General Awareness & General Science Capsule

GEOGRAPHY
Milky Way Galaxy and Earth Solar System • The distance between any two parallels of latitude is
always equal.
Our Sun (a star) and all the planets around it are part of a • 1 degree latitude = 111 km (approx.).
galaxy known as the Milky Way Galaxy. A galaxy is a large
group of stars, gas, and dust bound together by gravity. Earth Longitude
They come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The Milky Way • The lines of longitude are drawn as a series of
is a large barred spiral galaxy. The Milky Way is the galaxy semicircles that extend from the North Pole to the
that contains our Solar System. South Pole through the equator. They are also called
Earth solar system consists of: meridians.
• The Sun
• The distance between any two meridians is not equal.
• The Planets (8 Planets)
• Dwarf Planets such as Pluto, Ceres, Eris etc. & countless • At the equator, 1 degree = 111 km. At 30°N or S, it is
fragments of left – overs called asteroids, meteors, 96.5 km. It goes on decreasing this way until it is zero
comets & satellites of the planets (called small solar at the poles.
system Bodies). • There are 360 meridians of longitude. The prime
meridian is a longitude of 0°, passing through the Royal
Some Facts about Solar System
Observatory at Greenwich near London.
• Biggest Planet : Jupiter • This meridian is taken by geographers to divide the
• Smallest Planet : Mercury
earth into the eastern & the western hemispheres.
• Nearest Planet to Sun : Mercury
• Each meridian of longitude is a semi-circle. 180°
• Farthest Planet from Sun : Neptune
• Nearest Planet to Earth : Venus meridian (International Date Lin(e) lies exactly
• Brightest Planet : Venus opposite to 0° meridian. Such points are called
• Brightest star after Sun : Sirius Antipodal Points.
• Planet with maximum satellites : Saturn • The earth is divided into 24 longitudinal zones, each
• Coldest Planet : Neptune being 15° or 1 hour apart in time (4 minutes / degre(e).
• Hottest Planet : Venus
• Heaviest Planet : Jupiter Longitude & Time
• Red Planet : Mars • Places that are on the same meridian have the same
• Biggest Satellite : Ganymede local (sun) time. Since the earth makes one complete
• Smallest Satellite : Deimos revolution of 360° in 24 hours, it passes through 15° in
• Blue Planet : Earth one hour or 1° in 4 minutes.
• Morning/Evening Star : Venus
• The earth rotates from West to East, hence places east
• Earth's Twin : Venus
• Green Planet : Neptune of Greenwich see the sun earlier & gain time whereas
• Planet with a big red spot : Jupiter places west of Greenwich see the sun later & lose time.
• Greatest Diurnal Temperature : Mercury
Earth Latitude & Longitude
Earth Latitude
• Imaginary lines drawn parallel to the equator.
Measured as an angle whose apex is at the centre of the
Earth.
• The equator represents 0° latitude, while the North
Pole is 90° N & the South Pole 90° S.Equator is the
‘Greatest Circle’ that can be drawn on the earth’s
surface.
• 23½° N represents Tropic of Cancer while 23½° S
represents Tropic of Capricorn.
• 66½° N represents Arctic Circle while 66½° S
represents Antarctic Circle.
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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
• India, whose longitudinal extent is approx. 30°, has Indian Standard Time: It is fixed on the mean of 82 1/2°E
adopted only one time zone, selecting the 82.5°E for Meridian, a place near Allahabad. It is 5 1/2hours ahead of
the standard time which is 5 hours & 30 minutes ahead Greenwich Mean Time.
of GMT (Greenwich Mean Tim(e).
Facts about earth
International Date Line
• It is the 180° meridian running over the Pacific Ocean, • The Earth is also called Blue Planet. It is the densest of
deviating at Aleutian Islands, Fiji, Samoa & Gilbert all planets.
Islands. It is a zig-zag line. • Earth Circumference: 40,232 Kilometers.
• Travelers crossing the Date Line from west to east (i.e., • Earth Area: 510 million square Kilometers
from Japan to US(A) repeat a day & travelers crossing • Average distance from sun: 149 million Kilometers.
it from east to west (i.e., from USA to Japan) lose a day. • Earth Perihelion: Nearest position of earth to sun.
The earth reaches its perihelion on January 3 every
Important Parallels of Latitude
year at a distance of about 147 million-Kilometers.
1. The Tropic of Cancer: It is in the northern hemisphere
• Aphelion: Farthest position of earth from sun. The
at an angular distance of 23 1/2° (23°30’N) from the
earth reaches its aphelion on July 4, when the earth is
equator.
at a distance of 152 million Kilometers.
2. The Tropic of Capricorn: It is in the southern
hemisphere at an angular distance of 23 1/2° (23°30’S) • The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid or oblate
from the equator. ellipsoid (i.e. almost spherical, flattened a little at the
3. The Arctic Circle: It lies at a distance of 66 1/2° poles with a slight bulge at the centr(e).
(66°30’N) north of the equator. Types of Earth Movements:
4. The Antarctic Circle: It lies at a distance of 66 1/2° 1. Rotation or daily movement.
(66°30’S) south of the equator. There are two solstices 2. Revolution or annual movement.
each year, called the Summer Solstice & the Winter
Solstice. Earth Rotation
Summer Solstice: The day of 21st June when the sun is • Earth spins on its imaginary axis from west to east in
vertically overhead at the Tropic of Cancer (23°30’N). It is 23 hrs, 56 min & 40.91 sec.
longest day in Northern Hemisphere. • Rotational velocity at equator is 1667 Km/hr & it
Winter Solstice: The day of 22nd December when the sun decreases towards the poles, where it is zero.
is vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn (23°30’S). Earth’s rotation results in
It is Shortest Day in Northern Hemisphere. i. Causation of days & nights;
Meridians of Longitude ii. A difference of one hour between two meridians which
The semi-circles running from pole to pole or from north are 15° apart;
to south are known as meridians of longitude & distance iii. Change in the direction of wind & ocean currents; Rise
between them are measured in degrees of longitude. & fall of tides everyday.
Greenwich Meridian or Prime Meridian with a value of 0° iv. The longest day in North Hemisphere is June 21, while
longitude serves as a common base for numbering shortest day is on 22 Dec (vice-versa in Southern
meridians of longitude lying on either side of it — east as Hemispher(e).
well as west. There are 360 meridians including Prime Days & nights are almost equal at the equator.
Meridian. Each degree of a longitude is divided into sixty
equal parts, each part is called a minute. Each minute is Earth Revolution
again divided into sixty equal parts, each part being called • It is earth’s motion in elliptical orbit around the sun.
a second. Earth’s average orbital velocity is 29.79 Km/sec.
Local Time: Local time of any place is 12 noon when the • Takes 365 days, 5 hrs, 48 min & 45.51 sec. It results in
sun is exactly overhead. It will vary from the Greenwich one extra day every fourth year.
time at the rate of four minutes for each degree of Revolution of the earth results in
longitude. i. Change of seasons
Greenwich Mean Time: The time at 0° longitude is called ii. Variation in the lengths of days & nights at different
Greenwich Mean Time. It is based on local time of the times of the year
meridian passing through Greenwich near London. iii. Shifting of wind belts
iv. Determination of latitudes.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
Earth Eclipses (c) When the earth moves in an earthquake, it can cause
Lunar Eclipse waves in the ocean, & if a wave grows large enough, it's
• When earth comes between sun & moon. called a "tsunami". Underwater earthquakes sometimes
• Occurs only on a full moon day. However, it does not produce large waves called Tsunami.
(e) The magnitude of an earthquake & the intensity of
occur on every full moon day because the moon is so
shaking, is measured on a numerical scale called Mercalli
small & the plane of its orbit is tilted about 5° with
Scale. On the scale, 3 or less is scarcely noticeable, &
respect to the plane of the earth’s orbit. It is for this magnitude 7 (or mor(e) causes damage over a wide area.
reason that eclipses do not occur every month. The point of origin of earthquake is called Seismic focus.
• This light is red because the atmosphere scatters the The point on the earth’s surface vertically above the earth’s
other colors present in sunlight in greater amounts surface is called Epicentre.
than it does red. (f) The passage of earthquake waves is recorded by
Seismograph. The magnitude of waves is measured on
Solar Eclipse Richter’s scale. For measurement of the intensity of the
A solar eclipse is a type of eclipse that occurs when the earthquake (damage cause(d), the Modified Mercalli
Moon passes between the Sun & Earth, & the Moon fully or Intensity Scale is used.
partially blocks the Sun. This can happen only at new
Distribution of Earthquakes
moon.
(a) Around the Pacific Ocean along a belt of volcanoes
INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH known as the Ring of Fire. Roughly 90% of all earthquakes
occur along the Ring of Fire.
The uppermost layer of the earth’s crust which is capable (b) From the middle of Asia (Himalayas, Caspian Se(a)
of supporting life is called Lithosphere. through the Mediterranean Sea to West Indies.
The earth's interior has three different layers; they are (c) Mid-Atlantic ridge belt.
(i) the crust (ii) mantle & (iii) the core.
VOLCANOES
(a) Earth's Crust:
All of the Earth's landform (mountains, plains, & plateaus) A volcano is an opening in Earth’s crust that allows molten
are contained within it, along with the oceans, seas, lakes & rock from beneath the crust to reach the surface. This
rivers. The thickness of earth’s crust is about 30 km. There molten rock is called magma when it is beneath the surface
are two different types of crust: thin oceanic crust that and lava when it erupts or flows from a volcano. Along with
lava, volcanoes also release gases, ash, and rock.
underlies the ocean basins & thicker continental crust that
underlies the continents. The boundary between the crust Types of Volcanoes
& the mantle is Mohorovicic Discontinuity. Geologists have classified five different types of volcanoes.
(b) Earth's Mantle: It is the thick, dense rocky matter that This classification is based on the geomorphic form,
surrounds the core with a radius of about 2900 km. The magma chemistry, & the explosiveness of the eruption. The
least explosive type of volcano is called a basalt plateau.
mantle covers the majority of the Earth's volume. This is
These volcanoes produce a very fluid basaltic magma with
basically composed of silicate rock rich in iron &
horizontal flows. Deposits of these volcanoes can be as
magnesium. This layer is separated from the core by thick as 1800 meters. Large basalt plateaus are found in the
Gutenberg-Wiechert Discontinuity. The outer & the inner Columbia River Plateau, western India, northern Australia,
mantle are separated by another discontinuity named Iceland, Brazil, Argentina, & Antarctica. Some basaltic
Repetti discontinuity. magmas can produce very large slightly sloping volcanoes,
(c) Earth's Core: Earth's Core is composed mainly of an 6 to 12°, that have gently flowing magmas called shield
iron & nickel alloy. The thickness of core is about 3400 km. volcanoes Shield volcanoes can be up to 9000 meters tall.
The core is made of two layers: the outer core, which The volcanoes of the Hawaiian Islands are typical of this
borders the mantle, and the inner core. type.
A cinder cone is a small volcano, between 100 & 400
EARTHQUAKES meters tall, made up of exploded rock blasted out of a
central vent at a high velocity. These volcanoes develop
(a) The sudden tremors or shaking of earth’s crust for a few
from magma of basaltic to intermediate composition. They
second is called an earthquake. form when large amounts of gas accumulate within rising
(b) The point at the surface directly above the focus is magma. Examples of cider cones include Little Lake
called the earthquake epicentre. Volcano in California & Paricuti Volcano in Mexico.
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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
Composite volcanoes are made from alternate layers of in the Circum-Pacific belt and include such volcanic peaks
lava flows & exploded rock. Their height ranges from 100 as Mt. Fuji (Japan) Mt. Mayon (Philippines), Mt. Merapi
to 3500 meters tall. The chemistry of the magma of these (Sumatr(a) etc.
volcanoes is quite variable ranging from basalt to granite.
Plateau -Plateau are elevated uplands with extensive level
Magmas that are more granitic tend to be very explosive surfaces, and usually descends steeply to the surrounding
because of their relatively higher water content. Water at lowland.
high temperatures & pressures is extremely volatile. Types of plateau - Tectonic and Volcanic plateau.
Examples of composite volcanoes include Italy's Vesuvius,
Japan's Mount Fuji, & Washington State's Mount Rainier & Plain- A plain is a type of landform made up of a flat area
Mount St. Helens. that can exist in valleys, lowlands, on plateaus, or uplands.
Types of plain- Structural Plain, Erosional Plain,
Classification on the basis of Periodicity of Depositional plain, Glacial plain and Abyssal plain.
Eruptions:
ROCKS & MINERALS
Active Volcano:
About 98 per cent of the total crust of the earth is
Volcanoes which erupt periodically. E.g. Maona Loa in
composed of eight elements like oxygen, silicon, aluminum,
Hawaii, Etna in Sicily, Vesuvius in Italy, Stromboli in iron, calcium, sodium, potassium & magnesium, & the rest
Mediterranean Sea, etc. is constituted by titanium, hydrogen, phosphorous,
Dormant Volcano: manganese, sulphur, carbon, nickel & other.
Volcanoes which has been quiet for a long time but in (1) The three types of rocks are
which there is a possibility of eruption. E.g. Fujiyama in (i) Igneous Rocks
Japan, Krakatoa in Indonesia, Barren island Volcano in (1) Igneous rocks solidify from a liquid magma as it cools.
Andamans, etc. When magma cools rapidly, mineral crystals do not have
Extinct Volcano: time to grow very large. On the other hand when magma
An extinct volcano is one which is no longer active and cools slowly crystals grow to several millimeters or more
hasn't erupted in historical times. E.g. Mount Kilimjaro. in size.
Distribution of Volcanoes in the World Granite & basalt are the examples of IR. Igneous rocks are
About 15% of world’s active volcanoes are found along the classified as
‘constructive or divergent’ plate margins, whereas 80% (a) Extrusive Rocks
volcanoes are associated with the ‘destructive or Extrusive igneous rocks solidify from molten material that
convergent’ plate boundaries. flows over the earth’s surface (lav(a).
Common extrusive rocks are
Earth Mountains (a) basalt,
(b) andesite, &
Mountains Types – Fold, Block, Volcanic Mountains (c) rhyolite.
Types of Mountains (b) Intrusive Rocks
Fold Mountains: They are formed when the rocks of the Intrusive rocks form from molten material (magm(a) that
crust of the earth folded under stress, mainly by forces of flows & solidifies underground.
compression (as a result of series of earthquakes). Common rock types within the intrusive category are
E.g.Himalayas, Alps, Andes, Rockies, Atlas, etc. granite & diorite.
Block Mountains: Earth movements generate tensional ii. Sedimentary Rocks
forces that tend to pull the crust apart,and faults are These are types of rocks created from deposition of layers
developed. If the block enclosed by faults remains as it is upon layers of sediments over time. These types of rocks
rises, and the land on either side subsides, the upstanding are formed on the Earth's surface as well as underwater.
block become the horst or block mountain. The Great Examples – Sandstone, limestone, stromatolites, oil shale &
African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben), The Rhine Valley coal shale, gypsum, shale, & conglomerate.
and the Vosges Mountain in Europe are examples. iii. Metamorphic Rocks
Volcanic Mountains: Volcanic mountains are formed due Metamorphic rocks are any rock type that has been altered
to volcanic activity.These are, in fact, volcanoes which are by heat, pressure, and/or the chemical action of fluids &
built up from material ejected from fissures in the earth’s gases. When igneous rocks, or sedimentary rocks, or even
metamorphic rocks get buried very deep under the earth's
crust. The materials include molten lava, volcanic bombs,
surface, a process that takes millions of years, they get
cinders, ashes, dust and liquid mud.Volcanic mountains are
changed into something else by the enormous pressure &
often called mountains of accumulation. They are common
heat inside the earth.
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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
Some examples of metamorphic rocks are: • Temperature increases rapidly with increasing height.
• Limestone being changed into marble • It is an electrically charged layer. This layer is
• Shale turning into slate produced due to interaction of solar radiation & the
• Granite being changed into gneiss chemicals present, thus disappears with the sunset.
• Sandstone turning into quartzite. • There are a number of layers in thermosphere e.g. D-
layer, E-layer, F-layer & G-layer.
ATMOSPHERE
• Radio waves transmitted from earth are reflected back
Atmosphere is a thick gaseous envelope that surrounds the to the earth by these layers.
earth & extends thousands of kilometers above the earth's (e) Exosphere
surface. Much of the life on the earth exists because of the • This is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere
atmosphere otherwise the earth would have been barren. extending beyond the ionosphere.
Nitrogen & Oxygen comprise 99% of the total volume of the • The density is very low & temperature becomes
atmosphere. 5568°C.
Structure of the Atmosphere • This layer merges with the outer space.
The atmosphere consists of almost concentric layers of air About Ionosphere
with varying density & temperature. At heights of 80 km (50 miles), the gas is so thin that free
(a) Troposphere: electrons can exist for short periods of time before they are
• Lowest layer of the atmosphere. captured by a nearby positive ion. This portion of the
• The height of troposphere is 16 km thick over the atmosphere is ionized & contains plasma which is referred
to as the ionosphere. The Ultraviolet (UV), X-Ray & shorter
equator & 10 km thick at the poles.
wavelengths of solar radiation ionizes the atmosphere. The
• All weather phenomena are confined to troposphere
ionosphere is broken down into the D, E & F regions.
(e.g. fog, cloud, frost, rainfall, storms, etc.)
• Temperature decreases with height in this layer Pressure Belts of the World
roughly at the rate of 6.5° per 1000 metres, which is
PRESSURE & WIND BELTS
called normal lapse rate.
Air pressure is thus defined as total weight of a mass of
• Upper limit of the troposphere is called tropopause column of air above per unit area at sea level. The amount
which is about 1.5 km. of pressure exerted by air at a particular point is
(b) Stratosphere: determined by temperature & density which is measured
• The stratosphere is more or less devoid of major as a force per unit area.
weather phenomenon but there is circulation of feeble Aneroid Barometer-It is the most common type
winds & cirrus cloud in the lower stratosphere. barometer used in homes.
• Jet aircrafts fly through the lower stratosphere
(a) Equatorial Low Pressure Belt:
because it provides perfect flying conditions.
At the Equator heated air rises leaving a low-pressure area
• Ozone layer lies within the stratosphere mostly at the
at the surface. This low pressure area is known as
altitude of 15 to 35 km above earth's surface.
equatorial low pressure. The zone shifts along with the
• Ozone layer acts as a protective cover as it absorbs northward or southward movement of sun during summer
ultra-voilet rays of solar radiation. solstice & winter solstice respectively. The pressure belt is
• Depletion of ozone may result in rise of temperature of thermally induced because the ground surface gets heated
ground surface & lower atmosphere. during the day. Thus warm air expands, rises up & creates
• Temperature rises from -60°C at the base of the low pressure. They are also called Doldrums. Extend 5° N
stratosphere to its upper boundary as it absorbs ultra- & S to the equator.
voilet rays.
(b) Sub-tropical High Pressure Belt:
• Upper limit of the Stratosphere is called stratopause.
The warm air risen up at the equator due to heating
(c) Mesosphere
reaches the troposphere & bend towards the pole. Due to
• Mesosphere extends to the height of 50-90 km. coriollis force the air descends at 30-35º N & S latitude thus
• Temperature decreases with height. It reaches a creates the belt of sub-tropical high pressure. The
minimum of -80°C at an altitude of 80-90 km pressure belt is dynamically induced as it owes its origin to
• The upper limit is called mesopause. the rotation of the earth & sinking & settling of winds. This
(d) Thermosphere zone is characterized by anticyclonic conditions which
• It lies at 80 km to 640 km above the earth's surface. cause atmospheric stability & aridity. These pressure belts
• It is also known as ionosphere. are called Horse latitudes.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
(c) Temperate Low Pressure Belt: The planetary winds are discussed below:
This belt is located between 60-65 degrees N & S latitudes (a) Trade winds
in both the hemisphere. This pressure belt is also Winds blowing from the Subtropical High Pressure Belt or
dynamically induced. The belt is more developed & regular horse latitudes towards the Equatorial Low Pressure Belt
in the southern hemisphere than the northern due to over or the ITCZ are the trade winds. In the Northern
dominance of water in the former. Hemisphere, the trade winds blow from the northeast &
are known as the Northeast Trade Winds; in the Southern
(d) Polar High Pressure Belt:
Hemisphere, the winds blow from the southeast & are
High pressure persists at the pole due to low temperature. called the Southeast Trade Winds.
Thus the Polar High Pressure Belt is thermally induced as
well as dynamically induced as the rotation of earth also (b) Westerlies
plays a minor role. The Westerlies are the prevailing winds in the middle
latitudes between 35º & 65º latitude, blowing from the
Coriolis Force high pressure area in the Sub Tropical High Pressure Belt
The rotation of the Earth creates force, termed Coriolis i.e. horse latitudes towards the sub polar low pressure belt.
force, which acts upon wind. Instead of wind blowing The winds are predominantly from the south-west to
directly from high to low pressure, the rotation of the Earth north-east in the Northern Hemisphere & from the north-
causes wind to be deflected off course. In the Northern west to south-east in the Southern Hemisphere.
Hemisphere, wind is deflected to the right of its path, while The Westerlies are strongest in the winter season & times
in the Southern Hemisphere it is deflected to the left. when the pressure is lower over the poles, while they are
Coriolis force is absent at the equator, & its strength weakest in the summer season & when pressures are
increases as one approaches either pole. Furthermore, an higher over the poles. The Westerlies are particularly
increase in wind speed also results in a stronger Coriolis strong, especially in the Southern Hemisphere, as there is
force & thus in greater deflection of the wind. less land in the middle latitudes to obstruct the flow.
Winds (c) Polar Wind
When the movement of the air in the atmosphere is in a The winds blowing in the Arctic & the Antarctic latitudes
horizontal direction over the surface of the earth, it is are known as the Polar Winds. They have been termed the
known as the wind. Movement of the wind is directly 'Polar Easterlies', as they blow from the Polar High
controlled by pressure. Horizontally, at the Earth's surface Pressure belt towards the Sub-Polar Low-Pressure Belts.
wind always blows from areas of high pressure to areas of In the Northern Hemisphere, they blow in general from the
low pressure usually at speeds determined by the rate of north-east, & are called the North-East Polar Winds; & in
air pressure change between pressure belts. the Southern Hemisphere, they blow from the south-east &
are called the South- East Polar Winds. As these winds blow
TYPES OF WINDS
from the ice-capped landmass, they are extremely cold.
I. Planetary winds:
They are more regular in the Southern Hemisphere than in
the Northern Hemisphere.

Planetary winds are major component of the general global

circulation of air. These are known as planetary winds
because of their prevalence in the global scale throughout
the year. Planetary winds occur due to temperature &
pressure variance throughout the world.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
II. Periodic Winds: Hot Winds
They change their direction periodically with change in Sirocco - Sahara Desert
season. Leveche - Spain
Land & sea breezes & monsoon winds are winds of a Khamsin - Egypt
periodic type. Land & sea breezes occur daily, whereas the Harmattan - Sahara Desert
occurrence of monsoon winds is seasonal. Following are Santa Ana - USA
periodic winds: Zonda - Argentina
(a) Monsoon winds Brick fielder – Australia
Loo – India
(b) Land & Sea Breeze
(c) Mountain & Valley Breeze Cold Winds
Mistral - Spain & France
(a) Monsoon Winds
Bora - Adriatic coast
Monsoons are regional scale wind systems that Pampero - Argentina
periodically change direction with the passing of the Buran - Siberia
seasons. Like land & sea breezes, these wind systems are
created by the temperature contrasts that exist between JET-STREAMS
the surfaces of land & ocean. The JET STREAMS located in the upper troposphere (9 - 14
km) are bands of high speed winds (95-190 km/hr). The
term was introduced in 1947 by Carl Gustaf Rossby.
(b) Land & Sea Breezes:
Average speed is very high with a lower limit of about 120
A land breeze is created when the land is cooler than the
km per hours in winter & 50 km per hours in summer. The
water such as at night & the surface winds have to be very
two most important types of jet streams are the Polar Jet
light. When this happens the air over the water slowly Streams & the Subtropical Jet Streams.
begins to rise, as the air begins to rise, the air over the
surface of the ocean has to be replaced, this is done by ELNINO & LANINA - El Nino is a naturally occurring
drawing the air from the land over the water, thus creating phenomenon characterized by the abnormal warming of
a sea breeze. sea surface temperature in the central and eastern
A sea breeze is created when the surface of the land is equatorial Pacific Ocean. La Nina is a climate pattern that
describes the cooling of surface ocean waters along the
heated sufficiently to start rising of the air. As air rises, it is
tropical west coast of South America.
replaced by air from the sea; created a sea breeze. Sea
breezes tend to be much stronger & can produce gusty CYCLONES
winds as the sun can heat the land to very warm Cyclones are well developed low-pressure systems
temperatures, thereby creating a significant temperature surrounded by closed isobars having increasing pressure
contrast to the water. outside & closed air circulation towards the centre such
that the air blows inward in anticlockwise direction in the
(c) Mountain & Valley winds: northern hemisphere & clockwise in the southern
Mountain-valley breezes are formed by the daily difference hemisphere.
of the thermo effects between peaks & valleys. In daytime,
A. Tropical cyclones
the mountainside is directly heated by the sun, the
Tropical cyclones are intense cyclonic storms that develop
temperature is higher, air expands, air pressure reduces, &
over the warm oceans of the tropics. Surface atmospheric
therefore air will rise up the mountainside from the valley pressure in the centre of tropical cyclones tends to be
& generate a valley breeze. extremely low.
Anabatic & Katabatic winds - Anabatic Winds are The main characteristics of tropical cyclones are:-
upslope winds driven by warmer surface temperatures on • Have winds that exceed 34 knots (39 miles/hr)
a mountain slope than the surrounding air column. • Blow clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere
Katabatic winds are downslope winds created when the • Blow Counter-clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere
mountain surface is colder than the surrounding air and • This is one of the most devastating natural calamities.
creates a down slope wind. They are known as Cyclones in the Indian Ocean,
III. Local Winds Hurricanes in the Atlantic, Typhoons in the Western
Pacific & South China Sea, & Willy-Willies in the
These local winds blow in the various region of the world.
Western Australia.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
B. Temperate cyclones (d) Deep Ocean Basins
The systems developing in the mid & high latitude, beyond It is the portion of sea floor that lies between the
the tropics are called the middle latitude or temperate continental margin & the oceanic ridge system. It contains
cyclones. deep-ocean trenches, abyssal plains, & broad volcanic
Extra tropical cyclones form along the polar front. Two air peaks called sea mounts.
masses of contrasting physical properties: one air mass is I. Deep-Ocean Trenches:
polar in character & is cold, denser & north-easterly in These are long, narrow features that form the deepest
direction while the other air mass is tropical in origin & is parts of the ocean. Most trenches are located in the Pacific
warm, moist, lighter & south westerly in direction. Ocean. They may reach 10,000 m deep. Mariana trench is
An anticyclone is a region of high atmospheric pressure about 11,000 m below sea level in Pacific Ocean.
related to the surrounding air, generally thousands of
kilometre in diameter & also known as a high or high- II. Abyssal Plains:
pressure system. Winds in an anticyclone form a These are the most level places on Earth. The abyssal plains
clockwise out-spiral in the Northern Hemisphere; whereas may have less than 3 m of relief over a distance that may
exceed 1300 km. Scientists determined that abyssal plains
they form an anti-clockwise out-spiral in the Southern
low relief is due to the fact that thick accumulations of
Hemisphere.
sediment, transported by turbidity currents, have buried
OCEANOGRAPHY rugged ocean floor.
The study of physical and biological aspects of the ocean is
III. Sea mounts:
called Oceanography. It reveals that the sea floor is not a
It is an isolated volcanic peak that rises at least 1000 m
flat area. It consists of mountains, plateaus, plains &
(3300 ft) above the deep-ocean floor. They are more
trenches etc. extensive in the Pacific Ocean, where subduction zones are
Some major submarine features are described below. common. These undersea volcanoes form near oceanic
ridges (regions of seafloor spreading). Some of these
(a) Continental Shelf volcanoes may emerge as an island.
(1) The portion of the land which is submerged under sea
water is continental shelf. (e) Submarine Canyons
(2) The continental shelf is shallow & its depth is not more These are depressions with walls of steep slopes & have a
than 200 metres. V shape. They exist on the continental slopes & the shelves.
(3) In all about 7.5 percent of total area of the oceans is They are found to have a length of 16 km at the maximum.
covered by the continental shelves. OCEAN CURRENTS
The shelves are of great use to man because: Ocean currents are large masses of surface water that
1. Marine food comes almost entirely from them. circulate in regular patterns around the oceans. Those that
2. About 20 percent of oil & gas of the world is extracted flow from equatorial regions polewards have a higher
from them. surface temperature & are called warm currents. Those
3. They are the sites of productive fishing grounds. that flow from polar regions equatorwards have a lower
surface temperature & are called cold currents.
(b) Continental Slope
It is an area of steep slope extending just after the Factors affecting Ocean Current
continental shelf up to a considerable depth from where a 1. The planetary winds.
gentle sea plain takes its form. The extent of the slope area 2. Temperatures.
is usually between 200-2000 m. But sometimes it may 3. Salinity.
extend to 3660 metre from the mean sea level. The 4. The earth’s rotation.
continental slope along many coasts of the world is 5. Land.
followed by deep canyon like trenches terminating as fan THE CIRCULATION OF OCEAN CURRENTS
shaped deposits at the base. Continental slope covers 8.5
percent of the total ocean area. THE ATLANTIC OCEAN CIRCULATION
At the ‘shoulder’ of north-east Brazil, the protruding lands
(c) Continental Rise mass splits the South Equatorial Current into the Cayenne
The gently sloping surface at the base of the continental Current which flows along the Guiana coast, & the
slope is called continental rise. It may extend to hundreds Brazilian Current which flows southwards along the east
of km into the deep ocean basin. coast of Brazil.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
Part of the current enters the Gulf of Mexico & emerges It is a body of water between Europe, Asia, & North
from the Florida Strait between Florida & Cuba as the America, mostly north of the Arctic Circle.
Florida Current. The rest of the equatorial water flows Lowest point: Fram Basin (Now known as Nansen Basin).
northwards east of the Antilles to join the Gulf Stream off Atlantic Ocean- The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of
the south-eastern U.S.A. The Gulf Stream Drift is one of the world's five oceans. The Kiel Canal (Germany), Oresund
the strongest ocean currents & hugs the coast of America (Denmark-Sweden), Bosporus (Turkey), Strait of Gibraltar
as far as Cape Hatteras (latitude 350N), where it is (Morocco-Spain), & the Saint Lawrence Seaway (Canada-
deflected eastwards under the combined influence of the US) are important strategic access waterways.
Westerlies & the rotation of the earth. It reaches Europe as It is a body of water between Africa, Europe, the Southern
the North Atlantic Drift. Ocean, & the Western Hemisphere. It includes includes
The cold Labrador Current drift southeastwards between Baltic Sea, Black Sea, Caribbean Sea, part of the Drake
West Greenland & Baffin Island to meet the warm Gulf Passage, Gulf of Mexico, Mediterranean Sea, & other
Stream off Newfoundland. On reaching the west coast of tributary water bodies.Panama Canal connects the Atlantic
Africa the current is diverted northwards as the cold and Pacific oceans.
Benguela Current (the counterpart of the Canaries Lowest point: Milwaukee Deep in the Puerto Rico Trench.
Current). Indian Ocean - The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the
THE PACIFIC OCEAN CIRUCLATION world's five oceans. Four critically important access
The North- East Trade Winds blow the North Equatorial waterways are the Suez Canal (Egypt), Bab-el Mandeb
Current off the coasts of the Philippines & Formosa into (Djibouti-Yemen), Strait of Hormuz (Iran-Oman), & Strait
the East China Sea as the Kuroshio or Japan current. The of Malacca (Indonesia-Malaysi(a). It is a body of water
cold Bering Current or Alaskan Current creeps between Africa, the Southern Ocean, Asia, & Australia. It
southwards from the narrow Bering Strait & is joined by includes Andaman Sea, Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Flores
Okhotsk Current to meet the warm Japan Current as the Sea, Gulf of Aden, Gulf of Oman, Java Sea, Red Sea, Strait of
Oyashio, off Hokkaido. The South Equatorial Current, Malacca, Timor Sea, & other tributary water bodies.
driven by the South-East Trade winds, flows southwards Lowest point: Java Trench
along the coast of Queensland as the East Australian
Pacific Ocean - The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the
Current. Obstructed by the tip of southern Chile, the
world's five oceans. Strategically important access
current turns northwards along the western coast of South
waterways include the La Perouse, Tsugaru, Tsushima,
America as the cold Humboldt or Peruvian Current.
Taiwan, Singapore, & Torres Straits.
THE INDIAN OCEAN CIRCULATION It is body of water between the Southern Ocean, Asia,
The currents of South Indian Ocean form a circuit. The Australia, & the Western Hemisphere. It includes Bali Sea,
Equatorial Current, turning southwards past Madagascar Bering Sea, Coral Sea, East China Sea, Gulf of Alaska,
as the Agulhas or Mozambique Current merges with the Philippine Sea, Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, Tasman Sea, &
West Wind Drift, flowing eastwards & turns equator-wards other tributary water bodies.
as the West Australian Current. In the North Indian Ocean, Lowest point: Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench.
there is a complete reversal of the direction of currents
between summer & winter, due to the changes of monsoon Southern Ocean- The Southern Ocean is also called
winds. In summer from June to October, when the Antarctic Ocean. It is the fifth-largest drainage basin in the
dominant wind is the South-West Monsoon, the currents world by basin area (14,000,000 sq. km).
are blown from a south-westerly direction as the South- TIDES
West Monsoon Drift. This is reversed in winter; Monsoon
blows the currents from the north-east as the North-East The tide is the periodic rise & fall of the sea levels caused
Monsoon Drift. The currents of the North Indian Ocean, by the combined effects of the gravitational forces exerted
demonstrate most convincingly the dominant effects of by the Moon & Sun & rotation of the earth. Most places in
winds on the circulation of ocean currents. the ocean usually experience two high tides & two low
tides each day (semidiurnal tid(e), but some locations
OCEANS experience only one high & one low tide each day (diurnal
tid(e). The times & amplitude of the tides at the coast are
Arctic Ocean- The Arctic Ocean is the smallest of the
influenced by the alignment of the Sun & Moon, by the
world's five oceans. The Northwest Passage (US &
depth of the ocean, & by the shape of the coastline & near-
Canad(a) & Northern Sea Route (Norway & Russi(a) are
shore bathymetry.
two important seasonal waterways.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
Causes of Tides Average elevation extends upto 6000m & some of the
• Gravitational attraction between moon & the earth. world’s highest peaks are here :
• Gravitational attraction between sun & the earth.
• Attraction force of the earth towards earth centre. Mt Everest (or Sagarmatha or Chomo 8848 m (in
• Moon is mainly responsible for the tides. Langm(a) Nepal)
Types of Tides 8598 m (in
Mt Kanchenjunqa
• Semi diurnal tides - Recur at the intervals of 12½ hours. Indi(a)
• Diurnal Tides - Recur at the intervals of 24½ hours. 8481 m (in
Mt Makalu
• Spring Tides - once a fortnight, due to the revolution of Nepal)
the moon & its declination. 81 72 m (in
Mt Dhaulagiri
• Neap tides - Once a fortnight due to the revolution & Nepal)
declination of moon. 8153m (in
Mt Cho Oyu
• Monthly tides - Due to the revolution of the moon & its Nepal)
position at Perigee & Apogee. 8126m (in
Mt Nanga Parbat
Indi(a)
SPRING TIDES 8078 m (in
Mt Annapurna
Spring tides are especially strong tides or high tides. They Nepal)
occur when the Earth, the Sun, & the Moon are in a line. The 7817 m (in
Mt Nanda Devi
gravitational forces of the Moon & the Sun both contribute Indi(a)
to the tides. Spring tides occur during the full moon & the
new moon. LESSER HIMALAYAS OR THE HIMACHAL
NEAP TIDES
Neap tides are especially weak tides. They occur when the Average height of mountains is 3700 – 4500 m.
Mountains & valleys are disposed in all direction
gravitational forces of the Moon & the Sun are
(mountains rising to 5000 m & the valleys touching 1000
perpendicular to one another (with respect to the Earth).
m).
Neap tides occur during quarter moons. The Bay of Fundy
Its important ranges are : Dhauladhar, Pir Panjal, Nag
between Nova Scotia & New Brunswick in Canada Tibba, Mussoorie.
experiences the world's greatest tidal range of 50 feet
(15.25 meters). Outer Himalayas or The Shiwaliks
Lowest range (average elevation is 900-1200 m).
MOUNTAINS OF INDIA Forms the foothills & lies between the Lesser Himalayas &
the plains.
The Himalayas
Means ‘Abode of Snow’. They are one of the youngest fold TRANS – HIMALAYAN ZONE
mountain ranges in the world & comprise mainly This range lies to the north of the Great Himalayas. It has
sedimentary rocks. They stretch from the Indus River in some important ranges like Karakoram, Laddakh, Zanskar,
the west to the Brahmaputra River in the east. The Eastern etc. The highest peak in this region is K2 or Godwin Austin
Himalayas-made up of Patkai Hills, Naga Hills, Mizo Hills & (8611m, in Pak occupied Kashmir). Other high peaks are
the Garo, Khasi & Jaintia Hills-are also known as Hidden Peak (8068 m), Broad Peak (8047 m) &
Purvanchal. Gasherbrum II (8035 m).
The Pamir, popularly known as the Roof of the World, is the The longest glacier is Siachin in the Nubra valley, which is
connecting link between the Himalayas & the high ranges more than 72 km long (biggest glacier in the worl(d). Biafo,
of Central Asia. Baltaro, Batura, Hispar are the other important glaciers in
Can be divided into 3 parallel or longitudinal zones, each this region. This area is the largest snow-field outside the
with separate features. Polar Regions.
THE GREAT HIMALAYAS OR THE HIMADRI IMPORTANT FACTS
There are few passes & almost all of them have a height ⇒ Uttar Pradesh borders the maximum number of States-
above 4,500 m. They include Shipki La & Bara Lapcha La in 8(Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Haryana, Rajasthan,
Himachal Pradesh, Burzil & Zoji La in Kashmir, Niti, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar). After UP
Lipulekh & Thang La in Uttarankhand, & Jelep La & Nathu is Assam, which touches the border of 7 States.
La in Sikkim.
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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
⇒ Tropic of Cancer passes through 8 States : Gujarat, ⇒ The Deccan Plateau is the largest plateau in India. It is
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, made up of lava flows in the Cretaceous-Eocene era
West Bengal, Tripura, Mizoram. through the fissure eruptions.
⇒ Indian Standard Meridian passes through 5 States :
ISLANDS OF INDIA
Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Orissa,
Andhra Pradesh. Total coastline of India: 7516 km. Longest coastline:
⇒ 10 States form the coast of India. They are : Gujarat, Gujarat (Second longest is of Andhra Pradesh).
Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Andhra
The Andaman & Nicobar Group
Pradesh, Telangana, Orissa & West Bengal.
Andaman and Nicobar is a group of 572 islands of which
⇒ 2 Union Territories, viz. Daman & Diu & Pondicherry are
the largest is Middle Andaman. The Andaman are believed
also on the coast.
to be extensions of mountains system in the N.E. part of the
⇒ The Union Territories of Andaman & Nicobar Islands & country.
Lakshadweep are made up of islands only. Saddle Peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak.
THE PLAINS OF INDIA Volcanic Islands: Barren & Narcondam Islands. Barren is
in the process of eruption these days after lying dormant
To the south of the Himalayas & to the north of the
for 200 years.
Peninsula lies the great plains of North India. They are
formed by the depositional works of three major river The Arabian Sea Group
systems, Indus, Ganga & Brahmaputra. The vast plains of All the islands in the Arabian Sea are coral islands & are
north India are alluvial in nature & the westernmost surrounded by Fringing Reefs (North: Lakshadweep,
portion is occupied by the Thar Desert. South: Minicoy).
The thickness of the alluvium is maximum in the Ganga
DO YOU KNOW?
plains & minimum in the Western Plains.
Ten Degree Channel separates Andaman from Nicobar
The plains consist of four divisions: (Little Andaman from Car Nicobar)
Bhabar : Along the foothills of Shiwaliks. Highly porous Duncan Passage lies between South Andaman & Little
and small streams known as Chos and Raos disappear. Andaman.
Tarai : Re-emergence of streams. Zone of excessive Nine Degree Channel separates Kavaratti from Minicoy
dampness – South of Bhabar. Island.
Bhangar : Older alluvial plains, contain calcareous Eight Degree Channel separates Minicoy Island (Indi(a)
formations called ‘kankar’.Also exihibit small tracts of from Maldives.
saline and alkaline efflorescences known as Reh,Kallar or
Thur. RIVERS OF INDIA
In India, the rivers can be divided into two main groups:
Khadar : New alluvium & forms the flood plains along the Himalayan Rivers-1) Indus 2) Ganga 3) Brahmaputra
river banks. Also called Bet lands. Peninsular Rivers-1) East flowing 2) West flowing
Delta Plains : It is extension of Khadar land.Consists
mainly of old mud,new mud and marsh. The uplands are HIMALAYAN RIVERS OF INDIA
called Chars while marshy areas are known as Bils.
THE INDUS SYSTEM
PENINSULAR PLATEAU OF INDIA It has a total length of 2880 km (709 km in Indi(a). Rises in
Spreads south of the Indo-Gangetic plains flanked by sea Tibet (Chin(a) near Mansarovar Lake. In Jammu &
on three sides. This plateau is shaped like a triangle with Kashmir, its Himalayan tributaries are: Zanskar, Dras,
its base in the north. The Eastern Ghats & the Western Gartang, Shyok, Shigar, Nubra, Gilgit, etc. Its most
Ghats constitute its eastern & western boundaries, important tributaries, which join Indus at various places,
respectively. are: Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas & Satluj.
⇒ Narmada, which flows through a rift valley, divides the
region into two parts: The Malwa Plateau in the north & the Sources: Jhelum from Verinag (SE Kashmir), Ravi from
Deccan Plateau in the south. Kullu Hills near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh, Beas
⇒ Vindhya Plateau is situated south of Malwa plateau. from a place near Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh &
⇒ Chhota Nagpur Plateau lies to the west of Bengal basin, Satluj from Mansarovar– Rakas lakes in W. Tibet, Chenab-
the largest & most typical part of which is the Ranchi near Bara Lacha Pass in Himachal Pradesh
plateau.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
THE GANGA SYSTEM Brahmaputra, or the Red River, is navigable for a
It is 2525 km long of which 1450 km is in Uttarakhand & distance of 1384 km up to Dibrugarh & serves as an
UP, 445 km in Bihar & 520 km in West Bengal. The Ganga, excellent inland water transport route.
the head stream is constituted of two main rivers –
RIVERS OF THE PENINSULA IN INDIA
Bhagirthi & Alaknanda, which combine at Devprayag to
form Ganga. A. EAST FLOWING RIVERS OF INDIA (OR DELTA
FORMING RIVERS)
Sources: Bhagirathi from Gaumukh, Alaknanda from
Badrinath, Mandakini from Kedarnath (all from Mahanadi River (885 km) : Rises in Raipur district in
Uttarakhan(d). Yamuna (1375 km) is its most important Chhatisgarh. Hirakud dam is on Mahanadi river.
tributary (on right bank). It rises at the Yamunotri glacier
Godavari River (1465 km) : Also called Vriddha Ganga or
in Uttarakhand. It runs parallel to Ganga for 800km & joins Dakshina Ganga. It is the longest peninsular river. Rises in
it at Allahabad. Important tributaries of Yamuna are Nasik. Main tributaries: Manjira, Penganga, Wardha,
Chambal, Betwa (480 km) & Ken (all from south). Indravati, Wainganga, etc.
Apart from Yamuna, other tributaries of Ganga are
Ghaghra (1080 km), Son (780 km), Gandak (425 km), Kosi Krishna River (1327 km): Rises in Western Ghats near
(730 km), Gomti (805 km), Damodar (541 km). Kosi is Mahabaleshwar. Main tributaries: Koyna, Dudhganga,
infamous as ‘Sorrow of Bihar’, while Damodar gets the Panchganga, Malprabha, Bhima, Tungabhadra, etc.
name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’ as these cause floods in these Cauvery River (805 km): It is the largest peninsular river
regions. Hooghli is a distributory of Ganga flowing through (maximum amount of water). Infact, it is the only
Kolkata. peninsular river which flows almost throughout the year.
It rises from the Brahmagir range of Western Ghats. Main
THE BRAHMAPUTRA SYSTEM tributaries: Hemavati, Lokpawni, Shimsa.
It has a total length of 2900 km. It rises in Tibet (from Subernrekha River (395 km) & Brahmani (705 km) :
Chemayungdung glacier), where it is called Tsangpo, & Rises from Ranchi Plateau.
enters the Indian territory (in Arunachal Pradesh) under
the name Dihang. Important Tributaries: Subansiri, B. WEST FLOWING RIVERS IN INDIA
Kameng, Dhansiri, Manas, Teesta. In Bangladesh, Narmada River (1312 km) : Rises in Amarkantak Plateau
Brahmaputra is known by the name of Jamuna while Ganga & flows into Gulf of Khambat and form estuary. It forms the
gets the name Padma. Meghna is the most important famous Dhuan Dhar Falls near Jabalpur. Main tributaries:
distributory before it enters the Bay of Bengal. Hiran, Burhner, Banjar, Sher, Shakkar, Tawa, etc.
The combined stream of Ganga & Brahmaputra forms the
Tapti River (724 km) : Rises from Betul district in
biggest delta in the world, the Sundarbans, covering an
Maharashtra. Also known as twin or handmaid of
area of 58,752 sq. km. Its major part is in Bangladesh.
Narmada. Main tributaries: Purna, Betul, Arunavati, Ganjal,
Majuli island on Brahamaputra in Assam, is the biggest
etc.
river island in the world.
Sabarmati River (416 km) : Rises from Aravallis in
Rajasthan.
Mahi River (560 km) : Rises from Vindhyas in
Maharashtra.
Luni River (450 km) : Rises from Aravallis. Also called Salt
River. It is finally lost in the marshy grounds at the head of
the Rann of Kuchchh.
Sharavati is a west flowing river of the Sahyadris. It forms
the famous Jog or Gersoppa or Mahatma Gandhi Falls (289
m), which is the one of the highest waterfall in India.
Note:
⇒ The largest man-made lake in India is Indira Sagar Lake,
which is the reservoir on Indira Sagar Dam on Narmada

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
Sardar Sarovar Project, Omkareshwar Project & Climate of INDIA
Maheshwar Project in Gujarat-Madhya Pradesh. India has tropical monsoon type of climate.
⇒ Chilka Lake (Oriss(a) is the largest brackish water lake
CLIMATE SEASONS IN INDIA
of India. Otherwise also, it is the largest lake of India. In India, the year can be divided into four seasons, resulting
⇒ Wular Lake (J & K) is the largest fresh water lake of India. from the monsoons which occur mainly due to the
Dal Lake is situated in J & K. differential heating of land & movement of the sun’s
⇒ From Sambhar & Didwana Lake (Rajasthan), salt is vertical rays.
produced. Other important lakes are Vembanad in Kerala The highest temperature experienced in South is in April
& Kolleru & Pulicat in Andhra Pradesh. while in North it is in May & June. NORWESTERS ‘Cherry
The three important Gulfs in the Indian Territory are: Blossoms’ are there in Karnataka, beneficial to coffee
Gulf of Kachchh (west of Gujarat) : Region with highest plantation & ‘Mango showers’ in elsewhere South India,
potential of tidal energy generation. which are beneficial to mango crops.
Gulf of Cambay or Gulf of Khambat (Gujarat) : Narmada, The south – west monsoon enters the country in two
Tapti, Mahi & Sabarmati drain into it. currents, one blowing over the Bay of Bengal & the other
Gulf of Mannar (south east of Tamil Nadu) : Asia’s first over the Arabian Sea. This monsoon causes rainfall over
most of the country (except Tamil Nadu & Thar Desert
marine biosphere reserve.
are(a).
IMPORTANT RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS IN INDIA The Bay of Bengal branch after crossing the deltaic region
• Bhakhra Nangal Project: On Satluj in Punjab. Highest enters the Khasi valley in Meghalaya & gets entrapped in it
in India. Height 226 m. Reservoir is called Gobind Sagar due to funnel shape of the region. It strikes Cherrapunji in
Lake. a perpendicular direction causing heavies rainfall in
• Mandi Project: On Beas in Himachal Pradesh. Mausryam (Approx. 1400 cm). From mid-Sept to mid-Dec,
• Chambal Valley Project: On Chambal in Madhya the monsoon retreats. As the sun’s vertical rays start
Pradesh & Rajasthan. 3 dams are there under this shifting towards the Tropic of Capricorn, the low pressure
project: Gandhi Sagar Dam, Rana Pratap sagar Dam & area starts moving south & winds finally start blowing
Jawahar Sagar dam. from land to sea. This is called north-east monsoon. The
• Damodar Valley Project: On Damodar in Bihar. withdrawal of monsoon is a much more gradual process
• Hirakud: On Mahanadi in Orissa. World's longest dam: than its onset. It causes rainfall in Tamil Nadu as the winds
4801 m. pick some moisture from Bay of Bengal. This explains the
• Rihand : On Son(river) in Mirzapur. Reservoir is called phenomenon why Tamil Nadu remains dry when the entire
Govind Vallabh Pant reservoir. country receives rain & why it gets rain when practically
• Mayurkashi Project : On Mayurkashi in West Bengal. the entire country is dry.
• Kakrapara Project : On Tapi in Gujarat. CLIMATIC REGIONS OF INDIA
• Nizamsagar Project: On Manjra in Andhra Pradesh. India can be divided into a number of climatic regions.
• Nagarjuna Sagar Project : On Krishna in Andhra Tropical Rainy Climate: Found in the west coastal plains,
Pradesh. the Western Ghats & parts of Assam. Characterised by high
• Shivasamudram Project: On Cauvery in Karnataka. temperatures throughout the year. Rainfall, though
• Tata Hydel Scheme : On Bhima in Maharashtra. seasonal, is heavy- about 200 cm annually during May-
• Sharavathi Hydel Project : On Jog Falls in Karnataka. November.
• Kundah & Periyar Project - On Bhawani and Periyar Tropical Savanna Climate : In most of the peninsula
river respectively in Tamil Nadu. region except the semi-arid zone in the leeward side of the
• Farakka Project: On Ganga in West Bengal. Apart Western Ghats. It is characterized by long dry weather
from power & irrigation it helps to remove silt for easy throughout winter & early summer & high temperature
navigation. (above 18.2 Deg.(c); annual rainfall varies from 76 cm in
• Ukai Project : On Tapti in Gujarat. the west to 150 cm in the east.
• Salal Project : On Chenab in J & K. Tropical Semi-Arid Steppe Climate : It prevails in the
• Mata Tila Multipurpose Project : On Betwa in U.P & rain-shadow belt running southward from Central
M.P. Maharashtra to Tamil Nadu in the leeward side of the
• Thein Project : On Ravi, Punjab. Western Ghats & the Cardamom Hills. It is characterized by
• Pong Dam : On Beas, Punjab. low rainfall which varies from 38 cm to 80 cm, high
temperature between 20 & 30 degree.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
Tropical & Subtropical Steppes : Large areas in Punjab, Alluvial soil is most suited to irrigation & can produce
Haryana & Kutch region. Temperature varies from 12-35 bumper crops of rice, wheat, maize, sugarcane, tobacco,
Deg. c. The maximum temperature reaches up to 49 Deg.c. cotton, jute, oilseeds, etc.
The annual rainfall, varying from 30.5-63.5 cm, is also
2. Black Soil:
highly erratic.
The black soil is locally called regur, a word derived from
Tropical desert : This climate extends over the western
Telugu word ‘reguda’. It is also called the Black Cotton Soil,
parts of Banner, Jaisalmer & Bikaner districts of Rajasthan
as cotton is the most important crop grown in this soil. The
& parts of Kutch. It is characterized by scanty rainfall (30.5
black soil is mostly found in the Deccan Trap, covering
cm), which is highly erratic. Rains are mostly in the form of
large areas of Maharashtra, Gujarat & western Madhya
cloud-burst. Mean monthly temperature is uniformly high
Pradesh. The black soil is well-known for its capacity to
(about 35(c).
hold moisture. Black soil is widely used for producing
Humid Subtropical Climate with Dry Winters : This area
cotton, wheat, linseed, millets, tobacco & oilseeds.
includes south of the Himalayas, east of the tropical &
subtropical steppes & north of tropical savannah. Winters 3. Red Soil:
are mild to severe while summers are extremely hot. The The red soil occupies about 18 per cent area of India,
annual rainfall varies from 63.5 cm to more than 254 cm, mostly in the south-eastern part of the Peninsular India.
most of it received during the south west monsoon season. The red soil is found in Tamil Nadu, parts of Karnataka,
Mountain Climate : Such type of climate is seen in southeast Maharashtra, eastern parts of Andhra Pradesh,
mountainous regions which rise above 6,000 m or more Madhya Pradesh, Orissa & Jharkhand. The red colour is due
such as the Himalayas & the Karakoram Range. to the high percentage of iron contents. This soil is rich in
potash, but poor in lime, phosphate, nitrogen & humus. Red
Factors Affecting India’s Climate soils can give excellent yields of cotton, wheat, rice, pulses,
Latitude: The Indian landmass is equally divided by The millet, tobacco, oilseeds, etc.
Tropic of Cancer. Hence, half of India has tropical climate & 4. Laterite Soil:
another half has subtropical climate. The word ‘laterite’ has been derived from a Latin word
Altitude: While the average elevation in the coastal areas meaning ‘brick’. It is mainly found on the summits of the
is about 30 metre, the average elevation in the north is Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal Hills, Vindhyas,
about 6,000 metre. The Himalayas prevent the cold winds Satpuras & Malwa plateau. It is well- developed in southern
from Central Asia from entering the Indian subcontinent. Maharashtra, & parts of Orissa, West Bengal, Karnataka,
Due to this, the subcontinent gets comparatively milder Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Bihar, Assam & Meghalaya. Such
winters as compared to Central Asia. climatic conditions promote leaching of soil. Leaching is a
Pressure & Winds: The Indian subcontinent lies in the process in which heavy rains wash away the fertile part of
region of north-easterly winds. These winds originate from the soil.
the subtropical high-pressure belt of the northern The laterite soil is red in colour & composed of little clay &
hemisphere. After that, these winds blow towards south. much gravel of red sandstones.
They get deflected to the right due to the Coriolis force & Due to intensive leaching, the laterite soil generally lacks
then move towards the low pressure area near the equator. fertility & is of low value for crop production. But when
Soils manured & timely irrigated, the soil is suitable for
producing plantation crops like tea, coffee, rubber,
1. Alluvial Soil: coconut, arecanut, etc.
In India it covers about 40 per cent of the total land area. It 5. Mountain Soil:
is very fertile & contributes the largest share of agricultural The mountain soil is generally found on the hill slopes
wealth. Found mostly in the Northern Plains, starting from covered with forests. This soil is also found in the Western
Punjab in the west to West Bengal & Assam in the east. The & Eastern Ghats & in some parts of the Peninsular India.
northern parts & the coastal areas of Gujarat also have This soil is rich in humus, but poor in potash, phosphorus
some deposits of alluvial soil. The fine particles of sand, silt & lime.
& clay are called alluvium. In the Himalayan region wheat, maize, barley & temperate
The alluvial soil can be divided into fruits are grown on this soil. This soil is especially suitable
a. Old alluvium, called bhangar for producing plantation crops, such as tea, coffee, spices &
b. New alluvium, called khadar. tropical fruits in Karnataka, Tamil Nadu & Kerala.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
6. Desert Soil: BIOSPHERE RESERVES IN INDIA
The desert soil is found mostly in the arid & semi-arid In India, the first biosphere reserve – Nilgiri biosphere
regions, receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall. Such reserve – came into being in 1986. So far, 18 biosphere
regions are mostly found in Rajasthan & the adjoining reserves have been set up in the country.
areas of Haryana & Punjab. The Rann of Kachchh in Gujarat NATIONAL PARKS & WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES
is an extension of this region. The desert soil has sand (90 There are 103 National Parks & 544 Wildlife Sanctuaries in
to 95 per cent) & clay (5 to 10 per cent). Desert soil can India.
produce a variety of crops, such as wheat, millet, barley, Madhya Pradesh & Andaman & Nicobar Islands have the
maize, pulses, cotton, etc. maximum number of National Parks (9 each) while
Andaman & Nicobar Islands has 96 & Maharashtra has 42
NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA Wildlife Sanctuaries (maximum in Indi(a).
Tropical Evergreen Forests-In areas over 250 cm CROPPING SEASONS IN INDIA
rainfall. In Western Ghats, hilly areas in N.E. India & Kharif Crops of India
Andaman & Nicobar Islands. Trees are rosewood, shisham, Sown in summers between May & July, & harvested after
ebony, ironwood, etc. the rains, in September & October.
E.g. : Rice, Jowar, Bajra, Maize, Cotton, Jute, Sugarcane,
Tropical Deciduous Forests-In areas having rainfall 100
Tobacco, Groundnut, Pulses, etc.
– 200 cm. In peninsular region & along the foothills of
Himalayas in Shivaliks, Bhabhar & Tarai. The trees of these Rabi Crops of India
forests drop their leaves for about 6-8 weeks during the Sown at the beginning of winter & harvested before the
onset of the summer season, between February & April.
spring & early summer when sufficient moisture isn’t
E.g. : Wheat, barley, oilseeds, gram, potatoes, etc.
available. Trees are teak, sal, bamboo, sandalwood,
rosewood, etc. Zaid Crops
Tropical Thorny Forests-In areas having rainfall between They are raised between April & June.
E.g. : Melon, Watermelon, Cucumber, Toris, leafy & other
25 & 80 cm. In arid regions of Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana vegetables.
& Gujarat. Trees are palm, acacia, etc.
Alpine and Sub-alpine Forest-In hills of Southern India Cash Crops of India (Commercial Crops)
Grown mainly for the market, only a small portion of the
& the Himalayas.The type of trees depends upon the height
product is consumed by the farmers themselves (cotton,
of the mountain : Sal & bamboo below 1000 m; oaks, sugarcane etc.)
chestnuts & other fruit trees, & chir forests between 1000
& 2000 m; pine, deodar, silver fern & spruce between 1600 Sugarcane In UP, Maharashtra, Karnataka
& 3300 m; above 3600 m alpine forests with trees like Cotton In Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh
silver firs, pines, birches, etc. Alpine forests give way to Jute &
In West Bengal, Bihar, Assam
Mesta
Alpine grasslands & scrubs as we move up further.
Tea In Assam, West Bengal, Himachal Pradesh
Tidal or Mangrove Forests- Also known as Littoral or
Coffee In Kamalaka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu
Swamp Forests. Occur along the sea coast & in the estuaries Rubber In Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka
of rivers, especially in Sunderbans & the Andamans. Most In Karnataka, Jammu& Kashmir, Andhra
important tree is Sundari. It provides hard & durable Pradesh. In India all 4 varieties of silk are
timber which is used for construction & building purposes Silk available: Mulberry, Tussar, Eri & Muga.
as well as for making boats. Mulberry is the main variety, while Tussar
is mainly found in Bihar.
IMPORTANT POINTS Tobacco In Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka
Madhya Pradesh has the largest area under forests
Jhum
followed by Arunanchal Pradesh. As per percentage of Shifting type of cultivation practiced in the hill slopes of
forest area to total area, first is Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Mizoram & Nagaland. In this,
followed by Mizoram. In Mangrove forests, West Bengal the trees are felled & set on fire. The ash of the burnt trees
holds the first position, followed by Gujarat & Andaman & & the other vegetation adds to the fertility of soil. This land
Nicobar Islands. The lowest forest percentage is in Haryana is used for 2-3 years till the soil gets exhausted & the jhum
& Punjab, because of the extensive agriculture. is abandoned. It is also known as Dahi, Koman, Penda, Podu
and Bewar in different parts of country.

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 General Awareness & General Science Capsule
Green Revolution Konkan Railways India : It is a project to shorten the
⚫ To increase yield per hectare government of India distance between Maharashtra, Goa & Karnataka. The total
introduced a programme called Green Revolution. route length is 786 km between Apta (Maharashtr(a) &
⚫ The Green Revolution (first) was launched in 1967-68. Mangalore (Karnatak(a).
⚫ Father of Green Revolution - Dr. Norman Borlaug.
Water Transport in India
⚫ Father of Green Revolution in India - Dr. M.S.
The total length of navigable waterways in Indian
Swaminathan.
comprising rivers, canals, backwaters, etc, is 14,500 km out
⚫ Green Revolution focused the development of high-
of which 3700 km is navigable by mechanised boats.
yielding varieties of cereal grains, expansion of
irrigation infrastructure, & distribution of hybridized The government has recognised the following National
seeds, synthetic fertilizers, & pesticides to farmers. Waterways of India:
NW 1: Allahabad to Haldia – 1,629 kms
⚫ White Revolution NW 2: Sadia to Dhubari (on Brahmaputra river) – 891 kms
⚫ The White Revolution in the country has been NW 3: Kollam to Kottapuram – 186 kms
achieved by means of Operation Flood. It was carried NW 4: Kakinada to Marakkanam (Along Godavari &
out in three phases. Krishna river) – 1,100 km
⚫ Operation Flood I - 1970 - 1981 Ports in India
⚫ Operation Flood II - 1981 - 1985 The Waterways Authority in India divides Indian ports into
⚫ Operation Flood III - 1985 - 1996. three categories, major, minor & intermediate. India has
⚫ White revolution launched to increase the quality & about 190 ports in all, with 12 major & the rest
quanity of milk & dairy products. intermediate & minor.
⚫ The Father of the White Revolution in India is Dr. The 12 Major Ports are:
Varghese Kurien. He is also known as Milkman of Port State
India. Kolkata (including Haldi(a) West Bengal
Paradip Orissa
TRANSPORT IN INDIA Vishakhapatnam Andhra Pradesh
Chennai Tamil Nadu
Indian Railway-Indian railway system is the largest in
Ennore Tamil Nadu
Asia & the fourth largest in the world. It is the biggest
Tuticorin Tamil Nadu
departmental public undertaking in the country. The first
Cochin Kerala
train ran in India between Bombay & Thane, a stretch of 34
New Mangalore Karnataka
km. on April 16th, 1853. The second train ran between
Mormugao Goa
Howrah & Hooghly in 1854. The headquarters of Indian
Jawaharlal Nehru Maharashtra
Railway is in New Delhi.
Mumbai Maharashtra
The first electric train in India was ‘Deccan Queen’. It was Kandla Gujarat
introduced in 1929 between Bombay & Poona. Indian
Railways has the second biggest electrified system in the BOUNDARY LINES
world after Russia. LINES
The fastest train in India is the Shatabadi Express whose Durand Line Pakistan & Afghanistan
maximum speed is 140 km/hr. The total route covered is MacMohan
India & China
approx 63,000 km. The total number of railway stations in Line
India is 7,100. Radcliffe Line India & Pakistan
The longest railway platforms are: Gorakhpur railway Maginot Line France & Germany
station, Uttar Pradesh, India: 1,366.33 m (4,483 ft) (longest Oder Niesse
Germany & Poland
in the worl(d). Mumbai is the destination where maximum Line
number of trains in India head for. Hindenberg Poland & Germany (at the time of
The first Metro Rail was introduced in Kolkata(West Line First World War)
Bengal) on October 24, 1984. The two stations connected 38th Parallel North & South Korea
were Dumdum & Belgachhia. 49th Parallel USA & Canada

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