Scientific Inquiry and Review (SIR)

Volume 7 Issue 4, 2023

ISSN (P): 2521-2427, ISSN (E): 2521-2435
Homepage: https://journals.umt.edu.pk/index.php/SIR

Article QR

Title: Properties of Graph Based on Divisor-Euler Functions

Author (s): Asif Abd ur Rehman, Muhammad Khalid Mahmood

Affiliation (s): University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan

DOI: https://doi.org/10.32350/sir.74.04

Received: May 3, 2023, Revised: September 13, 2023, Accepted: September 15, 2023,
History: Published: October 30, 2023
Citation: Rehman AA, Mahmood MK. Properties of graph based on Divisor-Euler
functions. Sci Inq Rev. 2023;7(4):53–66. https://doi.org/10.32350/sir.74.04
Copyright: © The Authors
Licensing: This article is open access and is distributed under the terms of
Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
Conflict of
Interest: Author(s) declared no conflict of interest

A publication of
The School of Science
University of Management and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan
Properties of Graph Based on Divisor-Euler Functions
Asif Abd ur Rehman * and M. Khalid Mahmood
Department of Mathematics University of the Punjab, Lahore, Pakistan
ABSTRACT
Divisor function 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛) gives the residues of 𝑛𝑛 which divide it. A function
denoted by 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) counts the total possible divisors of 𝑛𝑛 and 𝜙𝜙 gives the list
of co-prime integers to 𝑛𝑛. Many graphs had been constructed over these
arithmetic functions. Using 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛) and 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛), a well known graph named as
divisor Euler function graph has been constructed. In this paper, we use
divisor function and anti Euler function 𝜙𝜙 ′ . We label the symbol 𝜙𝜙 𝑐𝑐 (𝑛𝑛) to
count those residues of 𝑛𝑛 which are not co-prime to 𝑛𝑛. By using these
functions, we find a new graph, called divisor anti-Euler function graph
(DAEFG), denoted as 𝐺𝐺(𝑑𝑑(𝜙𝜙 𝑐𝑐 (𝑛𝑛)). Let 𝐺𝐺(𝑑𝑑(𝜙𝜙 𝑐𝑐 (𝑛𝑛)) = (𝕍𝕍, 𝔼𝔼) be a
DAEFG, where 𝕍𝕍 = {𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ∣ 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 /𝑛𝑛} and 𝔼𝔼 = �𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 ∣ gcd �𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 , 𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 � ≠ 1�. The
objective of this sequel is to introduce and discuss the properties of DAEFG.
In this work, we discuss novel classes of proposed graph with its structure
using loops, cycles, components of graph, degree of its vertices,
components as complete, bipartite, planar, Hamiltonian and Eulerian
graphs. Also, we find chromatic number, chromatic index and clique of
these graphs.
Keywords: divisor function, divisor Euler function graph, divisor Euler
function sub-graph, Euler function graph, metric dimension, resolvent.
1. INTRODUCTION
The systematic use of number theoretic functions in combinatorial
mathematics is an interesting and useful task nowadays. Recently, the study
of graphs based on number theoretic functions has become much more
motivating. In our work, we use three number theoretic functions and define
a new class of graph based on these functions. We familiarize and study the
structures of such graphs. Such construction of graphs based on number
theory leads to many new useful results. This area of mathematics has a
wide range of applications in chemistry, computer science, navigation,
robot science and engineering as well. The notion of divisor graph was first
introduced by Singh and Santhosh in 2000. In 2015, K. Kannan et al. [1]

*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
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 Rehman and Mahmood

presented a graph of number theocratic function namely, the divisor

function graph. He suggested an idea for constructing graphs on divisors of
integers by taking as vertices. We denote the set 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛) = �𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 : 𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 ∣ 𝑛𝑛, 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ≤ 𝑛𝑛�
as the set of positive divisors of 𝑛𝑛. In his contribution, both vertices and
edges were based on 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛). Shanmugavelan constructed a graph, namely
Euler's phi function graph based on Euler's phi function [2]. He constructed
this graph by taking a set of nodes and a set of edges based on this function
𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛). Using these co-prime residues, an idea of prime labeling has been
introduced and investigated in [3]. Over 𝑛𝑛 vertices, the formula for finding
the maximal number of edges in this type of labeling has been established
as Σ𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛) in [3]. The well-known Cayley graph associated with the totient
function, known as the Cayley totient graph [4], contains residues modulo
𝑠𝑠 namely {0,1,2, … , 𝑛𝑛 − 1} with the edge set {(𝑎𝑎, 𝑏𝑏)/𝑎𝑎 − 𝑏𝑏 ∈ 𝑇𝑇}. It is
denoted by 𝔾𝔾�𝜙𝜙(𝑍𝑍𝑛𝑛 )�, where 𝑇𝑇 denotes all positive integers which are less
than 𝑛𝑛 and co-prime to 𝑛𝑛. In the following paragraph, a few definitions are
addressed to make this study self-contained.
Metric dimension is an attractive parameter in graph theory. The idea of
resolving set for a connected graph was firstly first used by Slater [5] and
[6], where he termed it as a locating set. He referred to the least locating set
as a reference set and its cardinality as the Metric dimension, which has a
wide range of applications in many fields of chemistry computer science
physics and robot science. The distance between any two vertices is denoted
as 𝑑𝑑(𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) which gives the minimum number of edges needed to transverse
to reach from 𝑢𝑢 to 𝑣𝑣. Let 𝔾𝔾 be a graph with one component i.e., a connected
graph, a node 𝑡𝑡 resolves a pair of vertices 𝑢𝑢 and 𝑣𝑣 of 𝕍𝕍(𝔾𝔾) if 𝑑𝑑(𝑢𝑢, 𝑡𝑡) ≠
𝑑𝑑(𝑣𝑣, 𝑡𝑡). If a subset ℜ ⊆ 𝕍𝕍 resolves the whole set of nodes, then ℜ is called
a resolving set (RS). General results on MD were discussed in [12].
Eccentricity of a particular vertex 𝑢𝑢 is defined as the maximum distance
between any of the vertices of the graph with 𝑣𝑣 that is ecc (𝑣𝑣) =
max{𝑑𝑑(𝑤𝑤, 𝑣𝑣); 𝑤𝑤 lies in 𝕍𝕍(𝔾𝔾)}. Many useful results regarding FMD and
LFMD were discussed in [7] and [8], respectively. Results regarding
algorithm and graph labeling were discussed in [9–11]. Many results on
digraphs and their labeling based on number theory are discussed in [12–
15]. Results on upper bound sequence of networks and RN's via Lambert
type Map can be seen in [16–18]. Useful results on further graph theoretic
applications are widely discussed in [19–21]. Research on degree and
connection-based Zagreb indices of the network is astonishing nowadays.

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Fruitful results of such newly defined degree based topological invariants

of the M-polynomial, tadepol graph are discussed in [22] and [23].
Computation of entropy measures and valency-based indices of networks
are discussed in [24] and [25]. The results of connection based such indices
of networks are given in [26–28].
A loop (or a fixed point) in a graph is a vertex that is adjacent to itself,
and it is called an isolated vertex if it is not adjacent to any other vertex.
The vertices 𝑣𝑣1 , 𝑣𝑣2 , . . , 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 will form a cycle of length 𝑛𝑛 if 𝑣𝑣1 is adjacent to
𝑣𝑣2 , 𝑣𝑣2 is adjacent to 𝑣𝑣3 , and so on till 𝑣𝑣𝑛𝑛 is adjacent to 𝑣𝑣1 . A maximal
connected subgraph is termed as a component. The number of vertices
adjacent to a vertex 𝑣𝑣 is called its degree. A graph is complete if all vertices
are adjacent to the rest of all vertices. A graph is termed as bipartite if its set
of vertices can be partitioned into two disjoint sets such that any two vertices
in a set are not adjacent to each other. A graph is regular if all vertices have
same degree. A graph is said to be planner if it can be drawn on a plane such
that no two edges intersect each other except the end points. A graph is
termed as Hamiltonian if it has a cycle through all vertices and visits each
vertex exactly one time. While a graph is Eulerian if each of its vertex has
an even degree. The chromatic number is the smallest number of colors that
can be assigned to its vertices such that no two same colors are adjacent or
no two adjacent vertices have same color and the minimum number of
colors such that no two adjacent edges have same color. Lastly, the order of
a maximal complete subgraph is called a clique of that graph. Now, we
recall a few well-known definitions and results from number theory which
will be used in the sequel to make this paper self-contained. The following
definitions can be found in [7].
Definition 1.1. [4] Arithmetic functions are those functions, which are
defined for all positive integers, such as Divisor function 𝑑𝑑(𝑛𝑛), Euler Phi
function 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛), Tau Function 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛), Sigma function 𝜎𝜎(𝑛𝑛) and Anti- Euler
function 𝜙𝜙 ′ etc.
Definition 1.2. [4] Divisor function 𝑑𝑑(𝑛𝑛) is the set of those numbers which
are less then or equal to 𝑛𝑛 and which divides 𝑛𝑛. For example, for 𝑛𝑛 =
10, 𝑑𝑑(𝑛𝑛) = {1,2,5,10}
Definition 1.3. [2] Divisor Euler function graph 𝐺𝐺 = (𝑉𝑉, 𝐸𝐸)is a graph in
which set of nodes are based on divisor function and set of edges is based

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 Rehman and Mahmood

on Euler phi function and any two nodes are adjacent if these are co-prime
to each other.
Definition 1.4. [2] Divisor-not prime function graph is a graph in which set
of nodes is based on divisor function and any two nodes are adjacent if these
are not prime to each other. It is also termed as divisor anti Euler function
graph.
Definition 1.5. [4] Divisor Euler function graph denoted by 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛) is a graph
in which the number of integers from the set {1,2, … , 𝑛𝑛 − 1} are relatively
prime to 𝑛𝑛, i.e., 𝜙𝜙(n) = 1.
Definition 1.6. [4] The number of integers from the set {1,2, … , 𝑛𝑛 − 1}
which are not relatively prime to 𝑛𝑛 is the function 𝜙𝜙 ′ (𝑛𝑛). 𝜙𝜙 ′ (𝑛𝑛) denotes the
numbers that are less than or equal to 𝑛𝑛 and non-prime to 𝑛𝑛. Since 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛) =
𝑛𝑛 − 1 for 𝑛𝑛 be any prime but 𝜙𝜙 ′ (𝑛𝑛) = 1, for 𝑛𝑛 = 5, 𝜙𝜙 ′ (𝑛𝑛) = 1, and
𝜙𝜙 ′ (8) = 4, and these numbers are 2, 4, 6 and 8 as these are all non-prime
to 𝑛𝑛, i.e., (8,20) ≠ 1
Theorem 1.1. [4] For any integer 𝑛𝑛, 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑛𝑛 − 1 if and only if 𝑛𝑛 is prime.
So, 𝜙𝜙 ′ (𝑛𝑛) = 1.
Theorem 1.2. [4] If 𝑛𝑛 is any prime, then 𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘 ) = 𝑛𝑛𝑘𝑘−1 (𝑛𝑛 − 1), 𝑘𝑘 ≥ 1.
Theorem 1.3. [4] If 𝑚𝑚 and 𝑛𝑛 are any two co-prime integers, then 𝜙𝜙(𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚) =
𝜙𝜙(𝑚𝑚)𝜙𝜙(𝑛𝑛).
Definition 1.7. Divisor anti Euler function graph (DAEFG) labeled as
𝐺𝐺�𝑑𝑑(𝜙𝜙 ′ (𝑛𝑛))� with 𝕍𝕍 = {𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 : 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ∣ 𝑛𝑛} and 𝔼𝔼 = �𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 : gcd �𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 , 𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 � ≠
1, ∀𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 , 𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 ∈ 𝕍𝕍�. The 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 for 𝑛𝑛 = 8 and 𝑛𝑛 = 12 are depicted in Fig. 1.

Figure 1. DAEFG for n = 8 and n = 12

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2. STRUCTURES IN DAEFG
Corollary 2.1. 𝐺𝐺�𝑑𝑑(𝜙𝜙 ′ (𝑛𝑛))� has exactly 2 components.
Corollary 2.2. deg (𝑣𝑣(1)) = 0.
Corollary 2.3. The largest of any vertex 𝑑𝑑 in DAEFG is 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 2.
Proof: The proof is simple. Since node 1 is isolated which clearly depicts
that no other node can have an edge with node 1. So, there are total 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) −
1 nodes in the connected part of graph. As by definition graph is simple so
there is no loop. So, there are 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 2 total number of possible edges
incident with node 𝑛𝑛. Hence, it is the only node with the largest degree
which is 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 2. Since SAEFG is a simple graph so there is no loop at
any vertex in particular there is no loop at vertex 𝑛𝑛 itself. Since there are
𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) possible vertices of DAFTG. Also, each 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ≠ 1 for each i is adjacent
to n (possibly). These 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 are 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 2 in number (excluding 1 and n ), so d
must have degree 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 2.
Theorem 2.1. DAEFG is connected and 1 is the only isolated vertex in it.
Proof: Let 𝑑𝑑1 , 𝑑𝑑2 , … … , 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 all the possible divisors of any positive integer
𝑛𝑛, where 𝑑𝑑𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛. Since 1 divides each integer, then 𝑎𝑎 ∈ 𝕍𝕍. By definition
(1, 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ) = 1, So 1 cannot join any of the node which means that node 1 is
isolated. Now, its only need to show that 𝔾𝔾 is connected. Since each 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖
divide 𝑛𝑛 and which is not co prime to 𝑛𝑛 i.e., (𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 , 𝑛𝑛) ≥ 1. So, clearly there is
an edge between each 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 to 𝑛𝑛. Hence, 𝔾𝔾 is connected.
Proof. The proof is simple. Since, the node 1 is isolated which clearly
depicts that no other node can have an edge with node 1. So, there are total
𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 1 nodes in the connected part of graph. As by definition graph is
simple so there is no loop. So, there are 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 2 total number of possible
edges incident with node 𝑛𝑛. Hence, it is the only node with the largest degree
which is 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 2. Since, SAEFG is a simple graph so there is no loop at
any vertex in particular there is no loop at vertex 𝑛𝑛 itself. Since there are
𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) possible vertices of DAFTG. Also, each 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ≠ 1 for each i is adjacent
to n (possibly). These 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 are 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 2 in no. (excluding 1 and n ), so d must
have degree 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 2.
Theorem 2.2. 𝔾𝔾 is always complete for 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 .
Proof: Since, {1,2, 22 , 23 , … , 2𝑘𝑘 } be the set of all possible nodes. As
deg (1) = 0 so node 1 is not adjacent with any other node. By definition of
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 Rehman and Mahmood

𝜏𝜏 there are 𝑘𝑘 + 1 total possible divisors. By excluding node 1 there are 𝑘𝑘

total possible nodes. Since node 2 is even and each node is of the power of
2 which is again an even number so each node is adjacent to the node 2𝑘𝑘
which is the required 𝑛𝑛. Since the graph is simple so there is neither a loop
nor a multi-edge. As each node is adjacent to every other node except itself
and the node 1. Hence there are 𝑘𝑘 − 1 total possible edges for each node,
which is the property of a complete graph by definition.
Lemma 2.1. The graph 𝔾𝔾 is bipartite for 𝑛𝑛 be the product of two distinct
primes.
Proof: The proof can be viewed using its definition. For 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 then 𝕍𝕍 =
{1, 𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝} be the set of nodes. Since, node 1 is isolated and we take the set
of nodes excluding node 1 for the connected part of graph. So, the set of
nodes can be split into two disjoint sets as 𝑈𝑈 and 𝑉𝑉 such that 𝑈𝑈 = {𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞} and
𝑉𝑉 = {𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝} with vertex 1 as isolated. As (𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝) ≥ 1 and (𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝) ≥ 1 but
(𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞) = 1, so there are edges as 𝑝𝑝 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 − 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, where there is no edge
between 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞.
Corollary 2.4. There does not exist any cycle for 𝔾𝔾 for 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 .
Theorem 2.3. Let 𝔾𝔾 be a DAEFG and for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞 𝑘𝑘 , 𝑘𝑘 ≥ 2, then ere exist
a cycle of length 𝜏𝜏(𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞 𝑘𝑘 ) − 1.
Proof: We will prove this by using increasing powers of these distinct
primes. For 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 2, by definition of DAEFG,
1, 𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝 , 𝑞𝑞, 𝑞𝑞 , 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 2 are the vertices of G. Since, 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) =
2 2 2

9, (1, 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 ) = 1, It is easy to note that the set {𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 , 𝑞𝑞, 𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 2 }
are the only vertices which can contribute a cycle as these vertices are not
relatively prime to each other.
(𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 ), (𝑝𝑝2 , 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝), (𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞), (𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 2 ), (𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑞𝑞), (𝑞𝑞, 𝑞𝑞 2 ),
≈ 𝐶𝐶8 ⋅
(𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 2 ), (𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝)
In this way, the powers of 𝑛𝑛 can be taken up to 𝑘𝑘 times. Also, there is no
other possible edge with 1 as isolated node. Hence, we have a cycle of
length 𝜏𝜏(𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞 𝑘𝑘 ) − 1.
Theorem 2.4. There exists a cycle of length 𝜏𝜏(𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟 𝑘𝑘 ) − 1 in 𝔾𝔾 for =
𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 𝑞𝑞 𝑘𝑘 𝑟𝑟 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 ≥ 2.
Proof: The proof is a simple consequence Corollary 2.2.

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𝑘𝑘
Theorem 2.5. There exist a cycle of length 𝜏𝜏 �Π �𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖𝑟𝑟 � − 1) in for 𝔾𝔾 for
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝1 1 𝑝𝑝2 2 𝑝𝑝3 3 … … … . . 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 where 𝑝𝑝1 < 𝑝𝑝2 < 𝑝𝑝3 … < 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟 . (Generalized)
Proof. The proof is obvious.
Definition 2.1. A subgraph ℍ of 𝔾𝔾 is called is called so it is itself a divisor
anti-Euler function graph.
Example 2.1. Let 𝐺𝐺�𝑑𝑑(𝜙𝜙 ′ (16))� be a DAEFG with vertex set 𝕍𝕍 =
{1,2,4,8,16}, then ℍ�𝑑𝑑(𝜙𝜙 ′ (8))� with vertex set V = {1,2,4,8} is a sub-
graph of 𝐺𝐺. Also, both ℍ1 and ℍ2 are both DAEFG's.
Remark 2.1. It is obvious that each ℍ is itself 𝔾𝔾.
Theorem 2.6. 𝔾𝔾 is regular for 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 , irregular otherwise.
Proof: Let 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 for 𝔾𝔾 then by definition of 𝔾𝔾, 𝕍𝕍 = {1,2, 22 , 23 , … , 2𝑘𝑘 } be
the set of nodes. Also, �1, 2𝑖𝑖 � = 1 which gives that 1 is not adjacent with
any of the nodes among the set of nodes, i.e., 1 is isolated. Since, 2 is even
and each of its power is again even i.e., �2𝑖𝑖 , 2𝑗𝑗 � ≥ 1 also 2𝑘𝑘 is again even,
which gives that each node is adjacent to every other node which yield that
𝔾𝔾 is a complete graph. Also, degree of each node is same in the connected
component of 𝔾𝔾. By using the result of completeness 𝔾𝔾 is also regular for
𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 . Let 𝐺𝐺 be DAEFG, to show that 𝐺𝐺 is regular, each of its vertices
should have the same degree.
Theorem 2.7. 𝔾𝔾 is planar except for 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 , 𝑘𝑘 ≥ 5.

Figure 2. DAEFSG for n = 8 and n = 16

Theorem 2.8. 𝔾𝔾 is not Eulerian for any 𝑛𝑛.
Proof: For n ≥ 3, (i) if 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝, 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) = 2, and 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛) = {1, 𝑝𝑝}. Using
definition there is no edge between node 1 and the p which gives a null
graph. (ii) Secondly, if it is not prime then it is a composite number, which
can be even or odd. (i)Suppose that it is even then, 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) = 2 m i.e
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deg (1) = 0 which shows that node 1 is not adjacent with any of the nodes
so the max possible degree of other nodes can be deg (𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ) = 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) −
1∀𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ∈ 𝑑𝑑(𝑛𝑛), which is not even, which contradicts the necessity condition
for elerianity of a graph to have even degree, which gives that 𝔾𝔾 is not
eulerian. (ii)On the other hand suppose that 𝑛𝑛 is odd, then there are
following possibilities. (i) If 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) = even using above statement, the result
if obvious. (ii) But, if 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜, we have all nodes of degree odd in
number and no such trail passing via all edges, which is the required result.
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
Theorem 2.9. 𝔾𝔾 is Hamiltonian for all 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝1 1 𝑝𝑝2 2 𝑝𝑝3 3 … … … . 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 for 𝑝𝑝1 <
𝑝𝑝2 < 𝑝𝑝3 … < 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟 ∀𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖 ≥ 2.
Proof. We will prove this result by definition. For any simple 𝔾𝔾 with more
than 3 noes deg (𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 ) + deg �𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 � ≥ 𝑛𝑛 for every pair of non linked nodes 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖
and 𝑑𝑑𝑗𝑗 then 𝔾𝔾 is Hamiltonian. Now, for 𝑘𝑘 = 2, we have 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 2 𝑑𝑑(𝑛𝑛) =
{1, 𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 , 𝑞𝑞, 𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 , 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 2 }, 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑝𝑝, Also deg (1) = 0, so other
remaining 8 vertices constitutes the graph DAEFG, so deg (𝑝𝑝) + deg (𝑞𝑞) =
10 ≥ 𝑛𝑛, since 𝑝𝑝 and 𝑞𝑞 are disjoint vertices, i.e (𝑝𝑝, 𝑞𝑞) = 1. Hence, is the
result. For k = 3, we have 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞 3 , then by definition of DAEFG
1, 𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 , 𝑝𝑝3 , 𝑞𝑞, 𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑞𝑞 3 , 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 3 , 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 3 , 𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞 3 , are
the vertices. Hence 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) = 16. and
{𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 , 𝑝𝑝3 , 𝑞𝑞, 𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑞𝑞 3 , 𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞, 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝𝑞𝑞 3 , 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝2 𝑞𝑞 3 , 𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞 2 , 𝑝𝑝3 𝑞𝑞 3 } be the
nodes that contribute in the construction of DAEFG. Using Dirac theorem
the result is again true. It is clear that the result seems true for any of distinct
primes with generalized powers up to 𝑟𝑟, which is the required result.
Secondly, if 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 and 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) = even also deg (1) = 0and 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − {1}
nodes form complete graph, which is nowhere Hamiltonian.
Remark 2.2. 𝔾𝔾(𝑝𝑝) is always a null graph.
Corollary 2.5. 𝐿𝐿(𝔾𝔾) is connected.
Theorem 2.10. 𝔾𝔾 is 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − {1} for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 .
Proof: Since, 𝐺𝐺 be a DAEFG and using its definition Let 𝐺𝐺 be DAEFG,
then by definition of 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛) = {1, 𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 , 𝑝𝑝3 , … , 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 } be the set of nodes, and
𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) = 𝑘𝑘 + 1. As node is not adjacent with any node i.e., gcd �1, 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 � = 1.
So, in order to color connected part of graph, we need least number of colors
to assign to its nodes. For this, if we 1 to node 𝑝𝑝, 2 to node 𝑝𝑝2 as (𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝2 ) >
1, 3 to node 𝑝𝑝3 , up to son on color 𝑛𝑛 to node 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 . There are exactly 𝑘𝑘 colors

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required to color the set of nodes as gcd �𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 , 𝑝𝑝 𝑗𝑗 � ≥ 1, which is the required
result.

Corollary 2.6. Proof that 𝜒𝜒�𝔾𝔾(𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 )�� = 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 1.

Proof: The proof is a simple consequence of previous theorem that 𝔾𝔾 is k

colorable for 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 as exactly k colors are needed to color its set of nodes.
Also, it the least number of possible such coloring.
Theorem 2.11. 𝔾𝔾 is 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − {1}-colorable for any 𝑛𝑛 =
𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘 𝑘𝑘
𝑝𝑝1 1 𝑝𝑝2 2 𝑝𝑝3 3 … … … . . 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟 𝑟𝑟 for 𝑝𝑝1 < 𝑝𝑝2 < 𝑝𝑝3 … < 𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑟 .
Proof: Since all primes are relatively prime among each other i.e.,
�𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 , 𝑝𝑝𝑗𝑗 � = 1 so, they all can be granted with the same color. But it is
essential to see that deg (𝑝𝑝, 𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘𝑖𝑖 ) ≥ 1. In order to grant separate colors to the
adjacent nodes, we need 𝑟𝑟 colors as they r in power. Node 1 is in the other
part of graph so it can be given among any of the granted color. Also,
|𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛)| = |𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛)| then, 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − {1} nodes are in the connected part of 𝔾𝔾. So,
𝜒𝜒(𝔾𝔾) = 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − (𝑟𝑟 + 1).
Corollary 2.7. 𝜒𝜒(𝔾𝔾) = 2 for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝2 .
Proof: It can be shown easily via definition i.e., 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) = 4. Also, (𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑝𝑝2 ) =
1. By Lemma 2.6 depicts that 𝔾𝔾 ≈ 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝2. Also, 𝜒𝜒�𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 � = 2
which is the required result.
Proof. By using the definition of 𝔾𝔾, 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛) = {1, 𝑝𝑝}. Also, gcd (1, 𝑝𝑝) = 1 and
𝔾𝔾 ≈ 𝑁𝑁. In this case, exactly one color is sufficient to give both of the nodes
in order to color 𝔾𝔾.
Theorem 2.12. 𝜒𝜒 ′ (𝔾𝔾) = 𝑘𝑘 for 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 .
Proof: Since, the graph has exactly 2 components with 1 as isolated and
1, 𝑝𝑝…,𝑝𝑝𝑘𝑘 are the 𝜏𝜏 possible divisors of 𝑛𝑛, Since, 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − {1} vertices
constitutes 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 with even cardinality. As all prime powers are not relatively
prime to each other so they are adjacent via edges, so there is no other option
but to assign them with a different color. By assigning distinct color to each
edge, 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − {1} colors are needed, which is the required result.
Corollary 2.8. 𝜒𝜒 ′ (𝔾𝔾)) = 2 for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝2 .

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Proof: As proved earlier in Lemma 2.6 i.e., 𝐺𝐺 ≈ 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 for 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝2 . Using
definition of 𝐾𝐾𝑥𝑥,𝑦𝑦 , then its max degree 𝛿𝛿 then 𝜒𝜒 ′ (𝔾𝔾) = 𝛿𝛿. As 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛) =
{1, 𝑝𝑝1 , 𝑝𝑝2, 𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝2 } be the set of nodes and using definition of DAEFG any two
nodes are adjacent to each other if gcd (𝑢𝑢, 𝑣𝑣) > 1. Then, node (𝑝𝑝1 𝑝𝑝2 ) is the
only node with the max degree which is exactly 2. So, 𝜒𝜒 ′ (𝔾𝔾) = 2.
Proposition 2.27. 𝜒𝜒 ′ (𝔾𝔾) = 𝜒𝜒(𝐿𝐿(𝔾𝔾)).
Proof: Since, 𝜒𝜒 ′ be the least possible coloring assigned to edges and 𝐿𝐿(𝔾𝔾)
is constructed using edges of 𝔾𝔾 using nodes and 𝜒𝜒 is the least possible
coloring assigned to nodes. Thus, it can be easily seen that 𝜒𝜒 ′ (𝔾𝔾) =
𝜒𝜒(𝐿𝐿(𝔾𝔾)).
Proposition 2.28. For 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑘𝑘 , 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛) = {1,2, 22 , 23 , ⋯ , 2𝑘𝑘 } and 1 be the
isolated node. Using definition of clique, we need a subset of 𝐷𝐷(𝑛𝑛) for all 2
nodes meet themselves. As gcd (2, 𝑝𝑝𝑖𝑖 ) = 1, there exist a graph on 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) −
1, 𝑝𝑝 no. of nodes. So, in this way the largest possible clique can be 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) −
2. For a particular case the graph of DAEFG for 𝑛𝑛 = 36 is shown below.
Remark 2.3. Here are some useful results regarding DAEFG (i) 𝐷𝐷(𝔾𝔾) = 1
with least dominating set 1. (ii) deg (1) = 0 isolated node. (iii)
deg 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑣𝑣) = 𝜏𝜏(𝑛𝑛) − 1 (iv) 𝑂𝑂(𝔾𝔾) = 2 iff 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝 > 2. (iv) deg 𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑣𝑣) =
0 iff 𝑛𝑛 = 𝑝𝑝 (viii) 𝑔𝑔(𝔾𝔾) = 3

Figure 3. CCC(i), for i = 1

3. CONCLUSION
In this work, we have studied the structure of Divisor Anti Euler Function
graph DAEFG. We computed its order, degree of nodes, number of
components, length of cycle, its subgraphs and other graph theoretic
properties. Furthermore, we found chromatic number, chromatic index,
Hamiltonicity, Eulerianity, regularity and bipartiteness. In future, we find
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DAEFG for any 𝑛𝑛 above discussed graph theoretic properties for arbitrary
n.
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