 and 2 Units

Example 2.42
A 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑔 𝑜𝑛 𝑎 𝑙𝑖𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑎𝑑 at number zero can hop right, either 1 unit at a time, or 2 units at a time.
In how many ways can the frog reach the number 5.

The frog is currently at the position zero, and it can reach position zero in precisely one way: by remaining
where it is.
0 1 2 3 4 5
1

Position 1 can be reached from

➢ 0, in exactly one way, by taking a jump of 1 unit from 0 to 1.
Hence, total number of ways to reach 1 is 1.

0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1

Position 2 can be reached from:

➢ 0: By taking a jump of 2 units from 0 to 2.
➢ 1: By taking a jump of 1 unit from 1 to 2.
Hence, total number of ways to reach 2 is:
⏟
1 + ⏟
1 =2
𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 0 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 1

0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2

Position 3 can be reached from:

➢ 1: By taking a jump of 2 units from 1 to 3.
➢ 2: By taking a jump of 1 unit from 2 to 3.
Hence, total number of ways to reach 3 is:
⏟
1 + ⏟
2 =3
𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 1 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 2

0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3

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Position 4 can be reached from:

➢ 2: By taking a jump of 2 units from 2 to 4.
➢ 3: By taking a jump of 1 unit from 3 to 4.
Hence, total number of ways to reach 4 is:
⏟
2 + ⏟
3 =5
𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 2 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 3

0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 5

Position 5 can be reached from:

➢ 3: By taking a jump of 2 units from 3 to 5.
➢ 4: By taking a jump of 1 unit from 4 to 5.
Hence, total number of ways to reach 5 is:
⏟
3 + ⏟
5 =8
𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠 𝑡𝑜
𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 3 𝑅𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 4

0 1 2 3 4 5
1 1 2 3 5 8

If you have seen the Fibonacci sequence, this should look familiar, and it is exactly the same.
If you haven’t then this is a very important sequence, which we will study separately in Sequence, and which
occurs in many different topics.

2.43: Recursion Formula

In the example above, we encountered the number of ways to reach 5. This also be written in terms of a
recursion formula.
Let 𝑃(𝑛) be the number of ways to reach 𝑛.

𝑃(𝑛) = 𝑃(𝑛 − 1) + 𝑃(𝑛 − 2)

Example 2.44
Find 𝑃(5) using the above recursion formula.

The number 5 can be reached from the number 4, and the number 3. Hence,
𝑃(5) = 𝑃(4) + 𝑃(3)

But, note that

𝑃(4) = 𝑃(3) + 𝑃(2)
Hence,
𝑃(5) = 𝑃(3) + 𝑃(2) + 𝑃(3) = 2 × 𝑃(3) + 𝑃(2)

𝑃(5) = 2[𝑃(2) + 𝑃(1)] + 𝑃(2) = 2𝑃(2) + 2𝑃(1) + 𝑃(2) = 3𝑃(2) + 2𝑃(1)

𝑃(5) = 3[𝑃(1) + 𝑃(0)] + 2𝑃(1) = 3𝑃(1) + 3𝑃(0) + 2𝑃(1) = 5𝑃(1) + 3𝑃(0)

But, the number of ways to reach

0 𝑖𝑠 1: 𝑃(0) = 1, 1 𝑖𝑠 1: 𝑃(1) = 1

Hence,

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𝑃(5) = 5𝑃(1) + 3𝑃(0) = 5 × 1 + 3 × 1 = 5 + 3 = 8

2.3 Counting Methods

A. Tree Diagram

Example 2.45
The figure shows the network connecting cities 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸 and 𝐹.
The arrows indicate the permissible direction of travel. What is the
number of distinct paths from A to F. (CAT 2001/47)

A-10
B-7 D-3
F-1 C-2 E-1
D-3 F-1
C-2 E-1
E-1
B. Working Forwards
We looked at a method of counting using permutations. Permutations give a nice formula for counting. However,
the formula does not work in all cases. We look at another method that is lengthier, but does work in some cases
where the formula does not.

Example 2.46: Roads to Reach

The figure shows the network connecting cities 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸 and 𝐹.
The arrows indicate the permissible direction of travel. What is the
number of distinct paths from A to F. (CAT 2001/47)

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2.47: Roads to Reach

Suppose you can only
➢ go right one unit
➢ go up one unit
Then, we can use the concept of “reachability” to count the number of paths on a
grid. The points on the bottom row, and the leftmost column are easy to “count”
since there is only 1 way to reach them. Then, from those we work forward.
➢ A can only be reached via the point to its left, and the point below it.
➢ E can only be reached via B or C
And so on.

Consider a set of 2-by-2 points with a network of 1-by-1 roads. Use the concept of Reachability to count the
number of paths reaching the top right from the bottom left of the grid.

From the bottom left, you can

➢ Move up
➢ Move right

To reach point A, you must go through either the point below it, or the point to the
left of it.
Each of those points can be reached in 1 ways.

Hence, total ways to reach

𝐴 =1+1=2

In the “Roads to Reach” diagram above, we have a set of 3-by-3 points with a network of 2-by-2 roads. Use the
concept of Reachability to count the number of paths reaching the top right from the bottom left of the grid.

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In the “Roads to Reach” diagram above, we have a set of 4-by-4 points with a network of 3-by-3 roads. Use the
concept of Reachability to count the number of paths reaching the top right from the bottom left of the grid.

𝐴=1+1=2
𝐶 =𝐵 =2+1=3
𝐷 =𝐹 =3+1=4
𝐸 =3+3=6
𝐺 = 𝐻 = 6 + 4 = 10
𝑇𝑜𝑝 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 10 + 10 = 20

Example 2.48
Suppose you are at the center of the five-by-five squares shown (red dot). On each move,
you can go up, down, left, or right by 1 unit. Count the number of shortest paths to reach
each point on the grid.

C. Recursion: Working Backwards

2.49: Roads to Reach

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We can use the concept of “reachability” to count the number of paths on a grid. The points on the bottom row,
and the leftmost column are easy to “count” since there is only 1 way to reach them. For the others, we count
backward:
➢ the top right of the grid can only be reached via G or H.
➢ H can only be reached via E or F
➢ E can only be reached via B or C

Example 2.50
In the grid alongside, find the number of ways to reach the top right from the
bottom left by working backwards.

The number of ways to go from top right to bottom left is the same as the number of
ways to go from bottom left to top right.

D. Asymmetry

Example 2.51
What is the number of shortest paths to go from A to B (Mathcounts 2009 State
Team).

E. Hopping One or Two Units

Example 2.52
A frog is positioned at the origin of the coordinate plane. From the point (x, y), the frog can jump to any of the
points (𝑥 + 1, 𝑦), (𝑥 + 2, 𝑦), (𝑥, 𝑦 + 1), or (𝑥, 𝑦 + 2). Find the number of distinct sequences of jumps in which
the frog begins at (0, 0) and ends at (4, 4). (AIME II 2018/8)

No. of Units
Right 1 2
Up 1 2

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F. Enumeration with 3D Objects

Example 2.53
An insect at A wants to crawl via the edges of the shape drawn alongside to go to G.
A. What is the length of the shortest path that the ant can take?
B. List the different shortest paths can the ant take?
C. Count the number of shortest paths using the multiplication principle.

Part A
𝐴𝐵, 𝐵𝐶, 𝐶𝐺 → 3 𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠

Part B
We can list the paths:
𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐺, 𝐴𝐵𝐹𝐺
𝐴𝐷𝐶𝐺, 𝐴𝐷𝐻𝐺
𝐴𝐸𝐻𝐺, 𝐴𝐸𝐹𝐺
Part C

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From 𝐴, there are 3 choices of vertex to visit. From each of those vertices, there are 2 choices that go in the
direction of G. The final answer is:
3 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 × ⏟
⏟ 2 𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑠 = 6
𝐵,𝐷,𝐸 𝐹𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡

Example 2.54
An insect at 𝐹 wants to crawl via the edges of the triangular prism drawn
alongside to go to 𝐶 without travelling an edge more than once or backtracking.
Define the length of the path as the number of distinct edges travelled. What is
the number of distinct path possible of maximum length 4?

Paths of length 2
𝐹𝐸𝐶, 𝐹𝐷𝐶 ⇒ 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
Paths of length 3
𝐹𝐴𝐸𝐶, 𝐹𝐴𝐵𝐶, 𝐹𝐷𝐵𝐶 ⇒ 3 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
Paths of length 4:
𝐹𝐴𝐵𝐷𝐶, 𝐹𝐸𝐴𝐵𝐶 ⇒ 2 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Total
= 2 + 3 + 2 = 7 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

G. Symmetry in 3D Objects

Example 2.55
What is the number of paths of length 4 or less that start from 𝐴 and end at 𝐹 (where
length is number of edges travelled)?
Note: Backtracking is not allowed. An edge can be travelled more than once. 𝐹 can be
in the middle of the path.

Paths of length 2
𝐴𝐵𝐹, 𝐴𝐶𝐹, 𝐴𝐷𝐹, 𝐴𝐸𝐹 → 4 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

Paths of length 3
𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐹, 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐹
𝐴𝐶𝐷𝐹, 𝐴𝐶𝐵𝐹
𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐹, 𝐴𝐷𝐶𝐹
𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐹, 𝐴𝐸𝐵𝐹

Each path of length 2 can be associated with two paths of length 3, by taking an extra step on the Quadrilateral
𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐸, in either the left or the right direction.
=8
Paths of Length 4
𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐷𝐹, 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐹
𝐴𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹, 𝐴𝐶𝐵𝐸𝐹
𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐵𝐹, 𝐴𝐷𝐶𝐵𝐹
𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐶𝐹, 𝐴𝐸𝐵𝐶𝐹

8 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

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Example 2.56
What is the number of paths of length 4 or less that start from 𝐴 and end at 𝐹 (where length is number of edges
travelled)?
Note: Backtracking is allowed. An edge can be travelled more than once. 𝐹 can be in the middle of the path.

Paths of Length 2
Consider paths of length 2 which we can adjust because backtracking is allowed.
𝐴𝐵𝐹, 𝐴𝐶𝐹, 𝐴𝐷𝐹, 𝐴𝐸𝐹 → 4 𝑝𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

For example, consider 𝐴𝐵𝐹

backtrack over the first edge → 𝐴𝐵𝐴𝐵𝐹
backtrack over the second edge → 𝐴𝐵𝐹𝐵𝐹

The total number of paths from modifying paths of length 2 is:

4 × 2 = 8 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

Paths of Length 3
𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐹, 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐹
𝐴𝐶𝐷𝐹, 𝐴𝐶𝐵𝐹
𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐹, 𝐴𝐷𝐶𝐹
𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐹, 𝐴𝐸𝐵𝐹

There are eight paths of length 3, of which one is:

𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐹 ⇒ 𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐵𝐹

Hence, each path of length 3 can be converted into a path of length 4.

8 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

Paths of Length 4
𝐴𝐵𝐸𝐷𝐹, 𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷𝐹
𝐴𝐶𝐷𝐸𝐹, 𝐴𝐶𝐵𝐸𝐹
𝐴𝐷𝐸𝐵𝐹, 𝐴𝐷𝐶𝐵𝐹
𝐴𝐸𝐷𝐶𝐹, 𝐴𝐸𝐵𝐶𝐹

8 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

Total
= 8 × 3 = 24 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

Suppose the vertices of the octahedron are not named, so that two paths that look the same by rotation are
considered the same. What is the number of paths of:
A. Length 2
B. Length 3

The octahedron can be rotated 4 times to look the same. Hence, the number of paths of length 2 is
4
=1
4

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Number of paths of length 3

8
= =2
4

H. Counting Forward in 3D Objects

Example 2.57
Grid lines are drawn on three faces of a rectangular prism, as shown. A squirrel
walks from 𝑃 to 𝑄 along the edges and grid lines in such a way that she is always
getting closer to 𝑄 and farther away from 𝑃. How many different paths from 𝑃 to
𝑄 can the squirrel take? (CEMC Pascal 2016/21)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 4 + 6 + 4 = 14 𝑃𝑎𝑡ℎ𝑠

2.4 Diagonal Paths and Delannoy Numbers

A. Pure Diagonal Paths

2.58: Diagonal Path

Diagonal paths are path that go one unit up and one unit to the right simultaneously.

We can look at paths that are diagonal, instead of rectangular. Like rectangular paths, these also generate
Pascal’s triangle.

Example 2.59
You are at the center of a coordinate plane. You can take diagonal paths
upwards. Determine where you can reach in
A. One Step
B. Two Steps

For example, if upward diagonal paths are allowed then from (0,0), you
can visit
(−1,1) 𝑜𝑟 (1,1)

Beginning (0,0)
First Step (−1,1) (1,1)
Second Step (−2,2) (0,2) (2,2)

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Example 2.60
A frog at the center of a coordinate plane can jump diagonally left, or
diagonally right (only upwards). He jumps a maximum of 3 times. The
points that he can reach are shown in the diagram alongside.
Determine the number of ways these points can be reached.

Example 2.61
6 × 7 board
Determine the number of ways that each square can reached.

B. Asymmetry

2.62: Asymmetric Paths

The number of steps allowed to the right does not have to be the same as the
number of steps to the left.
This results in asymmetry.

➢ We no longer get Pascal’s triangle for the number of ways.

Example 2.63

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A game board consists of 64 squares that alternate in color between black and white. The figure below shows
square 𝑃 in the bottom row, and square 𝑄 in the top row. A marker is placed at 𝑃. A step consists of moving the
marker onto one of the adjoining white squares in the row above. How many 7-step paths are there from 𝑃 to 𝑄.
(AMC 8 2020/21)

Example 2.64
A coin travels along a path that starts in an unshaded square in the top row of the
figure, that uses only diagonal moves, and that ends in an unshaded square in the
bottom row. A diagonal move takes the coin either one square down and one square
left, or one square down and one square right. How many different paths from the
top row to the bottom row are possible? (CEMC Pascal 2018/21)

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 6 + 12 + 6 = 24

C. Rectangular-cum-Diagonal Paths

2.65: Rectangular cum Diagonal Path

These greatly increase the number of possible paths.

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Example 2.66
Consider the diagram to the right. Valid movements are of three types: 𝑢𝑝, 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
and 𝑢𝑝 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡. Each movement is from one lattice point (blue/red dot)
to another lattice point.
A. Find the number of ways from A to D. You need only a portion of the
diagram shown above.
B. Find the number of ways from A to C. Use the answer to the previous
question to help you. You need to extend the diagram above, to the right,
and diagonally.
C. Find the number of ways from A to B.

Part A
You can go from A to D in three ways:
𝑈𝑝
𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑈𝑝 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡

Part B
The number of ways from 𝐴 to 𝐶 can be calculated progressively.

Part C
The total number of ways to reach 𝐵 is
25 + 25 + 13 = 63

2.67: Delannoy Numbers

The number of ways to reach (𝑚, 𝑛) on a grid starting from (0,0) and taking
steps which are up, right or 𝑢𝑝 − 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 𝑟𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 are the Delannoy Numbers.

In the example above, we calculated

𝐷𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑛𝑜𝑦(3,3) = 63

2.5 Hexagonal Grids and Backtracking

A. Backtracking on a Rectangular Grid

Example 2.68

B. Hexagonal Grids

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Example 2.69

C. Backtracking

Example 2.70
A bug travels from 𝐴 to 𝐵 along the segments in the hexagonal
lattice pictured below. The segments marked with an arrow can
be traveled only in the direction of the arrow, and the bug never
travels the same segment more than once. How many different
paths are there? (AMC 10B 2012/25)

Reaching the Red Arrow

To get to each of the red arrows from A, there is
1 Way

Reaching the Blue Arrows

To get to the top blue arrow from the red arrows, there
are
➢ 2 ways from the 1st(top) red arrow

➢ 3 ways from the 2nd(bottom) red arrow

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 5 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
This applies to each blue arrow. (Check for yourself!).

Reaching the Green Arrows

To get to the top green arrow, there are
➢ 4 ways from the 1st and 2nd Blue Arrow each

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➢ 8 ways from the 3rd and 4th Blue Arrow each

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 4 + 4 + 8 + 8 = 24 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠
This applies to each green arrow. (Check for yourself!).

Hence, the number to reach each green arrow

= 5 × 24 = 120

Reaching the Orange Arrows

By symmetry, the number of ways to get to an orange arrow from the green arrows is the same as the number of
ways to go from a red arrow to a blue arrow:
5 𝑊𝑎𝑦𝑠

Reaching B
Hence, the number of ways to reach B from a green arrow is
120 × 5 = 600

And, finally, the number of ways to reach B in all is

600 × ⏟
4 = 2400
𝑁𝑜.𝑜𝑓
𝐺𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑠

2.6 Further Topics

A. Catalan Numbers

Example 2.71
Paths on a Grid
Parentheses
Dyck Words

72 Examples

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