REPUBLIC OF THE PHILIPPINES

EASTERN VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY

BURAUEN CAMPUS

BURAUEN, LEYTE

LANGUAGE, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

UNIT V: LANGUAGE AND SOCIETY

Submitted by:

Modina, Jessebel B.

Monte, Cheryl L.

Montemor, Divine Q.

Nuevas Jr., Gerry S.

Olimpo Jr., Franciso C.

Padayao, Ana Leah L.

Pasagui, Cristel R.

BSED ENGLISH I-A

Submitted to:

Rowena D. Mostacesa, MAIS

Course Instructor
 LANGUAGE AND DIALECT

What is Language?

Language is the method of human communication by speaking, writing, or making signs in a way that can be understood.
There are two main components of language: oral language and written language. Orality is the main aspect of a
language since the function of writing and reading is based on speaking.

Furthermore, language is not a static thing; it evolves every moment. New words and sentence structures are constantly
introduced to the language. Moreover, the meanings of some words get change, and some words go out of usage. The
speakers of a language are responsible for all these changes.

What is Dialect?

A dialect is a particular form of a language which is unique to a specific region or social group. It is different from a
standard variety of language. Dialects have variations in grammar, vocabulary or pronunciation. Dialects are especially a
way of speaking that differs from the standard variety of the language. For example, American English, Indian English,
and Australian English, etc. are some examples of English dialects. Moreover, there are also sub-dialects within these
dialects.

Furthermore, it is also possible to derive some information about a person’s geographical location, education or social
background from his or her dialect. There are two categories of dialects as standard and non-standard dialects. A
standard dialect is a dialect that is approved and supported by institutions, and non-standard dialects are those that are
not supported by institutions.

What is the Difference Between Language and Dialect in Sociolinguistics?

Language is the method of human communication, either spoken or written, involving the use of words in a structured and
conventional way. A dialect, on the other hand, is a particular form of a language which is unique to a specific region or
social group. A language can have various dialects. However, the standard way to identify the difference between
language and dialect in sociolinguistics is mutual intelligibility. Speakers of two dialects can understand what each other is
saying; however, speakers of two languages will have trouble understanding each other.
Difference Between Language and Dialect in Sociolinguistics in Tabular Form

Summary – Language vs Dialect in Sociolinguistics

There are various languages in the world. These languages also have various dialects. A dialect is a particular variety of
language peculiar to a specific region or social group. Speakers of two dialects can understand what each other is saying;
however, speakers of two languages will have trouble understanding each other. Thus, this is the difference between
language and dialect in sociolinguists.

SPEECH COMMUNITY

Speech community is a term in sociolinguistics and linguistic anthropology used to describe a group of people who share
the same language, speech characteristics, and ways of interpreting communication. Speech communities may be large
regions like an urban area with a common, distinct accent (think of Boston with its dropped r's) or small units like families
and friends (think of a nickname for a sibling). They help people define themselves as individuals and community
members and identify (or misidentify) others.

Types of Communities
Speech communities can be large or small, although linguists don't agree on how they're defined. Some, like linguist
Muriel Saville-Troike, argue that it's logical to assume that a shared language like English, which is spoken throughout the
world, is a speech community.

1. "Hard-shelled" communities - which tend to be insular and intimate, like a family or religious sect.

2. "Soft-shelled" communities - where there is a lot of interaction.

STUDY AND RESEARCH

The concept of speech community plays a role in a number of social science, namely sociology, anthropology, linguists,
even psychology. People who study issues of migration and ethnic identity use social community theory to study things
like how immigrants assimilate into larger societies, for instance. Academics who focus on racial, ethnic, sexual or gender
issues apply social community theory when they study issues of personal identity and politics. It also plays a role in data
collection. By being aware of how communities are defined, researchers can adjust their subject pools in order to obtain
representative sample populations.

LINGUISTIC BORROWING AND LANGUAGE CONTACT

Language Borrowing

The abstract noun borrowing refers to the process of speakers adopting words from a source language into their native
language. “Loan” and “borrowing" are of course metaphors, because there is no literal lending process. There is no
transfer from one language to another, and no "returning" words to the source language. The words simply come to be
used by a speech community that speaks a different language from the one of these words originated in.

Example:

- Garage - French

-Ketchup - Chinese

- Karaoke - Japanese

- Cartoon – Italian

- Cookie - Dutch

Types of Language Borrowing

• Loanword - The word and the meaning are borrowed. [e.g., pajamas - it is a Hindi word that refers to a suit of loose
pants and jacket or shirt for sleeping.]

• Loan-translation - It is a literal word for word translation of both parts of the lending compound. [e.g., a Spanish phrase
"el momento de la verdad" is translated into English as "the moment of truth".

• Loan-rendition - The translation vaguely captures the original meaning. [e.g., "refrigerator" is translated as "ice box" in
Chinese.]

Loan-blend - Is composed of borrowed word from different language. [e.g., the word "monolingual" has a Greek prefix and
a Latin root.]

• Loan-shifts - Also known as semantic loan, is a change in the meaning of a word under the influence of another
language. [e.g., "superman" from German "Ubermensch" which means a person with astounding powers."

LANGUAGE CONTACT

Language contact occurs when speakers of two or more languages or varieties, interact, and influence each other. The
study of language contact is called contact linguistics. When speakers of different languages interact closely, it is typical
for their languages to influence each other.

Types of Language Contact

•Code switching - The use of more than one language by a speaker within an intercourse with others. [e.g., a multilingual
Filipino speaker who can speak in three language: in Cebuano, in Tagalog, and in English.]

•Borrowing - A word from one language is adapted for use in another. [e.g., umbrella is an Italian word that refers to the
device used as a protection against rain or sun.] • •Language-shift-A change from the use of one language to the use of
another language. [e.g., since the end of the WWII, Spanish-speaking families have slowly shifted to English language.

• Pidgin - Is a contact language that is developed in a situation where speakers of different language needs a certain
language to communicate. [e.g., Hawaiian Pidgin: "Inside dirt and cover and blanket, finish." which means "They put the
body in the ground and cover it with a blanket and that's all."]

• Creole - A complete language used in a community and acquired by children as their native language. [e.g., Coño
English Creole: “Ano, you will make kain pa that apple after it made hulog na on the floor?" which means "What, you will
still eat that apple after it already fell on the floor?"

LANGUAGE VARIATION
Language Varieties means "different types of codes" that people use to communicate with each other.

Factors Affecting Language Varieties

•Geography

•Age

•Occupation

•Gender

•Education

•Racial Origin

•Social Class

VARIATIONS OF LANGUAGE

1. DIALECT

-A variety of language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, and vocabulary.

• Regional Dialect

- Not a distinct language

- A variety of a language spoken in a particular area of a country. Some regional dialects have been given
traditional names which mark them out as being significantly different from standard varieties spoken in the same
place.

Ex: ‘Hillbilly English’ from the Appalachians in the USA and ‘Geordie’ from Newcastle upon Tyne in the UK.

• Minory Dialect

- Sometimes members of a particular minority ethnic group have their own variety which they use as a marker of
identity, usually alongside a standard variety
- Ex: African American Vernacular English in the USA, London Jamaican in Britain, and Aboriginal English in
Australia
2. SOCIOLECT

 The variety of language characteristic of a social background or status.

 Ex: standard Italian is a dialect in that it is particular to Tuscany; yet, being the national language of Italy, it is also
a sociolect in that it carries a certain prestige from being the lingua franca throughout the country- both in
broadcasting, in the press, and by people of high social status

3. IDIOLECT

-An idiolect is a person's specific, unique way of speaking .

-This includes a person's vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation

4. PIDGIN

 A new language which develops in situations where speakers of different languages need to communicate but
don’t share a common language
 Once a stable pidgin has emerged, it is generally learned as learned as a second language and used for
communication among people who speak different languages
 Ex: Nigerian Pidgin and Bislama spoken in Vanuatu

5. CREOLE

 Latin creare, meaning “to beget” or “create”

 A stable language that originates seemingly as a nativized pidgin
 When children start learning a pidgin as their first language and it becomes the mother tongue of a community, it
is called a creole
 Like a pidgin, a creole is a distinct language which has taken most of its vocabulary from another language, the
lexifier, but has its own unique grammatical rules
 Arends, Muysken & Smith (1995) suggest that four different processes are involved in creating Foreigner Talk:
 Accommodation
 Imitation
 Telegraphic condensation
 Conventions
 Presumably, between six and twelve Million people still using pidgin languages and between ten and seventeen
using descendants from pidgins
  Unlike a pidgin, however, a creole is not restricted in use, and is like any other language in its full range of
functions
 Creoles have certain grammatical similarities to each other and, arguably, not languages that they are derived
from
 Creoles exhibit more internal variability than other languages
 Creoles are simpler than other languages.
 Creole languages have generally been regarded as degenerate, or at best as t best as rudimentary dialects of
one of their parent I aren’t languages
 “creole” has come to be used in opposition to “language” rather than a qualifier for it
 Ex: Gullah, Jamaican Creole and Hawai’i Creole English.
 ‘pidgin’ and ‘creole’ are technical terms used by linguists, and not necessarily by speakers of the language. For
example, speakers of Jamaican American Creole call their language ‘Patwa’ (from patois) and speakers of
Hawai`l Creole English call theirs ‘Pidgin.

6. REGISTER

• Become common: in the 1960s introduced by a group of linguists who wanted to distinguish between
variations in language according to the user and variations according to use,
• Each speaker has a range of varieties and choices between them at different times. – (Halliday et al,
1964)
• Focus is on the way language is used in particular situations
• Halliday (1964) identifies three variables that determine register: field (the subject matter of the
discourse), tenor (the participants and their relationships) and mode (the channel of communication,
e.g., spoken or written).

LANGUAGE REGISTER

- Different language and levels of formality are used in different situations and scenarios.
- Level of formality with which you speak. Different situations and people call for different registers.

TYPES OF LANGUAGE REGISTER

1. FROZEN OR STATIC REGISTER:

- Written or oral acts that never changes.
- Include old grammar or vocabulary.
- Related to culture, religion, laws or customs of community.
 - Usually has a specific audience, purpose and context.

EXAMPLES:

 BIBLICAL VERSES
 PRAYERS
 NATIONAL ANTHEMS
 RELIGIOUS BOOKS
 LAWS
 BILL OF RIGHTS

2. FORMAL REGISTER:
- Used in formal settings
- Use complete sentences
- Avoid Slang
- Use technical or academic vocabulary
- Indicates about information or facts
- To explain an idea to others

EXAMPLES:

 STATE OF THE NATION ADDRESS OF THE PRESIDENT

 BUSINESS LETTERS
 RESEARCH PAPER
 ESSAYS
 INTERVIEWS

3. CONSULTATIVE REGISTER:
- Used when speaking to someone who has specialized knowledge
- TWO- WAY communication used in conversation
- Consulting an expert
- Language is precise.
- Tone is respectful

EXAMPLES:

 TEACHERS WITH STUDENTS

 LAWYER TALKING TO A CLIENT
 DOCTOR TO PATIENT
  SUPERIOR TO SUBORDINATE

4. CASUAL REGISTER:
- Informal language used by peers and friends
- Slangs, vulgarities, and colloquialism are normal
- “GROUP LANGUAGE”

EXAMPLES:

 BUDDIES
 TEAMMATES
 CHATS AND EMAILS
 BLOGS
 LETTERS TO FRIEND

5. INTIMATE REGISTER:
- Private communication
- Language used between persons who share a close relationship.
- Take into account certain of endearment, slangs or expressions whose meaning is shared by a small
subset of persons.

EXAMPLES:

 SPECIAL TERMS OF ENDEARMENT BETWEEN LOVERS

 MOTHER’S PET NAME TO A CHILD
 SLANGS AND INSIDE JOKES BETWEEN FRIENDS

LANGUAGE SHIFT AND DEATH

LANGUAGE SHIFT

- Denotes the replacement of one language by another as the primary means of communication and
socialization within the community.

Factors affecting Language Shift (Holmes, 1992: 65-70)

A.Demographic Factor
A factor playing role in the process of language shift in which there is a community of language moving to a region who’s
a language is different from another language, thus presence of tendency to shift toward a new language.

B. Attitudes/Values

Negative Attitudes

(determinant affecting to shift) A negative attitude toward the language can also accelerate language shift, it can be
occurring when an ethnic language is not highly valued and it is not seen as a symbol of identity.

Positive Attitudes

(factors to language maintenance) Positive might support effects to use the minority language in variety of domains and
also help people resist to pressure from the majority group to switch to their language (Holmes, 1992: 61).

The language would not be shift in which the minority language is highly valued thus, when the language is seen as an
important symbol of ethnic identity, it is generally maintained longer.

There two examples of language maintenance through positive attitude highly valued as:

A. France maintenance in Canada as well as in US due to France

internationally contribute to the positive attitude as a national status so, it has been an
international prestige.
B. Most of the Greek Immigrants to another country. Due to the contribution of Greek to
Western Philosophy and Culture, thus this awareness helps them to resist their language
from another language.

Motivations of negative attitude to language shift

A. A teenager moving to big city, gradually he tries to abundant his indigenous language in case
having various levels of formality.
B. It is considered that the usage of ethnic language would be quietly difficult as well as in proper as a
medium of instructional activities in school.
C. They must be required to choose another language to talk with other people in formality.
D. The speaker felt more prestigious when using other languages than using his ethnic language.
E. The speaker does not have the need to show his identity with ethnic language rather than by a new
language he would like to part of the global economic, politic, social, and culture.

C.Economic Factors
 - Main factor leading toward language shift from using one language to another language (abandoned), in
which the most obvious factor is that the community sees an important reason for learning the second
language is economic (Holmes, 1992: 65).
- Economic factor encouraging to language decline always results in bilingualism where it is as a
precursor of language shift.
- As Holmes says that “Job seekers see the importance of learning a new language which is widely used
in business.

D.Political and Social Factors

Political factor imposes on language shift in multilingual country, the authority usually chooses one language as the lingua
franca to unity the various kinds of ethnic groups, consequently most of the speakers having particular indigenous
language decrease.

The official languages of many African countries were determined by their former colonialists. Then, they replaced the
tribal African languages so. They led to the language replacement leading to Language shift (Bayer: 2005). Social Factor
where the language shift occurring as most communities considering another language in predominantly monolingual
society that dominated by one majority group language in all major.

LANGUAGE AND GENDER

Language and Gender

It explores how language varies in gender. Investigates varieties of speech associated with a particular gender(male or female).
Gender concerns the psychological, social and cultural differences between man and woman.

Language and gender deals with sexist language

It refers to representation of man and women unequally. Sociolinguists conduct studies and accumulated data from studying men
and women in a range of communities and contexts, the clearer it has become that generalizations along the lines of 'men use
language like this and women use it like that'.

Generalizations such as, 'Girls enjoy talk: it's what they do, what they're good at'.Most of the girls agreed that 'boys are hopeless
communicators!' (Carr and Pauwels, 2006: 146).
Relationship between language and Gender

Refers to the relationship between the language of male and female. In this language community, pronunciation is regarded as a
sign of sex. So if males speak in the way of a female or females speak in the way of a male, he or she will be looked on as a bi-
sexual.

➤ Language varies in gender in terms of speech, pronunciation, vocabulary, writing, and style, etc. Why this difference?

It is commonly argued that biolocal differences between males and females determine gender.

Higher levels of testosterone, for example, are said to lead men to be more aggressive than women; while their relative lack of
brain lateralization should lead women to be more "emotional.'

Gender influences linguistic behavior.

• The way people use language can be related to the social network they belong to, their habitual activities, their identities, and
status.

Holmes (cited in Bergwall 1999) formulates six Assumptions regarding language and gender:

1. Different patterns of language use

2. Women tend to focus more on the affective functions of an

interaction

3. Women tend to use linguistic devices that stress solidarity more often than men do.

4. In formal contexts men tend to interact in ways that

will maintain and increase their power and status.

5. Women use more standard forms than men

6. Women are stylistically more flexible than men.

GENDER-NEUTRAL GREETINGS

Instead of using greetings such as ladies and gentlemen or sir/madam, it is becoming more common to use neutral
greetings such as everyone or folks to be more inclusive towards non-binary people.

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN LANGUAGE USE

It has been argued that men and women use language in different ways, which reflects how they view themselves in
society and how others perceive them. A variety of theories have been developed by linguists to study the ways that men
and women use language. This allows us to gain a deeper understanding of possible similarities and differences between
genders through the language we use in conversation.

THEORIES IN LANGUAGE AND GENDER

1.DIFFERENCE THEORY

The difference theory simply aims to prove that men and women do speak in different ways. But, this does not mean that
one way is better than the other. A supporter of this theory is Deborah Tannen. In her book, You Just Don’t
Understand (1990), Tannen explores these differences. Below is a summary of her findings:

Men:
 Spoke more in general.
 Interrupted women more.
 Didn’t let women speak.
 Responded to women in a minimal and delayed way.
 Rarely interrupted other men.
Women:

 Were silent more, and for longer periods of time.

 Only interrupted other women, not men.

2. DOMINANCE THEORY

The dominance theory is the idea that the language men use is superior and holds more dominance in society, whereas
the language women use is seen as inferior. This theory could be seen as problematic as it suggests that men have
more authority over women, and women should be submissive. Some supporters of this theory include linguists such as
Don Zimmerman, Candace West, Pamela Fishman and Dale Spender.

Men:

 Spoke more in general.

 Interrupted women more.
 Didn’t let women speak.
 Responded to women in a minimal and delayed way.
 Rarely interrupted other men.
Women:

 Were silent more, and for longer periods of time.

 Only interrupted other women, not men.

3. DEFICIT THEORY

The deficit theory is the idea that the language men use is seen as the standard, whereas the language women
use differs from the standard and is seen as insufficient. This theory could be seen as sexist as it portrays women
as weaker and of lower status, highlighting the inequality faced by women. Supporters of this theory include Otto
Jespersen and Robin Lakoff.

Women:

 Talk a lot.
 Use simpler words as they have smaller vocabularies.
 Use more false starts and unfinished sentences because they speak before they think.
 Exaggerate more.
 Use too many adjectives and adverbs.
 Are emotional, not grammatical.
 Are more indirect, so are not as effective as men.

Men:

 Have larger vocabularies and use more difficult words.

 Are in charge of establishing new words in the English language

Women use more: Examples:

Backchannelling “Uh-huh”, “Mm”, “Yeah”

Hedging “Sort of”, “Kind of”

Intensifiers “Very”, “So”

Apologies “I’m sorry, but…”

 “You live here, right?”

Tag questions

“You sing, don’t you?”

Modal verbs “Could”, “Should”, “Ought to”

Wh- Imperatives “Why don’t we…”

Women may use these things more than men BUT they use less:
 Slang.
 Swear words.
 Insults.
And perhaps the most sexist observation of all…

 Women don’t have a good sense of humour and are bad at telling jokes.

LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL CLASS

The previous statement is a very basic way of explaining how class can affect language. When we look at this claim in
more detail, it becomes clear that certain preconceptions of language use (e.g. saying 'posh people speak like the
Queen') are one of the driving forces behind why we sometimes adapt our language depending on the listener. This is
the case for both positive and negative preconceptions.

LANGUAGE AWARENESS

We may change our language in cases when there are negative judgements associated with language use. For example,
if a person believes their accent or dialect will be judged negatively by others in the group, they might acquire a different
way of speaking. We may also change our language in cases of positive judgement. For example, if a person thinks they'll
sound of a higher class or more intelligent using Standard English and the RP accent, they may adapt their language to
have these traits. This is an example of language awareness.
As social class differentiates us into different social groups, there are language patterns and trends (dialects) that we use
in these groups. These social-group-specific forms of language are referred to as sociolect.

A sociolect is a form of language used by specific social groups based on social class, ethnicity, and age.

LANGUAGE AND SOCIAL STATUS

The connection between social status and language mainly relates to attitudes towards accents and dialects. This means
that people who speak in a 'respectable' way will be viewed as respectable. This is not as simple as it sounds, though, as
different people will perceive different accents and dialects as 'respectable.'

It used to be the case (and still often is) that the RP accent was associated with the higher classes. Anyone who spoke
this way was instantly associated with positive attributes such as intelligence, wealth, and education. If people instead
spoke with their regional accent, they were often deemed by the upper classes as being unintelligent, poor, and of a lower
class.

This perception of accent use relating to social status is now somewhat outdated, but it still holds some weight in how
people choose to speak to others, even if they do not consciously realise it. There have been numerous studies showing
that people of different classes in the modern world still show differences in their language use - some of which will be
discussed further on in this article.

A person's social status can be determined by the individual and their interests rather than just their class. In modern
times, class is a person's generic standing in society relating to their income and job. Social status depends less on this
and more on the social group to which an individual belongs or aspires to belong. There are many different areas of
society where a person can have different social standings.

Example:

Someone who has many academic achievements but does not speak with their regional accent may have a high social
standing in the academic world but may feel like an outcast within their regional community if they do not share the same
regional accent.

There are also different statuses within a class. For example, many people can be categorised as 'middle-class' due to
their job and income (teachers, doctors, lawyers, etc.). These people can all be viewed as being on a continuum regarding
their language use. Within these groups, there will be people who:

 speak with their regional accent (at one end of the continuum)
  speak in standard English and may have slight regional accent features, but are otherwise nondescript in their
language and accent (in the middle of the continuum)
 speak with an RP accent (at the other end of the continuum).

PERCEPTIONS OF LANGUAGE BASED ON SOCIAL CLASS

As we've discussed, there have been some outdated views relating to language use and class. Speaking with a regional
accent was associated with the working class, and speaking with an RP accent was associated with the upper class.
However, some of these perceptions still hold true in today's society.

CONVERGENCE AND DIVERGENCE

When it comes to perceptions of language use, people tend to alter how they speak to accommodate the perceptions they
either want to associate themselves with or distance themselves from. This is done
through convergence and divergence and can be either a subconscious or conscious choice.

Convergence is a type of change in which a speaker uses an accent or dialect they view positively. Doing this, they hope
to be associated with the common perceptions of the accent or dialect they're viewing favourably.

For example, someone may converge to an RP accent because they think they will sound more intelligent and confident.
Alternatively, someone may converge to a Yorkshire accent when wanting to sound more friendly, approachable, and
trustworthy.

Divergence occurs when a speaker tries to distance themselves from negative perceptions. If negative perceptions are
associated with a person's accent, they may choose to diverge from their accent and use fewer of their dialect
features. Divergence also happens when a person speaks to someone they don't like. If the unfavourable speaker has a
particular accent, their interlocutor may diverge in an effort to not sound like them and therefore not be associated with
them.
For example, two speakers (A and B) both have a Birmingham accent. If speaker A strongly dislikes speaker B, it is highly
likely that speaker A will diverge from speaker B and use fewer Birmingham accent and dialect features.

OVERT AND COVERT PRESTIGE

People may use predetermined and known perceptions relating to language use and class to exhibit either overt or
covert prestige.
Overt prestige is when a speaker takes pride in using more standard, formal language as they associate it with a certain
level of prestige. This is most commonly seen by those who aspire to be in a higher class as they're using common
preconceptions of language to give themselves a high social status that is publicly acknowledged.

Covert prestige is when someone takes pride in using their regional accent or other non-standard forms of language.
From doing this, the speaker gains status within their peer group. This retains a high social status within a specific social
group without them needing to exhibit themselves as being of a higher class.

LANGUAGE AND POWER (POLITENESS)

Dictators aren’t the only people who have a way with words. The media, advertising agencies, educational institutions,
politicians, religious institutes, and the monarchy (the list goes on) all use language to help them maintain authority or gain
influence over others.

ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND POWER

According to linguist Shân Wareing (1999), there are three main types of power:¹
 Political power - power held by people with authority, such as politicians and the police.
 Personal power - power based on an individual's occupation or role in society. For example, a headteacher
would likely hold more power than a teaching assistant.
 Social group power - power held by a group of people due to certain social factors, such as class, ethnicity,
gender, or age.

Wareing suggested that these three types of power can be divided into instrumental power and influential power. People,
or organisations, can hold instrumental power, influential power, or both.

1. INSTRUMENTAL POWER

Instrumental power is seen as authoritative power. Typically speaking, someone who has instrumental power has
power simply because of who they are. These people do not have to convince anyone of their power or persuade
anyone to listen to them; others must listen to them simply because of the authority they have.

Headteachers, government officials, and the police are figures who have instrumental power.

People or organisations with instrumental power use language to maintain or enforce their authority.
Features of instrumental power language include:
 Formal register
 Imperative sentences - giving requests, demands, or advice
 Modal verbs - e.g., 'you should'; 'you must'
 Mitigation - using language to reduce the seriousness of what is being said
 Conditional sentences - e.g., ‘if you don’t respond soon, further action will be taken.'
 Declarative statements - e.g., 'in today's class we will look at declarative statements.'
 Latinate words - words derived from or imitating Latin

2. INFLUENTIAL POWER

Influential power refers to when a person (or group of people) does not have any authority but is trying to gain
power and influence over others. Those who wish to gain influential power may use language to persuade others
to believe in them or support them. This type of power is often found in politics, the media, and marketing.

Features of influential power language include:

 Assertions - presenting opinions as facts, e.g., ‘we all know that England is the greatest country in the world’
 Metaphors - the use of established metaphors can reassure the audience and evoke the power of memory,
establishing a bond between the speaker and the listener.
 Loaded language - language that can evoke strong emotions and/or exploit feelings
 Embedded assumptions - e.g., assuming the listener is really interested in what the speaker has to say
In some spheres of society, such as in politics, both aspects of power are present. Politicians have authority over us, as
they impose the laws we must follow; however, they must also try to persuade us to continue voting for them and their
policies.

LANGUAGE AND POWER EXAMPLES

We can see examples of language being used to assert power all around us. Among other reasons, language can be
used to make us believe in something or someone, to persuade us to buy something or vote for someone, and to ensure
we follow the law and behave as ‘good citizens’.

EXAMPLES:

 In the media
 The news
 Advertising
  Politics
 Speeches
 Education
 Law
 Religion

LANGUAGE AND POWER IN POLITICS

Politics and power (both instrumental and influential power) go hand in hand. Politicians use political rhetoric in their
speeches to persuade others to give them power.

Here are some of the strategies used in political rhetoric:

 Repetition
 Rule of three - e.g., Tony Blaire’s ‘Education, Education, Education’ policy
 Use of 1st person plural pronouns - 'we', 'us'; e.g., the Queen’s use of the royal ‘we’
 Hyperbole - exaggeration
 Rhetorical questions
 Leading questions - e.g., 'you don’t want your country to be run by a clown, do you?'
 Changes in tone and intonation
 Use of lists
 Using imperative verbs - verbs used to create imperative sentences, e.g., ‘act now’ or ‘speak up’
 Use of humour
 Tautology - saying the same thing twice but using different words to do so, e.g., ‘it’s 7 am in the morning’
 Prevarication - not answering direct questions

FEATURES OF LANGUAGE AND POWER

We’ve seen some examples of how language is used to represent power, but let’s take a look at some more language
features in both spoken and written discourse that are used to maintain and enforce power.

1.LEXICAL CHOICE

 Emotive language - e.g., emotive adjectives used in the House of Commons include 'depraved', 'sickening', and
'unimaginable'
 Figurative language - e.g., metaphors, similes, and personification
  Forms of address - someone with power may refer to others by their first names but expect to be addressed
more formally, i.e., 'miss', 'sir', 'ma'am' etc.
 Synthetic personalisation - Fairclough (1989) coined the term ‘synthetic personalisation’ to describe how powerful
institutes address the mass as individuals to create a feeling of friendliness and reinforce their power.

2.GRAMMAR
 Interrogatives - asking the listener/reader questions
 Modal verbs - e.g., 'you should'; 'you must'
 Imperative sentences - commands or requests, e.g., 'vote now!'

3.PHONOLOGY

 Alliteration - the repetition of letters or sounds

 Assonance - the repetition of vowel sounds
 Rising and falling intonation
IN CONVERSATION

 Conversational dominance – through interruption, comparatively lengthy utterances, topic management.

 Control of other participants’ contributors - telling them when to speak, or what to speak about
 Evaluating other participants’ contributions, e.g. approving\praising
 Mode of address [e.g. title of christian name ]
 Use of questions, statements, etc.
 Acknowledgement [or not] of other participants’ contributions
 Plus: all the language features listed above, that apply to written texts

SAMPLE STUDIES IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Sociolinguists study linguistic features used by groups of people to examine how social factors influence language
choices.

William Labov (1927-present day), an American psychologist, is widely considered the founder of sociolinguistics. Labov
drew on linguistics, sociology, psychology, and anthropology to apply a scientific approach to the study of language
varieties.
EXAMPLE OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS

AAVE is a variety of English spoken predominantly by black Americans. The variety has its own unique linguistic
structures, including grammar, syntax, and lexicon. In the case of AAVE, there are variations in the language due to
ethnicity, geographical location, and social class. Because of the effect of these social factors on AAVE, it is considered
an ethnolect, a dialect, and a sociolect (don’t worry, we’ll cover these terms shortly!).

Historically, AAVE has been deemed a ‘low-prestige dialect’ and therefore accused of being ‘bad English’. However, many
linguists argue that this is not the case, and that AAVE should be considered a fully-fledged English variety in its own
right. Others have taken this idea further and argue that AAVE should be considered its own language, which they have
called Ebonics.

In more recent years, common words from AAVE have been making their way into the ‘mainstream’ thanks to social
media, and you may even be using AAVE without realising it. For example, the word ‘ woke’ has grown in popularity since
2015. However, the term is not new and was initially used by black Americans in the 1940s to mean ‘ stay awake’ to racial
injustices.

Sociolinguists may be interested in how the use of AAVE has recently started creeping into the lexicon of teenagers from
all different geographical, racial, and class backgrounds. Have you heard the terms ‘ she money’ ‘I’m finna…’ ‘slay’ or ‘on
fleek’? They all originate from AAVE!

SOCIOLINGUISTICS ANALYSIS: FACTORS AFFECTING SOCIOLINGUISTICS

 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION

Where you grew up can significantly impact how you speak. Linguists refer to these variations in language
as dialects. In the UK, dialects vary from region to region and often have different pronunciation, grammar, and
vocabulary compared to Standard British English. Some common UK dialects include Geordie (found in
Newcastle), Scouse (found in Liverpool), and Cockney (found in London)

 OCCUPATION

Your occupation can impact how you use language. For example, a computer programmer would be far more
likely to use tech jargon than a chef. Jargon is a kind of slang specific to a workplace or small group and is often
difficult for people outside the group to understand. An example of tech jargon is the term ‘ Unicorn’, which refers
to a start-up company valued at over $1 billion.
 GENDER

This factor is a little more controversial than the others as there is a lot of conflicting research around the
differences between men and women’s use of language. Some researchers suggest that differences in speech
are due to genetics, whereas others think that women’s lower status in society has had an impacted on their use
of language.

Some studies have found that women tend to be more polite and expressive, and men tend to be more direct.
Other studies have shown that men swear more, and women are more likely to use ‘caretaker speech’ (speech
modified to talk to young children) as they are often the primary caregivers.

 AGE

New words are added to the dictionary every year, and many words that were once common fall out of use. This
is because language is constantly changing. Think about your grandparents or someone significantly older than
you. Do you think they would understand if you told them that the email they received
looked suss (suspicious/suspect)? What do you think they would say if you said their outfit was cheugy?

 SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS

This typically refers to a person’s class. According to a recent survey, there are now seven social classes in the
UK: precariat (precarious proletariat), emergent service workers, traditional working-class, new affluent workers,
technical middle class, established middle class, and elite. The language someone uses will likely differ
significantly depending on their socioeconomic status. This can all be linked to the education they received, the
people they choose to spend time with (or can afford to spend time with), the job that they do, or how much
money they have.

 ETHNICITY

Sociolinguists have long argued that there is a relationship between ethnicity and language uses. The previous
example of AAVE shows how ethnicity can affect language.
 PHILIPPINE SOCIOLINGUISTICS

Philippine English is the English language as used in the Philippines. The 1980 census counted the number of Filipinos
with some competence in English as around 65%: some 35 million people. Ability ranges from a smattering of words and
phrases through passive comprehension to near-native mastery.

Filipino experience of Western colonialism and its linguistic effects has been unique, in that there have been two
colonizers in succession: Spain from the 16th century and the US from 1898, when English arrived in the islands. It
spread rapidly, to the detriment of Spanish, because it was the new language of government, preferment, and education.
Incentives to learn English included recruitment into the civil service and study in the US. In 1935, US-educated
pensionados (scholars) became leaders of the Senate and the House of Representatives as well as members of the
cabinet. English was used universally in the elementary- school system set up by the colonial government, which brought
in American teachers. Education was the last government department to be indigenized, with US superintendents still
functioning under the Commonwealth government before the outbreak of World War II. In the Philippines there are some
85 mutually unintelligible though genetically related languages of the Malayo-Polynesian family, such as Tagalog,
Cebuano, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Waray, and Bicol. These languages of the home serve as substrates whose features have
variously influenced the development of Philippine English.

• PRONUNCIATION

1. Philippine English is rhotic, but the local /i/ is an alveolar flap, not an American English retroflex.
2. It is syllable-timed, following the rhythm of the local languages; full value is therefore given to
unstressed syllables and schwa is usually realized as a full vowel.
3. Certain polysyllables have distinctive stress patterns, as with eligible, establish, ceremony
4. Intonation is widely characterized as 'singsong'.
5. Educated Filipinos aim at an American English accent, but have varying success with the vowel
contrasts in sheep/ship, full/fool, and boat/ bought.
6. Few Filipinos have the/æ/in American English mask; instead, they use /a/ as in American English
father.
7. The distinction between /s, z/ and /3, 2 is not made, azure is 'ayshure', pleasure 'pleshure', seize 'sees',
cars 'karss'
8. Interdental /0 0/are often rendered as /t, d/, so that three of these is spoken as 'tree of dese'.
• GRAMMAR

1. Loss of the singular inflection of verbs: The family home rest on the bluff of a hill; One of the boys give
a report to the teacher every morning.
2. Use of present perfect for simple past (I have seen her yesterday I saw her yesterday) and past perfect
for present perfect (He had already gone home He has already gone home).
3. Use of the continuous tenses for habitual aspect: He is going to school regularly. He goes to school
regularly.
4. Use of the present forms of auxiliary verbs in subordinate noun clauses rather than past forms, and vice
versa: He said he has already seen you He said he had already seen you, She hoped that she can visit
you tomorrow; She hoped that she could visit you tomorrow; He says that he could visit you tomorrow
He says that he can visit you tomorrow.
5. An apparent reversal of the norms for the use of the definite article: He is studying at the Manuel
Quezon University; I am going to visit United States.
6. Verbs that are generally transitive used intransitively; Did you enjoy?; I cannot afford; I don't like.

• VOCABULARY AND IDIOMS

1. Loans from Spanish: asalto a surprise party, bienvenida a welcome party, despedida a farewell party,
Don/Doña title for a promi- nent man/woman, estafa a fraud, scandal, merienda mid-afternoon tea,
plantilla faculty assignments and deployment in an academic depart ment, querida a mistress, viand
(from vianda provisions for a journey) a dish served to accompany rice in a Filipino meal.
2. Loans from Tagalog: boondock (from bundok) mountain (compare the AmE-extension: the boondocks),
carabao (from kalabaw) a water buffalo, kundiman a love song, sampaloc (from sampalok) the fruit of
the tamarind, tao man (as in the common tao).
3. Loan translations from local usages: open the light radio turn on the light/radio (also found in IndE),
since before yet for a long time, joke only I'm teasing you, you don't only know you just don't realize, he
is playing and playing he keeps on playing, making foolishness (of children) misbehaving, I am
ashamed to you I am embarrassed because I have been asking you so many favors.
4. Local neologisms: aggrupation (from Spanish agrupacion) a group, captain-ball team cap- tain in
basketball, carnap to steal (kidnap) a car, cope up to keep up and cope with (something), hold-upper
someone who engages in armed hold- ups, jeepney (blending jeep and jitney, AmE a small bus) a jeep
converted into a passenger vehicle.
• WRITTEN MODELS

Because of the influence of reading and writing and the academic context in which English is learned, local speech tends
to be based on. written models. Filipinos generally speak the way they write, in a formal style based on Victorian prose
models. Because of this, spelling pronunciations are common, such as 'lee-o-pard' for leopard, 'subtill' for subtle, and 'wor-
sester-shire sauce' for Worcestershire sauce. Style is not differentiated and the formal style in general use has been
called the classroom compositional style. When style differentiation is attempted there may be effects that are comical
from the point of view of a native speaker of English: 'The commissioners are all horse owners, who at the same time will
appoint the racing stewards who will adjudicate disputes involving horses. Neat no?" (from a newspaper column); 'Now
the tandem (pair) is making its dreams come true, so it's not Goin' Bananas forever for Johnny' (from a gossip column).

• CODE-SWITCHING

A register has developed for rapport and intimacy that depends on code-switching between Filipino and English. It is
largely confined to Metro Manila and other urban centers and used extensively in motion pictures and on television and
radio as well as in certain types of informal writing in daily newspapers and weekly magazines.

Examples:

1. "Peks man, she swears. 'Wala pang nangyayari sa amin ni Marlon. We want to surprise each other on our
honeymoon." ['Cross my heart, she swears. 'Nothing yet has happened between Marlon and me..."] (from a
movie gossip column).
2. Donna reveals that since she turned producer in 1986, her dream was to produce a movie for children; 'Kaya,
nang mahasa ko ang Tuklaw sa Aliwan Komiks, sabi ko, this is it. And I had the festival in mind when finally I
decided to produce it, Pambata talaga kasi ang Pasko, Donna says. 'That is why when I read the story "Snake
Bite" in the Aliwan Comic Book, I told myself, this is it... Because Christmas is really for children) (from a movie
gossip column).

• SOCIAL ISSUES

Philippine English is currently competing in certain domains with the rapidly spreading and developing Filipino, which is in
a process of register-building sometimes called intellectualization. Filipino is not fully developed for academic discourse,
especially in the sciences, and there is an ongoing debate on the use of Filipino instead of English for school work and
official purposes. There is also conflict between the learning of Filipino for symbolic purposes and the learning of English
for utilitarian, largely economic, purposes. The two official languages are propagated through a bilingual education
scheme begun in 1974; mathematics and science continue to be taught in English although it is envisaged that when
possible the teaching of these subjects at certain grade levels shall be in Filipino. The print media are dominated by
English, but television, radio, and local movies are dominated by Filipino.English in the Philippines shares patterns of
development and constriction with English in Malaysia. From a situation similar to that of Singapore, where a premium is
placed on learning English and using it extensively, the Philippines has now moved on to a stage at which English has
developed a vigorous literature. It is in the process of standardization, with a variety no longer marked by regional accents
associated with regional languages, but a converging variety that originates in Manila. This form is propagated largely
though the school system, the mass media, and tourism. Because of code-switching, it seems unlikely that a colloquial
variety of English alone will develop. The future is open, without clear trends. On the one hand, code-switching may end
up in code-mixing, resulting in a local creole. On the other hand, the need for international relations, the dominance of the
print media, and the continued use of English in education may exercise a standardizing role, making it possible for the
Philippine variety to be mutually intelligible with other varieties of English. It is also possible that the present system of
bilingual education will be converted into a purely monolingual Filipino scheme in which English is taught as a foreign
language and becomes available only to an elite.

VARIETIES OF PHILIPPINE ENGLISH WITH STUDIES (YAYA ENGLISH BY BAUTISTA, COLEHIALA ENGLISH BY
PEREZ)

YAYA ENGLISH

- A qualification that Ma. Lourdes Bautista makes is that the features of yaya English are actually typical
of standard Philippine English.
- The difference being that the errors in standard Philippine English are sporadic and infrequent.
- Bautista identifies the deeper problem of yaya English as the fact that its errors arise from ignorance of
rules. It is also considered as sparse, wherein the yaya is forced to use English because her young
charges are usually from affluent families that speak English.

Examples:

- Double deck
- Comfort room
- Advance
- Commute
- Computer shop
- Course

COLEGIALA ENGLISH
 - Bautista observes that what she calls "the base language" is English but that the syntax is characteristically
Tagalog (predicate + subject).
- Other characteristics of colegiala English are frequent insertion of common Tagalog function words
(particles, conjunctions, etc.) and the use of Tagalog content words and Tagalog exclamatives.
- The colegiala belongs to the higher socio-economic class associated with educated English.

Examples:

- Barangay - basic unit of administration.

- Carinderia - small food stall with some seating space.
- Habal-habal – motorcycle taxi
- Rotunda- traffic circle
- Halo-halo- filipino dessert

SOCIOLINGUISTIC VARIETIES OF THE PHILIPPINE ENGLISH BY LLAMZON

The sociolinguistic varieties of Philippine English, as discussed by Llamzon, are classified into three main categories:
Acrolect, Mesolect, and Basilect. These categories represent different levels of linguistic features and variations found
within the spectrum of Philippine English.

1. Acrolect

- The Acrolect represents the more prestigious or formal variety of Philippine English. It is often
associated with educated speakers, particularly those who have had exposure to international English
standards.

- Characteristics of the Acrolect may include a closer adherence to standard English grammar,
pronunciation, and vocabulary. Speakers of the Acrolect may use English in a manner similar to native
speakers from English-speaking countries.

2. Mesolect

- The Mesolect occupies a middle ground between the Acrolect and the Basilect. It is a variety of
Philippine English that is commonly spoken by the educated middle class.

- Mesolect speakers may exhibit a mix of local linguistic features along with more standard English
elements. This variety is often used in everyday communication and is less formal than the Acrolect.

3. Basilect
 - The Basilect is the variety of Philippine English associated with informal, everyday communication. It is
commonly spoken by individuals from lower socioeconomic backgrounds and may include more local
linguistic influences.

- Basilect speakers may incorporate regional dialects, colloquial expressions, and non-standard
grammatical structures into their English. This variety is often characterized by a more relaxed and
localized use of the language.

"SLANGUAGES" IN THE PHILIPPINES

"Slanguages" in the Philippines refer to various forms of colloquial or slang languages that have emerged in different
subcultures. These linguistic phenomena often incorporate a mix of English, Filipino, and local languages, along with
unique expressions and vocabulary. Three notable examples of "slanguages" in the Philippines are Jologs or Salitang
Kalye, Beki Language/Swardspeak, and Jejemon.

1. JOLOGS OR SALITANG KALYE

Definition - Jologs, or Salitang Kalye, refers to street slang or language commonly used in informal settings. It
is characterized by the incorporation of local expressions, creative wordplay, and non-standard grammar.

Usage - Jologs language is often associated with the urban youth and is used in casual conversations,
especially in informal gatherings or among friends.

2. BEKI LANGUAGE/SWARDSPEAK

Definition - Beki Language, also known as Swardspeak, is a unique linguistic phenomenon associated with the
gay community in the Philippines. It involves the playful mixing of Filipino and English words, as well as the use
of exaggerated intonation and expressions.

Usage - Beki Language is commonly used within the LGBTQ+ community and is recognized for its creativity,
humor, and the sense of identity it conveys. It is often used in a light-hearted and theatrical manner.

3. JEJEMON

Definition - Jejemon is a subculture and linguistic trend characterized by the intentional misspelling of words,
excessive use of letters and numbers, and unique orthography. It emerged primarily in text messaging and online
communication.
Usage - Jejemon language is associated with the youth culture and is used in digital communication, especially
on social media platforms. The intentional deviation from standard spelling and grammar is a defining feature.