PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 43rd ANNUAL MEETING - 1999 579

CHAIRS WITH ARMRESTS: ERGONOMIC DESIGN ISSUES

Rani Lueder, Humanics ErgoSystems, Inc.

Paul Allie, Steelcase, Inc.

The nature of job tasks in the office work environment has changed signifi-
cantly since armrests were added to office chairs. This literature review
examines applicable research in an effort to understand the importance of
adjustable armrests and to distinguish some of the issues surrounding proper
design features. Evidence suggests that adjustable armrest can relieve
muscle activity and promote better seated posture in workers who use
computer input devices as a regular part of their job.

INTRODUCTION
The design of the armrest may affect all of these risk
It is difficult to grasp how dramatically seating has factors.
changed in recent decades. The standard secretarial
chair in the 1950’s provided a low backrest that might THE IMPORTANCE OF ARMRESTS
adjust a few inches but little else in the way of
adjustability. Typically, these chairs afforded no relief Creating good armrests has been challenging. Not only do
for the upper back and arms. people come in a broad range of sizes; they often develop
their own sitting styles. Women tend to sit upright, while
Armrests were largely considered status symbols for men tend to lounge.
executives. But even they could not adjust these
supports. Our work also influences what we need in an armrest.
Many computer users type considerably harder than is
In the last decade, we have learned that not only needed; this is particularly so among those experiencing
computer users experience high rates of physical discomfort2. Armrests may help these users type more
discomfort; many office workers are more uncomfort- lightly3.
able than once presumed1.
Armrests must accommodate users’ different workstation
Musculo-Skeletal Disorders (MSDs) are not new - but configurations – including devices such as keyboards that
considered prevalent today’s computer workplaces. tilt back.
From 1982 to 1997, recorded rates in the US have
increased more than twelve-fold. Finally, the overall design of the chair affects how we sit –
and support our arms. It should support a variety of
Some generally recognized risk factors, alone or in postures to promote comfort, work effectiveness, and long
combination, for MSDs include: term well being. Chair design affects how armrests are
used – and the extent that the adjustments benefit users.
· Static and constrained postures
· Awkward and unnatural positions With this in mind, the following is a review of ergonomic
· Excessive force considerations for armrest design and use.
· Repetition

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 PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 43rd ANNUAL MEETING - 1999 580

Armrests affect more than the arms Armrests are particularly critical when the worksurface
is much higher than the chair because the higher the
The hand-arm-shoulder-neck system is complex. For keyboards, the more people struggle to find a way to
example, neck/shoulder discomfort resulting from support their arms.
inadequate support may cause people to sit in ways
that eventually cause discomfort at another site, such When armrests are not available, users often sit in
as forearms and wrists. awkward positions, such as by hunching forward and
leaning forearms on the desk. This lack of arm support
Users may also experience discomfort at a different not only affects posture – but may also exacerbate injury
area than the actual site of injury. This can lead to by leaning against sharp worksurface edges.
confusion; for example, users might take steps to
alleviate wrist pain – though their discomfort may
sometimes result from stress on the neck and shoul- Armrests alleviate stress on the back
ders from inadequate arm support. Armrests reduce loads on the spine by about 10% of
the user’s body weight. This reduced load is approxi-
Damage to a nerve may also lead to a secondary injury mately equivalent to that associated with using a
to another part of the nerve. The nervous system forward sloping seat
communicates through nerves that radiate out from the
spine. Damage to one area of the nerve (such as at the If designed properly, armrests can help keep users from
cervical spine) may contribute to secondary injuries at slumping and facilitate leaning back.
another site of the nerve (such as at the wrist)4.
Armrests help prevent excessive pressures on the
Armrests relieve loads on the neck, shoulders and seat
arms Armrests help alleviate loads on the soft tissues and the
Many of today’s computer users experience neck/ back by supporting some of the weight otherwise
shoulder discomfort and pain. When raising the arms to supported by the torso
type, the shoulder girdle tightens and suspends arms. Armrests that adjust in height, width and pivot provide
Static work with elevated and unsupported arms in- more surface area to support more of the arms’ weight
creases the load on the neck, shoulder, and back, contrib- than designs that only adjust in height and pivot, or
uting to neck and shoulder MSD’s5. Forces magnify provide only height and width controls (In-house
when holding one’s arms to the side. Working with Steelcase research, 1997).
unsupported arms may impair circulation, restrict the
natural range of shoulder motion, degenerate shoulder
tendons, and dramatically shorten time to fatigue. Armrests alleviate stress on the lower limbs
When rising from a chair, loads are transferred to the
Supporting one’s arms can alleviate these static muscle knees and hips, similar to those going up stairs. These
loads - and helps prevent neck, shoulder and arm dis- loads can be particularly stressful for users with tempo-
comfort. rary or chronic health concernsa.
Armrests help support people within their personal vision Armrests facilitate rising from a chair while cutting the
and reach zone. In fact, achieving a comfortable armrest force (hip moment) in half.
position to maintain the vision and reach zone is so
important that it usually dictates how high users adjust Armrests stabilize posture, and help us do our
their seat. People will ignore leg length in adjusting seat work.
height if their vision and reach zone is satisfied. Conse-
quently, at a standard height desk smaller people sit Many computer tasks require working with arms in
higher than tall users. awkward, fixed, positions. Users may experience
specific symptoms of discomfort or pain – or there may
Even when foot support is lost, sitting forward on the be a generalized discomfort or muscle fatigue.
seat with feet propped on the chair base is a common
posture among people using keyboards.
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 PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 43rd ANNUAL MEETING - 1999 581

of the shoulders) while using a mouse or working

with equipment.
MSD symptoms are typically stronger on users’ right
side. These lateral differences in discomfort have The shape and size of the armrest also affects how
become more pronounced with the introduction of a they are used. For example, short users may find that
mouse and other input devices. pivoting armrests that are too long interfere with
work9.
Mousing often requires considerable muscle work.
Many users work with arms reaching out, wrists bent Armrest should accommodate a broad range of
more than 15° to the side, and shoulders hunched for- users
ward. Data entry on numeric keypads is another ex-
ample of a task that can be fatiguing. Adjustable arm- There has been an increasing recognition of the impor-
rests can allow users to intermittently support postures tance of adjustable height armrests for accommodating
and facilitate changes in position. intensive computer users.

ISSUES INFLUENCING ARMREST DESIGN Postures that are symmetrical and supported are gener-
ally preferred. Armrests should allow users to sit
Armrests should support asymmetrical work centered and supported.

Armrests should be individually adjustable to accommo- Research indicates that armrests that support the elbows
date un-centered postures such as from mousing, writing, are more effective at relieving stress on the back10.
and using calculators. Armrests that adjust horizontally help alleviate muscle
loads on the neck/shoulder and back 11.
Pivoting armrests
On the other hand, armrests that are inflexible, poorly
Benefits of pivoting armrests include: designed, or that obstruct positioning in front of the
worksurface may force the user to hunch or twist.
a) Independent pivoting action helps accommodate When armrests are too high, users are more likely to
side-ways arm postures commonly found among hunch shoulders. Armrests that are too low cause
computer users. Mouse users often work with the slouching and twisting.
right arm more bent to the side (abducted).
Armrests controls ranges must fit different size users’:
b) Specific workstations may interfere with armrests,
contributing to poor working postures. For example, · Armrest heights should adjust from 7 to 10.75 inches
narrow diameter corner work surfaces may obstruct above the seat, in order to fit 5th to 95th percentile
seat armrests, and force users to work with exces- females and males.
sively elevated arms. Adjustments that enable
armrests to angle inward can help prevent such · Armrest widths should adjust about 4 inches to fit 5th
problems. to 95th percentile males and females.
c) Pivoting armrests allow users to support their arms
People make fewer errors when their keyboard is at
while working with a wider range of postures.
about the right height.13.. It is reasonable that properly
d) Computer users’ arms hang more naturally near the designed armrests may increase employee effectiveness
sides when arm caps adjust for both width and angle. and productivity.
Abduction is reduced if the arm cap can be placed
directly under the elbow. Armrests should stabilize position, yet promote
However, it is not enough to provide pivot adjust- shifts in posture
ments. Armrests that pivot without adjusting in width
may not support natural work postures. Because the Today’s computer users often perform work requiring
distance between pivot points is fixed, people that are high precision while using mice and other input devices –
short (or have narrow shoulders) are forced to hunch for hours at a time. Such precise motions may increase
and reach to the side (outward rotation and abduction the risk of developing symptoms. Users may benefit
from supports that provide postural stability while
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 PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 43rd ANNUAL MEETING - 1999 582

allowing them to work in a variety of postures. Armrests should not interfere with getting close to
the worksurface
Many users prefer soft chair armrests to palmrests in
order to promote free arm motion; to avoid unnatural The optimum length of the armrest depends on the
hand positions, a palmrest should only be used as a rest, specific configuration and placement of the arms on the
not as a support while keying.. chair.
Armrests that are independent of other seat compo-
However, under all circumstances, the design of the
nents often provide users with greater control over their
armrest should not interfere with proper seated postures
working position – because they do not need to reposi-
at the work surface. Poorly designed armrests may
tion their hands when leaning back. This stabilization of
constrain postures, causing users to hunch forward and
arm position may encourage some users to take greater
work with elevated arms.
advantage of backrest features.
Armrests should not have sharp edges
Armrests should allow for (but not encourage)
continuous use Armrests should be broad and padded, and support the
Many ergonomists believe that armrests should be used “fleshy” portion of the forearm. These supports should
intermittently. Although there is a vast literature be designed so that they do not impact the highly sensi-
supporting the benefits from using armrests, constant tive ulnar nerve near the elbow (Pheasant, 1997).
use of these supports may also affect users’ posture in
unintended ways. For example, continuous arm support Armrests should be easy to adjust
may cause users to deviate their wrists while typing.
It is now widely recognized that many users do not adjust
Ergonomists currently do not fully understand the long- their chairs14. We have also learned that adjustability
term implications of intermittent versus constant use. alone is not enough. People must be aware that their
Perhaps some people will benefit from working with chair adjusts. They must also know why it is important to
continuous use – while doing so makes others uncom- perform the adjustments.
fortable.
Finally, adjustments must be easy to use. Lueder 15
Employees with symptoms may find that continuous provided these guidelines for evaluating ease of adjust-
use of armrests facilitates recovery – while others may ment:
become uncomfortable. It is also possible that some
users find that continuous support alleviates neck and · Adjustments can be performed from the normal
shoulder pain – while their wrists become less comfort- sitting work position.
able.
· Controls are easy to recognize and understand.
Certainly, the tradeoffs associated with continuous use
are, to some extent, a function of the specific design of · Adjustments offer immediate feedback about the
the armrest. A well-designed armrest will be more settings.
beneficial to more users – and offer less potential for · Adjustments are logical, consistent, and work as
adverse effects. expected.
Regardless of what ergonomists ultimately decide, · Controls require a minimum of motions and effort.
many users will support their arms continuously, while
working at the keyboard. And if they can’t do so on an
Helander16 found that the second and third of these
armrest, they will find a more hazardous and less
principles were particularly important. They also re-
acceptable means. Therefore, it is important that the
ported that a large number of adjustments did not dis-
armrest allows users to work with arms constantly
courage their use.
supported without introducing unnecessary risk factors.

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 PROCEEDINGS of the HUMAN FACTORS AND ERGONOMICS SOCIETY 43rd ANNUAL MEETING - 1999 583

Training
5
Sauter, S.L. (1984) Predictors of strain in VDT users and traditional
office workers. Ergonomics and health in modern offices: Proceedings
Training in proper seat adjustment is a central component of the International Scientific Conference on Ergonomics and Health
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designed chairs. Fernstrom, E.A.C. and Ericson, M.O. (1996) Upper arm elevation
during office work. Ergonomics. 39 (10), 1221-1231
CONCLUSION Aaras, A. and Ro, O. (1997) Supporting the forearms on the tabletop
when doing VDU work. A laboratory and field study. Marconi
Current research demonstrates that armrests serve an Research Conference 1997. Three pp.
important function in promoting comfort, well being - and Aaras, A. (1994) Relationship between trapezius load and the
incidence of musculoskeletal illness in the neck and shoulder.
in supporting the work process.
International J of Industrial Ergonomics, 341-348.
6
Serina, E., Tal, R., and Rempel, D. (1994) Wrist and arm angles
Arm rests improve posture and promote freedom of during typing. Marconi Research Conference. UCSF Ergonomics
movement while stabilizing the way we sit. They also laboratory, San Francisco. 5 pp.
reduce the muscle loads on the neck, shoulders and 7
Milerad, E. and Ericson, M.O. (1994) Effects of precision and force
arms; reduce pressures on the spine; distribute pressures demands, grip diameter, and arm support during manual work: an
on the seat, support rising and sitting in the chair, and help electromyographic study. Ergonomics. 37 (2), 255-264.
us do our work. 8
Karlqvist, L.K., Bernmark, E., Ekenvall, L., Hagberg, M., Isaksson,
A., Rosto, T. (1998) Computer mouse position as a determinant of
Evidence suggests adjustable armrests that support task- posture, muscular load and perceived exertion. Scandinavian J. Work
Environment and Health. 24 (1), 62-73
related arm postures can provide an important means of 9
Helander, M.G. and Zhang, L. (1997) Field studies of comfort and
alleviating stress. Pursuing the evolution of these impor- discomfort in sitting. Ergonomics. 40 (9), 895-915
tant adjuncts to working health is a worthwhile endeavor. 10
Wells, R., Lee, I.H., and Bao, S. (1997) Investigations of the
We have come a long way since the 1950’s. optimal upper limb support conditions for mouse use. Marconi
Research Conference.
11
Feng, Y., Grooten, W., Wretenberg, P. and Arborelius, U.P. (1997)
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