ROMBLON STATE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

MODULE 1
Types of Structures and Loads
Analysis of Statically
Determinate members

STRUCTURAL THEORY
Course Description: A professional course common to all
civil engineering students designated to provide
fundamental concepts, principles, and theories in the
theory of structures and structural analysis for internal
actions in structure and its deformations under load

ENGR. APRILLE ANN M. SIM

 MODULE 1  Take online QUIZ (but not real
time) and submit on time and
TYPE OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS follow the given instruction
Analysis of Statically Determinate members posted for every quiz.
Overview  Answer and Submit
Plates/Problem Sets
This module provides a discussion of some of the
preliminary aspects of structural analysis. The phases
of activity necessary to produce a structure are
presented first, followed by an introduction to the
TYPE OF STRUCTURES AND LOADS
basic types of structures, their components, and
A structure is any arrangement of parts
supports. Finally, a brief explanation is given of the
connected to each other to serve different
various types of loads that must be considered for an
purposes. In civil engineering, there are different
appropriate analysis and design
types of structures such as buildings, bridges,
Learning Outcomes: houses, etc. while in other engineering fields,
IDENTIFY and CLASSIFY various types of planar and ships, aircraft, tanks, electrical systems, etc. are
spatial; structural systems and the manner by which being designed.
these are supported for stability
Structural Elements
DETERMINE the state of static and kinematic
It is important for a structural engineer to
determinacy and stability of structural systems,
recognize the various types of elements
externally and internally;
composing a structure and to be able to classify
APPLY the methods of structural analysis for external structures as to their form and function. We will
and internal actions on various types of structural introduce some of these aspects now and
systems due to static and moving loads. expand on them at appropriate points
Learning Objectives throughout the text.
Student  To provide basic knowledge of
Learning different types of structures and Tie Rods. These are structural elements commonly
Objectives for their use. used in trusses to withstand or resist tensile stresses.
this Module  To familiarize different types of These are usually slender made from different
loads. cross-sections such as rods, bars, angle bars, and
 To review and practice channels due to its loading capacity
structural design methods to be
used in structural analysis of
different structures
 To analyze the statically
determinate members by
applying equilibrium and
method of superposition.
Learning Activities
Beams. These are structural elements used to
Activities for  Attendance during schedule
carry vertical loads and made from different
this module thru feedbacks, confirmation,
materials such as concrete, steel, and wood.
and acknowledgement to any
Beams are usually horizontal elements that resist
activities and announcement
bending or flexural stress coming from vertical
posted online via messenger or
loads.
Google classroom
When it comes to concrete design,
 Participation during discussion
reinforcement steel bars are added on beams to
of topics thru messenger or
support tensile stress. While in steel design, a cross-
Google classroom
section or shapes are being selected that can
 Study the examples given for
carry external reactions of the beam.
every topic and raise questions
and clarifications during the
class schedule thru messenger
of Google Classroom.
 Participate in the QUIZ Game
before the start of the class
Assessment Tasks
Evidence to  Answer and submit the
proceed Assignments online thru google
classroom following the
instruction given
Columns. These are vertical elements usually to
support axial load. Just like beams, columns have Cables and Arches. These two types of structures
different types of support and a are both used to support bridges but in different
material like steel columns. manners. Cables are flexible and carry loads in
Shape, height, and tension while arches are being used to support
type of loading to resist are loads in compressions.
considered to determine what
type of column will be used in
a structure.

Types of Structures
The combination of structural elements and the
materials from which they are composed is
referred to as a structural system. Each system is
constructed of one or more of four basic types of
structures.

Frames. Are combinations of columns and beams.

Depending on the type of material, frames are LOADS
considered concrete, timber, steel frames, or a
combination of concrete and steel. Frames are Loads are the ones to be carried by the structures.
often used in buildings and known as building These loads create external reactions from the
frames. support of structures and internal reactions from
Frames are structures that support different the connections of structural members.
types of loads such as dead, live, earthquake,
and wind load These loads are externally acted upon the
structures and will produce internal forces or
loadings of the structural elements. These internal
forces are considered in designing these
members in terms of their shapes, dimensions and
sizes.

Once the structure is planned by engineers, plans

(usually Architectural plans) are being examined
by structural designers. Designers then apply the
loads to the plans and design the structure.

Basic types of loadings will be discussed here,

divided into two types: according to its nature;
and load as per application.
Trusses. Structures used in roof system or bridges.
Roof trusses are used to transmit loads to other According to its nature
structural members such as beams and columns Dead Loads (DL). These are the weights of the
while bridge trusses are used to carry loads from structure itself and superimposed loads that are
floor beams and stringers. Trusses composed of permanently joined in the structure. Examples of
slender elements and carry a tensile or a these loads are weights from beams, columns,
compressive force. slabs, and materials like floor tiles, hollow blocks
and other materials placed permanently in the
structure. Dead loads are sometimes called as
gravity loads and directed vertically downward.

Live Loads (LL). These are the weights of any

object placed in the structure temporarily or
moving objects just like vehicles, or natural forces.
Occupants (human and furniture) are best
examples of moving objects within buildings. Live
loads are added in designing a building so that a
building will serve its purpose for example, a
commercial building, a school, and a residential
building.
 According to load application
Point or Concentrated Loads. These type of loads
are just a single load located or concentrated
only on a single point. These are maybe dead or
live loads, directed vertically or horizontally.

Wind Loads (WL). Natural loads coming from the

flow of wind-blocking by the structure that puts
pressure on it. Velocity of wind is considered when
Distributed Loads. These type of loads distributed
computing wind load. Wind load is a horizontal
in the span or height or a member. Weight of
loading
structure, for example, in a slab, is distributed over
Snow Loads (SL). Natural loads coming from the the entire area of the slab and then transmitted to
weight of snow carried by the roof are transmitted the beam creating a distributed load. Distributed
to the structure. Velocity of wind is considered in load has three types, Uniform, and Non-uniform.
computing wind load. Just like dead loads, snow Uniformly distributed loads are rectangular
loads are gravity load and directed vertically loads and the magnitude of load is uniform for the
downward. But of course, we don’t consider snow entire span or height
load here in the Philippines since we don’t have a
winter season. Instead of snow loads, rain loads
are considered sometimes.

Non-uniformly distributed loads may be triangular

or trapezoidal, meaning the load varies from zero
(0) or some magnitude to bigger or smaller load.

These types of loads represent the direction and

distribution of loads.
Earthquake Loads (EL). Natural loads coming from
earthquakes and transmit its loads to the structure Structural Design Methods
through the ground motion and the structure resist
these loads laterally. Philippines is earthquake
Once these loads are determined and applied in
prone since our country is near at Pacific Ring of
the structure, these loads will be used to compute
Fire so usually mid- and high-rise buildings are
reactions, stresses, deflections, deformations, etc.
analyzed through this type of load. An example of
to design the dimensions, sizes, and shapes of
a building collapsed due to earthquake.
every member in the structure.

These loads will be combined and factors will be

taken into account due to the uncertainties of
every load that may applied or occur in the
structures and also to the material of the
members.

There are two methods used in design, the

Allowable-stress Design (ASD) and Load
Resistance Factor Design (LRFD). ASD and LRFD
are the design methods used in Steel Design. ASD
Other Loads. There are some types of loads is the Working-stress Design (WSD) and LRFD is the
depending on the location or country of the Ultimate Strength Design (USD) in Reinforced
structure to be built like soil lateral loads, flood Concrete Design.
loads, etc.
ASD. Allowable-stress Design (ASD) method
includes only the working loads or the service Analysis of Statically
loads itself. In ASD, the required strength from the
service loads must not exceed the allowable
Determinate members
IDEALIZED STRUCTURE
strength of the member that is why it is called
A. Idealized structure
allowable-stress design. Strength or capacity of
the member will be computed from the allowable
Actual Structure Idealized Structure
stresses and will compare to the computed
nominal reactions or strength from the
combinations of loads.

LRFD. Load Resistance Factor Design (LRFD)

method applies factors to the working or service
loads due to the uncertainties of loads. These
factors add 20% to 60% of the loads depending
on its nature. In LRFD, factored strength from the
factored loads must not exceed the design
strength. The design strength is a strength or
capacity of the member multiplied by resistance
factors (∅). Resistance factor varies depending on
the type of member.

Load Combinations. Load combinations are the

combination of loads depending on their nature
and the certainties of action for example: dead
load and live will occur to the structure
simultaneously; or dead load, live load, and
snow/rain load will simultaneously occur in the
structure.

For ASD

For LRFD

Assignment No. 1

Detail of this assignment was posted in our

Google classroom. Please follow instruction.
 B. Tributary Loadings C. Support Connections
When flat surfaces such as walls, floors or roofs are Structural members are joined together in various
supported by a structural frame, it is necessary to ways depending on the intent of the designer.
determine how the load on these surfaces is The three types of joints most often specified are
transmitted to the various structural elements used pin connection, roller support, and fixed joint.
for their support.
Supports for Coplanar Structure
One way system
A slab or deck that is supported such that it
delivers its load to the supporting members by
one way action is often referred to as a one-way
slab.

As general rule, if the span ratio L2/L1 ≥ 2, (where

L2 longer side, L1 shorter side), the slab will
behave as a one way slab.

Two-Way System
If the support ratio is L2/L1 < 2, the load is assumed
to be delivered to the supporting beams and
girders in two directions. When this is the case the
slab is referred to as a two-way slab.

PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION
“The total displacement or internal loadings
(stress) at a point in a structure subjected to
several external loadings can be determined by
adding together the displacement or internal
loadings (stress) caused by each of the external
loads acting separately.”

Roof and Wall System Load

 Stability

Two requirements must be imposed for the

principle of superposition to apply :
1. The material must behave in a linear-
elastic manner, so that Hooke’s law is
valid, and therefore the load will be Example
proportional to displacement. Classify each of the structures in figure as stable or
σ = P/A unstable
δ = PL/AE
2. The geometry of the structure must not
undergo significant change when the
loads are applied, i.e., small displacement
theory applies. Large displacements will
significantly change and orientation of the
loads. An example would be a
cantilevered thin rod subjected to a force
at its end.

EQUATIONS OF EQUILIBRIUM
It may be recalled from statics that a structure or
one of its members is in equilibrium when it
maintains a balance of force and a moment.
Exercise No. 1
Fx = 0 Fy=0 Fz = 0
Mx =0 My =0 Mz = 0 Detail of this exercise was posted in our Google
classroom. Please follow instruction.

DETERMINACY AND STABILITY

References
Determinacy Printed  National Structural Code of the
Sources Philippines, 5th ed. Association
of Structural Engineers of the
Where Philippines, Manila 2001 by
n = the total parts of structure members. Association of Structural
r = the total number of unknown reactive Engineers of the Philippines
force and moment components  Structural Analysis, 4th Ed,
Example Prentice Hall 1999., N.J. By:
Hibbler, R.C.
Classify each of the beams shown as statically  Structural Analysis, By: Besavilla
determinate or statically indeterminate. If  Structural Analysis, By: Gillesania
statically indeterminate, report the number of
degrees o indeterminacy. The beams are
subjected to external loadings that are assumed
to be known and can act anywhere on the
beams.