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Root systems and elliptic curves

Article in Inventiones mathematicae · February 1976

DOI: 10.1007/BF01390167

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Inventiones math. 38, 1 7 - 3 2 (1976) l n v e n tio~les
mathematicae
~L~)by Springer-Verlag 1976

Root Systems and Elliptic Curves

Eduard Looijenga *
Mathematisch Instituut, Toernooiveld, Driehuizerweg 200, Nijmegen, The Netherlands**

Introduction

This paper describes a new invariant theory for root systems. We briefly outline
the main geometric applications; for precise results we refer the reader to the
relevant theorems. Let R be a root system, R v its dual and QV the lattice generated
by R v. If E is an elliptic curve over tr, then A : = QV | is an abelian variety on
which the Weyl group W of R acts. It is easily shown that there is a W-invariant
symmetric bilinear form I on QV such that 1 takes the value 2 on the roots of
smallest length. It follows from the theorem of Appell-Humbert that there exists a
line bundle 5O over A of "Chern c l a s s " - I such that the action of W on A lifts to
an action of W on 5 ~ with the property that W leaves the fibre over 0 c A fixed.
Then 5 ~ 1 is ample and the algebra of W-invariant sections
oo

S(E)W,= @ r(so-k) w
k=0
is a polynomial algebra on l + 1 generators, where l denotes the rank of R. The
S(E)W-module of W-anti-invariant sections
oo

S(E)-W:= (~ F(SO-k) - w
k=0
is free on one generator. Moreover, the divisor A of this generator is precisely the
union of reflection-hypertori in A.
The Weyl formula for affine root systems, in its full generality first proved by
Macdonald, plays in this invariant theory a r61e analogous to the r61e played by
the classical Weyl formula in the ordinary exponential invariant theory. In the
last section we give a natural and relatively simple proof for it (at least for the cases
we are considering): the point is to interpret both sides of this formula as theta
functions for A.

* Research partially supported by the Scientific Research Council

** After Sept. l, 1976: Mathematisches Institut der Universit~it Bonn, Wegeler Stral3e 10, 5300 Bonn
18 E. LooOenga

This suggests that our results (as well as their proofs) are more naturally
expressed in the framework of affine root systems than in the present somewhat
narrower context.
We were naturally led to these results by our research on the semi-universal
deformations of the simple elliptic singularities. There the line bundle Lf turns up
with R of type E 6 , E 7 or E 8.
H. Pinkham communicated to me that he found an independent proof of the
fact that Spec S(E) w is isomorphic to ~t+~.
Part of this work was carried out in the academic year 74/75, when the author
was a visitor of the University of Liverpool.

1. A Quadratic Form

(1.1) Let R be a reduced irreducible root system in a real vector space Vand let
R v c V* denote its dual. We write Q c V and QV c V* for the lattices generated
by R and R v respectively. Their dual lattices are denoted by PV c V* and P c V
and we have Q c P and QV c pv.
Once and for all we fix a basis ~1 . . . . . ~t for R (1= rank R). Then ~ ' , ..., ~[ is
a basis for R v.
Let ~ R be the highest root. Since (c~, ~ v ) has the same sign as (~, ~ ) , ~
will be a positive root of R ~. In case all roots of R have the same length we even
have equality: ( ~ , ~ v ) = (~, ~ ) and then it follows that ~ is the highest root of
/ l

R v. We write ~ out on the basis of R ~ : ~ = ~ ga ~ and we put g = 1 + ~ ga.

2=1 .~=1
In case all roots have the same length, gl . . . . . gt are the coefficients of the highest
root so that g is the Coxeter number h of R [1, Ch. VI w 1, prop. 31].
We now introduce a symmetric bilinear form I on V*:
(1.1.1) I(x*,y*)=(Zg) -1 ~, ( ~ , x * ) ( ~ , y * ) .

It is clear that I is positive definite and invariant under the Weyl group W of R.
We show that ! takes integral values on Q~ • Q~.
(1.2) Lemma./(~,~v)=2.
Proof. Clearly, ~ (~, &~)2 = 2 ~, (~, 8c~ )2, where R + denotes the set of positive
~R ~R +
roots. Now, for any ~ R + -{~},(~, ~ ) equals 0 or 1. Hence the sum is equal to

2( Z (c~,~)+4)=2( Z ( ~ , f i v ) +2)
~R + - {~} ~R +

= 2((2p, ~) + 2),
where p stands for the half sum of positive roots. Because (p, a~ ) = 1 for all
2 [1, Ch. VI, w 1, prop. 29], the last term equals 2 ( 2 g x + . . . + 2 g t + 2 ) = 4 g . The
lemma follows.
(1.3) Corollary. I takes integral values on Q~ x Q~.
Root Systems and Elliptic Curves 19

Proof Since ~ is a root of maximal length [1, Ch. VI, w 1, prop. 25], ~ is a root of
R v of minimal length. It follows that for any root eVeR ~, I ( e ~ , ~ ) e { 2 , 4 , 6 } .
Since I is W-invariant, we have

I(~ ~, x*)
(cCx*)=2--
l(~V, ~v)
for any ~ER, x * e V * . So if ~,fleR, then I(~V,flv)= 89 v ) which is
integral since i ( ~ v ~v) is even.
(1.4) Remark. Let S 2 Qv denote the lattice of integral symmetric bilinear forms
on QV. U p to a constant factor there is a unique W-invariant bilinear form on V*.
By (1.3), (S 2 Q~)W4: 0, so (S 2 Q~)W is infinite cyclic. One checks easily that I
generates (S2QV) w unless R is of type C~ (l>3), in which case 89 is a generator.
I determines a h o m o m o r p h i s m V*-+ V which we also denote by I. We set
M = I - I ( P ) and we define d~e V* by I(d~, ~ , ) = 3 ~ , (Kronecker symbol). Then
d 1..... d I generate M, of course.
The basis ~1 . . . . . ~z determines a chamber C', being the set of x * e V* with
( ~ , x * ) > 0 for 2 = 1..... I. The alcove C is the set o f x * e C' satisfying (~, x * ) < 1.
C is an open/-simplex.
(1.5) Lemma. The vertices of C are the origin f o : = 0 and the points f x : = g ~ l da.
Proof. A vertex of C is a point where all but one of the functions ~1 . . . . . at, 1 - ~
vanish. We have
= 2 I(~t~'-da)-I(~ ~, dz)= gz,
(&, d~) i(&v ' &~)

so that 1 - ~( vanishes in fz (2-- 1. . . . . I). If ,14: p, then

(~, d~)=2 ~ ) - 0 ,
I(~ ' ~u )
so that % vanishes in fa if p 4:,t.
Following Macdonald, we put r = g - 1(d~ + . . . + dl)
(1.6) Corollary. Let k be a nonnegative integer. Then
(a) k - ~ M c ~ C = ~ i f k < g .
(b) g - a m c~ C = {r}.
(c) The map b : k -1 M ~ C-+ ((g + k)- 1M) c~ C which sends m to (g + k)- 1(km + g r)
is a bijection.
Proof. In affine coordinates we have r = g - l ( 1 "fo + g l f l + " " + g l f ) (recall that
1 + g~ + ... + g~= g). Since all coefficients are positive we have r e C.
If m e k - 1 M ~ t~, then (g + k)- ~(km + g r) lies on the line connecting m and r,
but is not equal to m. Since C is convex, this implies that ( g + k ) - ~ ( k m + g r ) e C .
So the m a p b goes to where the lemma says.
Now let m' ek -~ Mc~ C. Then kin'= k ld~ +''' +kzd~ (kxe7l) = k~ gafa + " " +ktg~f~"
Since m ' e C we must have k~gx>O and k > k a g ~ + . . . + k t g ~ . It follows that
k > g l + ... +g~, i.e. k>g. Equality can only occur if k~ . . . . . k~= 1, which means
20 E. LooOenga

m' = r. If k > g, then look at k m' - g r = (kl - 1) g 1.fl + " " + (kz- 1) g~fl. We have
ka___ 1, so the coefficients are >=0. Moreover, their sum (k I - 1) gl + ' " +(kl-- 1) gl
is strictly smaller than k - ( g - 1) and therefore < k - g. It follows that
m'. = (k - g)- l (k m' - g r)c(k - g)- l M c~ C.
It is clear that b maps m to m'.
We shall also need the "strange formula" of Freudenthal-de Vries. We put
this formula in a form which is more convenient for our purpose.
(1.7) The strange jbrmula. 8 9 where h denotes the Coxeter
number of R.
Proof The form 2 g I ( = ~ 6 | is nondegenerate and so induces a symmetric
6eR
bilinear form cb on V This is just the canonical bilinear form [1, Ch. VI, w 1, no. 12].
The strange formula of Freudenthal-de Vries [2, p. 243] asserts that
(1.7.1) ~(p,p)=2~(h+l)I,
where p is as before the half sum of the positive roots. Since 2 g l(r, ~'~) = 2 = (2p, c~),
it follows that 2gI(r, r ) = q~(2p, 2p). Hence (1.7) follows from (1.7.1).
(1.8) We close this section by quoting a result of Macdonald.
The affine Weyl group W, is the group of affine transformations of V* which is
generated by W a n d QV. It appears that W, is a semi-direct product of these groups.
Furthermore, (~' and C are fundamental domains for W and W~ respectively.
An affine linear function ~: V* --, IR is called an affine root if a(x*) = (e, x * ) + n
for some e e R and n e Z . We denote the set of affine roots by R a. It is easily checked
that Wa leaves the set ofaffine roots invariant. There is precisely one affine reflection
s e W, which sends a to - a . An affine root doesn't vanish in a point of C: if (c~,x*)
= n e Z , then x* is fixed under the reflection x * - - , s * ( x * ) + n c t v in IV,. Since C is
a fundamental domain of W,, we cannot have x * e C. We call an affine root a
positive if a is positive on C. The set of positive affine roots is denoted by R +, so
that R is the disjoint union of R + and - R +. More precisely,
(1.8.1) R,+={~+n:a~R+,n>=0}w{~+n:~e-R+,n__>l},
for the righthand side is clearly contained in the lefthand side and for any a e R ,
either a or - a is in the righthand side.
For any we Wa, let R(w) denote the set of affine roots which are positive on C,
but negative on w C. Clearly a e R(w) iff a is positive and the zero set of a ( = re-
flection hyperplane of sa) separates C and w C. It follows that R (w) is a finite set.
Following Macdonald we put
(1.8.2) s(w)= ~ a.
aER(w)

Clearly, s(w) is positive on C. Macdonald has shown that

(1.8.3) s(w)(x*)=lgl(wr-x *, w r - x * ) - 8 9 r-x*)
[5, 7.5]. The proof proceeds by induction on the number of reflection hyperplanes
separating C and w C.
Root Systems and Elliptic Curves 21

2. Formal Theta Functions

(2.1) Let F denote the lattice of affine linear functions on V* which take integral
values on QV. F contains the subgroup 2~ of constant functions and we have in
fact a natural isomorphism F ~ P@2~ defined by f--~ (f-f(O), f(0)). Let e(F) denote
the subgroup of Z v whose elements are of the form
o= y~ % e(f)
f(r)>=n

for some n E IR. Here e(f) stands for the element of •v which is one on f and zero
on F - { f } . We then call inf{f(r): c i # 0 } the order of 0, usually denoted by v(0),
and
in(O):= ~ cfe(f)
f(r)=v(O)
the initial part of 0.
Note that V* acts on F (by translation) and hence on 7/F. An element Oze(F)
will be called a theta function of degree k ( = 0 , 1, 2 .... ) if for any vcQ v we have
(2.1.1) v*O=e(-kI(v)- 89
This makes sense, for i(~v, a v ) i s even for all ~V~R so that 89 It is not
difficult to see that (2.1.1) is equivalent to the condition that for all ~v ~R v
(2.1.2) av*O=e(- 89
The set of theta functions of degree k is denoted by F a. Observe that any element
of the form
c e(n); no,nCZ,
n~no
lies in F ~ and conversely, any element of F ~ is of this form. Hence F ~ has a natural
ring-structure.
We may view

F:= @F k
k=O
as a subgroup of e(F). Our first aim is to show that F is in a natural way a graded
algebra over F ~ For this we shall need the following
(2.2) Lemma. Let O=~ cye(f)~F k. Then .for any t~IR, the set {f: f(r)=t and
Cf :~=0} is finite, f

Proof For any f ~ F k we put O ( f ) : = { f + k I ( v ) + n : w Q ~ and nET/}. If S c P is a

system of representatives for P/I(kQ~), then it is clear that F=[_J{O(f):feS}.
Since P/l(kQ ~) is finite, it therefore suffices to show that for any .['ES the set
{f'~O(f): f ' ( r ) = t and cy, ~0} is finite.
Consider Equation (2.1.1). At the lefthand side Cy_a~(,)+. is the coefficient of
e ( f - k l ( v ) +n +f(v)-kI(v, v)). The coefficient of the latter in the righthand side
equals Cf+n+f(v)_89 S o we have

(2.2.1) CS_k~(~)+ =Cs+.+S(~)_89 ~.

22 E. Loo~enga

Iff(r)-kl(v, r)+n=t, then by (2.1.1)

C f _ k l ( v ) +n ~ C f + t - f ( r ) + k l ( v , r ) + f ( v ) - ~ k l ( v , v)"

Since I is positive definite, the last coefficient is nonzero for only finitely many
w Q v. Hence {f'~O(f):f'(r)=t and cy, 4=0} is finite.
(2.3) Corollary. If 0 ' = ~ c'I e(f) and 0" =~, c~e(f) belong to F k and U respec-
f f
tively, then for any f~F, ~ c'ii c~2 is a finite sum.
fl+f2=f

Proof If f = f l + f z and c~lci#:O, then v(O')<fl(r)<f2(r)-v(O"). Since r has

rational coordinates with respect to QV, F . f ~ _ d - l Z for some d~lN. So f~(r) can
take only finitely many values. By the previous lemma each value is assumed by
only finitely many f~ ~F with csl #0. Hence the sum is finite.
(2.4)By Corollary (2.3)we have a welt-defined product of 0 ' = ~ c'y e ( f ) e F k and
f
o"=~ cje(f)Er ~given by frO"= ~ c'yc~2e(fl+f2). It is clear that in (0'0")=
f fl,f2

in(if) in(if') and in particular v(O'O")=v(O')v(O"). Furthermore, it is clear that

frO" satisfies (2.1.1) with k replaced by k+l. So FkFt~_Fk+~ and it follows that F
becomes a graded F~
For any rnck-~M we put
(2.4.1) 0,,:= ~ e(-kI(v)+ 89
wm+Q v

We have -kl(v)sI(M)=P and I(v,v)-I(m,m)=l(v-m,v-m)+ 2l(m,v-m)s2k -1 Z,

so that 0,,~Z v. Since I is positive definite, we even have O,,Ee(F). Moreover, as is
easily verified, 0m satisfies (2.1.1). Hence OmGFk. Note also that if veQ", then
Om+~=e(- 89 v)-kI(v, m) 0,..
(2.5) Lemma. If S ~ k - I M is a system of representatives for k-IM/Q ~, then
{0,.},.~ s is a F~ for F k.
Proof It is easily seen that F ~ 0,. c~ F ~ 0,., # {0} implies k I(m) - k I(m') ~ I(Q ~), or
equivalently m - m' ~ Q~. It follows that F ~ 0,. c~ F ~ 0,., = {0} if m, m' s S a n d m + m',
and this shows that the 0m, m~S, are independent over yO.
Now let 0 = ~ cI e(f)~F k. For each rosS, we put
f
~b(m)= ~ c(n-kI(m)) e(n).
n~Z
Since, c(n - k l(m)) = 0 if n - k l(m, r) < v (0), we have 4~(m)e F ~ By construction, the
coefficients of 0'..= 0 - ~ qS(m)0m belonging to I(S)+ 7L vanish. It then follows
mES
from the fact that 0' satisfies (2.1.1) that all coefficients of 0' must vanish. This proves
that 0 = ~ qS(m)0,..

The Weyl group W acts on V*, hence also on F and 7/v. From the Definition
(2.4.1) we see that O~m=wOm (We W), SO that Wleaves F* invariant. We denote the
set of W-invariant, (resp. W-anti-invariant) theta functions of degree k by (Fk)w
(resp. (Fk)-W). Note that F-w: = ~ ( F k ) - w is a Fw : =~(Fk)W-module.
Root Systems and Elliptic Curves 23

(2.6) Proposition. The invariant theta functions

,~Om:= ~ e(-kI(v)+ 89189 m~k-tMc~C,
tJ ~ W a " ttt

form a F~ of (Fk) w and in (,9v Ore)= e (-- k l (m)). The anti-invariant theta functions
d 0,,: = ~ det (w) Owm
w e [r

= ~ det(w)e(-k1(wm)+ 89189 m~k-lMc~C,

W~ W a

form a F~ Of (Fk)- w and in ( d 0,) = e ( - k l(m)).

Proof Let m e g and w~W,. Then
- k I(wm, r)+ 89 l(wm, w m ) - 89 l(m, m)
= 89 w m - r ) - I(m-r, m - r ) ) - k I ( m , r)
=g-aks(w)(m)-kI(m,r) by (1.8.3)
> - k l(m, r).
Ifwm#:m, then there is an affine root which is positive in m, but negative on win,
so that then the inequality is strict. This shows that in(~9"O,,)=e(-kI(m)). If
m s C, then w m = m iff w=id, so this also proves that in(,4Om)=e(-kI(m)). Since
the elements e(-kI(m)), m c k - l M n C, are independent o v e r F ~ it follows that
the 5 ~ 0 m, m ~ k - 1 M r C, and ,~/0 m, m ~ k - 1 M c~ C, are also independent over F ~
N o w let O~(Fk)w. Since C is a fundamental d o m a i n for the action of W~ on V*
we can choose a system of representatives S c k - l M for k-~M/Q" such that
k - 1 M c~ C c S. By L e m m a (2.5), 0 = ~ ~ (m) 0 m, dp(rn)~I"~ T h e n
rn~S

0':=0- Z 4J(m)~~ W

and the coefficients belonging to k I(S ~ C) + :~ vanish. Since k - ~M is the Wo-orbit

of Sc~ (7, it then follows that all coefficients of 0' vanish, i.e. 0 = ~ q~(m)5~0m .
In a similar way it is shown that {z~'0m: m s k - ~ M n C} generates (F~)-w
over F ~ I f m is fixed under the reflection s x corresponding to ~x, then zr = ~/0~,,
= - d 0m, so that ~r 0m = 0. If <~, m> = 1, then m is fixed u n d e r the affine reflection
x* ~ ( x * - ~ v ) , where ~ denotes the reflection d e t e r m i n e d by &. We then have
0~,,= 0 ,,_~ = e ( - ykl(~",
1 h")+kI($", m)) 0,,=0,,,
because I(~", m ) = 8 9 ~, ~")(~, m> = 1 i ( ~ , , ~ ) . H e n c e 0 ~ . , = 0 ~ m for a n y w s W
and this implies ZCOm=O. This shows that {.sdO,,:m~k-IMc~C} generates
( U ) - w over F o .
By (1.6), k - ~ M c ~ C = 0 i f k < g and g - ~ m ~ C = { r } with r=g-~(d~+..-+dt).
The element ~r -w deserves a special notation: we will denote it by 0 a.
By (1.5) the vertices of C are the origin f0 = 0 a n d the points fz = g[~ d x ~ g ~ M
( 2 = 1. . . . . l). F o r notational convenience we put go = 1 a n d d o = 0~ V*. We then
set 0~--5~ 0 ~ ~ (f,~)w (2 = 0 . . . . . l). The m a i n result of this section is the following
theorem.
24 E. LooOenga

(ZT) Theorem. F w is a polynomial F~ and ,fi'eely generated by 0 o . . . . . 0~.

F - w is as a FW-module freely generated by 0 n.

F o r the proo[ we need a

(2.8) Lemma. L e t 5r ~(Fk') w, m i ~ k f 1Mc~ C (i= 1. . . . . n) be defined as in (2.6)
and let k = k I + . . . + k . I f we write out Ore... 0 ,~, on the basis { 5 P 0 m: m ~ k - 1 M c~ C}
0 f F k:

O ...Omo=
m~k- l M c~

then v(&(m))> 1.
Proof. The terms of Ore... Ore. that must be considered are those which belong to
the affine functions

~, -- k, I(v,) 4- 89k, l(vi, v,) -- 89 I(m,, mi)

i=l

with v i e W a m i and m: = k- ~(k 1 v 1+ - . . + k, v,) E C. We have

- k,I(v,, r) + ki I[v,, , , ) - 89k,I(m,, m,)

i=1

= ~. 89 i - r, v i - r ) - l(r, r ) - I(mi, ml) )

i=1

> ~, 89 mi-r)-I(r,r)-I(ml,ml)) by (1.8.3)

i=1

= ~ - k i I ( m i, r)= - kI(m, r) = V(.CTOm).

i=1

It follows that v ( ~ ( m ) ) > 1 indeed.

P r o o f of (2.7). Let rnEk - t M c~ C and write k m = k I d~ + ... + k i d t. Putting ko :=
k - (k~ g~ + - . . + k~g~) gives k m - k o go fo + " " + kt g~J~ and k = k o go + " " + k~gt. Since
m is in the convex hull o f f o . . . . . . fl we must have k o ~ 0 . Now, write
ko kt - - yn t
O0 " " O l - - E (~m( )~'G~
m'Ek - 1M(~C

We must show that the matrix (~b~(m')) is invertible. It follows from (2.6) that

m'

This implies that v(8,~(m'))> l if - k l ( m , r)>= - k l ( m ' , r) and that in(dp,~(m))~ I.

Now order the basis {~W0m,} of(Fk) w so that l ( m 1, r)<=l(m 2, r) ifrn 1 precedes m 2.
In view of L e m m a (2.8) it then follows that the matrix (i n (q~,~(m'))) is upper triangular
and has l's on the diagonal. Hence in (det (q~m(m')))= 1. This proves that det(~b,,(m'))
and hence (~bm(m')) is invertible.
Root Systems and Elliptic Curves 25

As for the last clause of (2.7), let mek -~ Mc~ C. By (1.6) we must have k > g and
there is a unique m o e(k - g)- ~M c~ (~ such that k m = (k - g) m o + g r. Then write
'~OmoOA = E d~m'(m) d O m ' '
m' ~k - 1M c~C

To complete the proof of (2.7) we must show that (q$"'(m)) is invertible. This is
done in a way entirely analogous to the method used above and will therefore
be omitted.
In Section 4 we will show that the functions q$,,(m') and qSm(m') are up to a
factor (which is a fractional power of e) the formal expansions of modular functions
at ioo.

3. Connection with Elliptic Curves

In this section E will denote an elliptic curve over r Then A: = QV | is an abelian

variety isomorphic to the/-fold product of E. Observe that A is naturally endowed
with a left-action of the Weyl group W. With a future application in mind, we begin
with the following simple
(3.1) Lemma. The fixed point locus A w is a finite subgroup of A, naturally iso-
morphic to (pv/QV)@Hx (E, 7Z).
Proof Recall that E is naturally isomorphic (as a group) to H 1(E, IR)/HI (E, 7Z). An
element zeQV| N) maps to A w iff ( ~ , z ) a ; = z - s x z e Q V | Tz) for
2-- i, ..., I. This is of course equivalent to z e P v | 7Z). Hence the lemma.
Next we consider the set A of isomorphism classes of holomorphic line bundles
over A with the property that w* ~ and LP are isomorphic for all we W. Clearly,
A will be a subgroup of the Picard variety of A.
(3.2) Proposition. There is a natural exact sequence
(3.2.1) O-~(P/Q)| TZ) " , A ~',(S2QV)W-->O

which is obtained from the.familiar exact sequence

(3.2.2) 0 --~ Pic ~ A ~ - ~ Pic A <--~H z (A, 7Z)
by restriction.
Proof The theorem of Appell-Humbert [6] identifies Pic ~ A in a natural way with
Hom(Hl(A , )7), R/TZ), and the latter is naturally isomorphic to P| R/TZ).
On the other hand we have canonical isomorphisms
(3.2.3) H 2 (A, II7)~ A 2 H o m , ( H a ( A , IR), II?)~ A z H o m , ( Q v | (E, IR), t12)
and the last term contains S 2 Q~ | z Hom~(H~ (E, Ill), I ~ ) - S 2 Q~ @H 2 (E, II~)as a
subspace. The theorem of Appell-Humbert also implies that under these identifi-
cations, the image of c in (3.2.2) coincides with S 2 Q~ | 2 (E, ~). Since H 2 (E, 7Z)
is naturally isomorphic to 7Z, we end up with an exact sequence
(3.2.4) O--, p| P i c A - * S 2 Q ~ --+0.
26 E. L o o O e n g a

We now show that (3.2.1) is just the W-fixed point part of (3.2.4). Let us determine
the fixed point set of W in P| IR/7l). An element x e P | IR) projects
onto a W-invariant element of p| IR/Z) iff (x, ~a ) % = x - sa x e P| ;g)
for 2 = 1 .... ,l. On the other hand ( x , c ~ ) T a e Q Q H ~ ( E , TZ) for 2 = 1 ..... l iff
x 6 P Q H I ( E , 2g). It follows that xF-*~.(x,c~a)% induces an isomorphism
,l
between (pQHI(E,~L/Z)) w and (P/Q)QHX(E, JE). A priori, this isomorphism
depends on the choice of our basis {% ..... ~}. But since W acts transitively on the
set of bases for R and trivially on P/Q, this is not the case. We so obtain (3.2.1).
Because W is finite, (3.2.4) is (noncanonically) split as an exact sequence of
W-modules. Hence (3.2.1) is as the W-fixed point part of (3.2.4) exact.
(3.3) An important element of A is constructed as follows. Any root ~eR deter-
mines a homomorphism A = Q v | 7Z| The kernel of this homomor-
phism is a divisor which we denote by A(c0. Then A..= ~ A(7) is a W-invariant
divisor and thus defines an element of A. ~R +
Now let he be a holomorphic line bundle over A whose isomorphism class [ 5 ~
belongs to A and satisfies c'[50] = - I. The isomorphism between 50and w* 50 (we W)
will be unique if we require that it is the identity on the fibre over the W-fixed point
0eA. We so obtain an action of W on the total space Tot (50) of 50. We write S(E)
for the algebra of sections
oo
| r(50- k),
k=0

S(E) w and S(E) - w for the submodules of invariant, resp. anti-invariant sections.
Note that S(E) w is a subalgebra of S(E) and that S(E)- w is a S(E)W-module. Our
main results are contained in the theorem below.
(3.4) Theorem. With the notations of(3.3) we have
(a) 50-1 is ample,
(b) S(E) w is a polynomial algebra,freely generated by l + 1 homogeneous elements
of degree go(= 1), gx ..... gt,
(c) S(E)-w is a free S(E)W-module on one generator 0 A of degree g,
(d) the divisor of Oa equals A.
The geometric interpretation of (3.4) is given in the following
(3.5) Corollary. (a) W ' , Tot(50)/O-section=Spec S(E) w is isomorphic to affine
l + 1-space.
(b) Let rt: Tot(he)--~ A denote the bundle projection. Then the critical set of the
quotient mapping q: Tot(50)-+ W'-.Tot he/O-section is equal to n-l(IA[) w {0-
section}.
(c) The discriminant of q is the zero-set of a weighted homogeneous polynomial
with weights go . . . . . gt and of degree 2g.
Proof that (3.4) implies (3.5). Property (a) is an immediate consequence of
(3.4a, b). To prove (b), we choose generators O o . . . . . O z of S(E) w homogeneous of
degree go, ..., g, respectively, and consider them as functions on Tot (he). Then the
Root Systems and Elliptic Curves 27

restriction of dO o/x .../x dO t to the zero section of 50 may be considered as a

section of

50-go| |174 f2t (A) = 50- g| f2t(A).

Since (2t(A) is trivial, we actually get a section of 50-g. This section is clearly anti-
invariant with respect to W and non-trivial. It follows from (3.4c, d) that its
divisor is equal to A. This implies that the divisor defined by dO 0/x .../x dO t is
just 7t-1 (A)+(0-section), which proves (b). It also follows that the discriminant of
q is defined by the principal ideal generated by 0 2 in S(E) w and that proves (c).
(3.6) Remarks. What makes property (3.5b) interesting is the fact that in general
W does not act freely on A - IAI. For example, let (~1, ~2, ~3, ~4) be a basis of D 4
such that ~t2 is the branch point and assume that E = C/(Z + z Z). Then the image
of x v +~4)+~r~ in E is not in IAI, but it is clearly a fixed point of
- id ~ W(D4).
Our p r o o f of (3.4) will actually show that the polynomial mentioned in (3.5c)
can be chosen in such a way that its coefficients lie in a finite extension K of Q (JE)
(where JE stands for the j-invariant of E) such that GaI(K/@ (JE)) is isomorphic to
some GL 2 (Z/N). See remark (4.3).

4. Proof of (3.4)

(4.1) Given an ample line bundle 50' over A, then any other bundle with the same
Chern class, i.e. with the same image under c in (3.2.2), is obtained by translating
~o, in A [6]. Since the assertions of (3.4) are clearly invariant under a translation,
it therefore suffices to prove (3.4) for one particular 50.
Let us construct one. We assume that E is the quotient of II~ by a lattice L
generated by 1 and r with I m ( z ) > 0 . Let e: QV| x V* -.112" be defined by

e(v+zv',z)=exp(2rciI(z,v')+~izl(v',v')); v,v'eQ",

where I has been extended to a complex bilinear form on Vfl. This function deter-
mines an action ~ of QV | on II? x V,*:

~(u): (2, z)~--~(2e(u, z), z +u).

The orbit space of this action is in a natural way a line bundle over V*/Q"|
Since I is W-invariant, we have t~(wu)(2,wz)=(2, w(z+u)) for any we W. Hence
the action of W on l ~ x V * defined by w(2, z)=(2, wz) induces one on 5 ~ In
particular we have [50] ~A. Following Appell-Humbert and the identifications
made in (3.2) we have c' [50] = - 1, so that 50 is as required.
The fact that c' [50-1] = I is positive definite implies (by a theorem of Lefschetz)
that 50-t is ample.

(4.2) The orbit space of the action Ok of QV | on (r x V~* defined by 0k(U):

(2, Z) ~-~(2 e(u, z) -k, z + u) determines a bundle over A which is naturally isomorphic
to 50-k. Clearly, a section of 50-k corresponds to a holomorphic (theta) function
28 E. Looijenga

0 on Vr satisfying
O(z +u)=e(u, z) -k O(z)
= exp 2 n i t k ( - I(v', t - 1 z ) - 89I(v', v')). 6) (z)
with u = v + v' t eQ v | We put 6)'(0: = 0 (t z). Then 6)' is periodic modulo the
lattice k -1 t -1QV and has therefore a Fourier development with respect to this
lattice:
6)'(z)= ~ c m e x p 2 n i t k I ( z , m ).
nlEM

Moreover 6)' satisfies (2.1.1) with e replaced by exp 2zt i r. Conversely, if reek -1 M,
then O m determines a section 0 m of ~ - k defined by
O,.(z):= Z expZ~itk(-I(v,r-lz)+ 89189 9
v~rn+Q v

Since I is positive definite the absolute value of the general term is bounded by
e x p ( - c Im(t)I(v, v)) for some positive constant c, so that the series converges
absolutely on compact sets. It follows from (2.5) that if m runs over a set S of
representatives for k-~ M/Q ~ the { O,.}m~S will be linearly independent. In fact, the
classical theory asserts that the {O,.}m~S determine a basis of F(Lf-k). For our
purpose it is more convenient to replace 8,, by
6),. (z): = exp(~z i z k I(m, m)) O,,(z)
= ~ exp2~irk(-I(v,t-lz)+ 89
vEm+Q v

Note that O monly depends on the class o f m modulo Q~. Clearly any relation of the
form
0.1...0. = Z
m~S

(q5 E F ~ k = ~ deg (0m.), S = k - ~M a system of representatives for k - ~M/Q ~ ) yields

arelation i
(4.2.1) O,, ... O,, = ~ ~O,,
mck-J M/Qv

where ~m(t) equals qS~(exp(2~iz)) times a fractional power of exp(27zir) and

vice versa. It now follows from (2.7) that (3.4b, c) hold for generic z. F r o m this we
shall derive that (3.4b, c) hold for any z in the upper half plane.
(4.3) Remark. In view of the known modular behaviour of the functions 6)~, it
follows that the functions ~,~ are modular functions (relative a congruence sub-
group). Hence, if we let z vary in the upper half plane and put E~ = E = C/(2~ + z 7/,),
then S(E~) w and S(EO w are defined over the modular function field FN of
certain level N over Q. It is known that Gal(FN/Q(j))= GLE(Z/N), see [4].
(4.4) Proof of (3.4b, c). Let TE denote the Zariski tangent space of Spec S(E) w
at the origin. Then Tr~) 7~ is naturally isomorphic to the complexified real Zariski
tangent space of Spec S(E) w and depends only on the underlying real-algebraic
structure of Spec S(E) w (i.e. on S(E) w @ S---(~w). We have shown at the end of (4.2)
Root Systemsand Elliptic Curves 29

that for generic z, this space is of dimension 2(I+ 1). Since two elliptic curves over
Ir are always isomorphic over 1R, TE@ ~ is of dimension 2(l+ 1) for any E. It
follows that TE is of dimension l + 1. Hence if we pick homogeneous elements
O ~ e F ( S g - ~ ) w ( 2 = 0 ..... l) such that their image in T* is a basis, then O0, ..., O,
generate S(E) w. In other words the graded-algebra homomorphism (of degree 0)

I~[Xo,...,X,]--~S(E)W; Xx~--,O ~, deg(Xa)=g~,

is surjective. Since the two algebra's have the same dimension in each degree it is
injective as well. This proves (3.4b). A similar argument applied to the (S(E) w-
module homomorphism S(E) w ~ S(E)-w, 0 -~ O 0 a with

(4.4.1) 0 a (z): = ~, det (w) exp 2 7zi z g ( - I(w r, r - I z) + ~ l(w r, w r))

we W a

proves (3.4c).
(4.5) Proofof(3.4d). We first observe that divisor (Oa) > A. Indeed, if ze A(ct), then
the reflection G associated to ct leaves the fibre over z fixed, so that 0 a (z) = G OA(Z)
= -- Oa (G Z) = -- Oa (Z), implying 0 A (z) = O.
Since OaeF(LP-g), the Chern class of 0 A is equal to gl. The Chern class of
A(c~) is cc| v, and so the Chern class of A equals ~ ct|189 ct|
9 ~R + ~R
by (1.1.1). It follows that divisor (OA)--A is a nonnegative divisor of vanishing
Chern class. Hence divisor (OA)= A.

5. Macdonald's Weyl Formula

Our aim is to give an analytic proof of the Macdonald-Weyl formula (5.7). From
the previous section essentially the following two facts will be used: (i) up to a
factor 0 A is the only anti-invariant theta function of degree g and (ii) A is the divisor
of Oa.
We begin with studying the behaviour of our theta functions 0,. under the
modular group. Since 0,, also depends on r, we shall write O,,(z;r)instead of Ore(z).
(5.1) Lemma. Let reek - 1 M / Q v. Then

Ore(z; - - z - l ) = ( - i r ) ~ ' e x p ( r c i r k l ( z , z ) ) ~ c,,,,,O , ( - - r z ; ~)

m' ek - i M/QV

where (Cram,) is a symmetric unitary matrix whose entries are algebraic numbers.
Proof. We have

0 (z;--r-x)= ~ exp[-ltir-XkI(m+v,m+v)-2rcikI(m+v,z)]
oEQ v

= e x p rcizkI(z, z). ~ e x p [ - r c i z -1 k I ( z z + m + v , z z + m +v)].

I~EQ v
30 E. L o o ~ e n g a

Now the sum in the line above is by the generalised Jacobi inversion formula [3]
equal to
( - i t ) 89189 ~ exp[nikI(v,v)+2nikl(v,m+zz)]
vEk-l M

=(-iz)89 -~ ~ exp2nikI(m,m'). O~,(-zz;z).

m' e k - t M/QV

We so obtain a formula of the desired form with

Cram,= Ik -1M/Qf -~ exp 2nik I(m, m').

This is clearly an algebraic number. Finally, ~ %,,, ~,,,,,,, is just the Gauss sum
m'

Ik-lM/QVl-1 ~ exp 2niI(km', m-re")

m'sk-lM/QV

which equals 1 if m = m" and vanishes otherwise.

Now observe that Oa as defined in (4.4.1) is just ~ det(w) Owr.
w~W

(5.2) Corollary. Oa(z; - r - l ) = c ( - i r ) ~ l exp nirgI(z, z). OA(--rZ; r) with c a

root of unity.
Proof Since OA(Z;r) is up to a factor the unique linear combination of the O,,(z; r),
meg -1M/Q ~, which is anti-invariant it follows from the previous lemma that (5.1)
holds with c an algebraic number with c? = 1. Hence c is a root of unity.
(5.3) Next we recall that Dedekind's eta function is defined by
oo
t/(r)=exp \[2niz)
24 fI__l(1
= - exp 2hint); I m ( r ) > 0.

This product is absolute convergent on any compact subset of the upper half plane
and has no zeroes there. ~/ satisfies ~ / ( z + l ) = e x p {2ni]]q(z) and r / ( - z - 1 ) =
\24
~((- iv)rl(z) (see for instance [4]). It follows from (5.2) that
(5.3.1) r / ( - r - 1 ) - / OA(Z; --r-a)=c~/(z) l exp nizgI(z, z). Oa(--zz; z)
and by (1.7) we have
-2nil 9 ~ l
(5.3.2) r/(z + 1)t OA(Z;Z+ 1)=exp (~+ntgI(r, r)) ,(r) O(z; z)
g

(2nihl~
=exp \-~--/q(r) -10(z;r).

(5.4) We construct another theta function for A with the same modular behaviour
as OA. For the elliptic curve ~/(72 + z Z) the fundamental theta function is by
definition

n=l
Root Systems and Elliptic Curves 31

where q(.) stands for exp 27z i(.). The function f ( . ; z) is a theta function with divisor
(0) for E. Its m o d u l a r behaviour is expressed by the following two formulas
(5.4.1) f(u; ~ + 1)=q(~) f(u; r)
and
(5.4.2) f(u; -r-')= c' q(89 r u 2 ) f ( - "cu; r)
where c' is a root of unity. F o r all these remarks, see [4], Ch. 19, w 1.
It follows that F(z; r ) : = [ I ( - f ( ( : r z ) ; z)) is a theta function with divisor A
~R +
for A. N o w (5.4.1) and the fact that [R+[=89 imply

(5.4.3) F(z;z+l)=q 24 F(z;O

and from (5.4.2) and (1.1.1) we deduce that

(5.4.4) F(z;-z-1)= c' q(g1 zgI(z, z)). F ( - r z , r).
Since r/(r) -I OA(Z; ~) and F(z; ~) define the same divisor, there exists a nowhere
vanishing h o l o m o r p h i c function C on the upper half plane such that t/(z) -t OA(Z; r)
= c(~) f ( z ; ~).
(5.5) L e m m a . 7he,function C is invariant under the modular group.
Proof It clearly follows from (5.3.1), (5.3.2), (5.4.3) and (5.4.4) that C(z + 1)= C(z)
and that C( - z - 1) C(~)- 1 is a root of unity. Since ~ ~ r + 1 and ~ ~ - z - 1 generate
the m o d u l a r group, it follows that the m o d u l a r g r o u p acts via a character on C.
This character is trivial, since the abelianised m o d u l a r g r o u p is generated by
z~--~z + l
F r o m this we shall derive M a c d o n a l d ' s formula and incidentally show that
C -= 1. F o r this purpose we must give F(r z; z) a m o r e explicit form. Let us write
e(.) for q(. r ) = e x p 2~ziz(.). With this notation, F(zz; z) contains factors of the
form (1-e(+(~,z)+n)), ~ e R + , n = 1 , 2 . . . . . N o w recall from (1.8.1) that the
positive affine roots are those of the form a (z) -- (~, z) + n with ~ ~ R + , n = 0, 1, 2 ....
or ~e - R + , n = 1, 2 . . . . . F r o m this it is easily derived that
hl
F(zz;z)=e(~-(p,z)) l-[ (1-e(a(z))).
a ~ R+a
We substitute this in:
(5.6) ~ det(w)e(agl(wr-z, w r - z ) - 8 9
w E Wo

= e ( - 89g I(r, r) + g I(r, z)) OA(ZZ; Z)

( I(h+ 1) )
= e 24 + (p' z) 0 A(zz; r) (by (1.7) and the definition of r)

C(z)e (~lA ] tl(Z)t [I (1--e(a(z)))

\L,.t I a6R +

= C(z) f i (1 -e(nff [I (1 -e(a(z))),

n= 1 aeR +
32 E. Loo~enga

where all additive and product expansions converge absolutely on any compact
subset of the upper half plane. Letting r - * i ~ , we see that the first line of (5.6)
tends to 1, while the last line tends to lim C(r). Since C is invariant under the
~ioo
modular group it follows that C is identically 1. If we substitute (1.8.3) for the first
line of (5.6) we finally obtain
(5.7) Macdonald's Weyl formula:
~3

det(w) e(s(w)(z))= 1-](1-e(n))t H (1-e(a(z))).

w ~ Wa n= 1 a~ R ~

References

1. Bourbaki, N.: Groupes et alg6bres de Lie, Ch. 4, 5 et 6. Paris: Hermann 1969

2. Freudenthal, H., de Vries, H.: Linear Lie groups. New York: Academic Press 1969
3. Gunning, R.C.: Lectures on modular forms. Princeton : University Press 1962
4. Lang, S.: Elliptic functions. Reading (Mass.): Addison Wesley 1973
5. Macdonald, LG.: Affine root systems and Dedekind's q-function. Inventiones math. 15, 91-143
(1972)
6. Mumford, D.: Abelian varieties. Oxford: University Press 1970

Received February 26, 1976

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