ECE 316: APPLIED ELECTRONICS LECTURES NOTE

OSCILLATOR
Many electronic devices require a source of energy at a specific frequency which may range
from a few Hz to several MHz, this is achieved by an electronic device called an oscillator. An
oscillator is any electronic circuit which is used to generate an a.c voltage without an a.c input
signal, instead the a.c voltage is generated when the circuit is supplied with a d.c source.
Oscillators are extensively used in electronic equipment. For example, in radio and television
receivers, oscillators are used to generate high frequency wave (called carrier wave) in the tuning
stages. Oscillators are also widely used in radar, electronic computers and other electronic
devices.

Classification Oscillators
Oscillators are classified into the following different ways
1. According to the waveform
 Sinusoidal Oscillators: An electronic electronic device that generate sinusoidal
oscillations o desired frequency

Figure 1
 Non-sinusoidal Oscillators: This oscillator produces square, triangular and sawtooth
Waves

Figure 2
2. According to fundamental mechanism involved
 Negative resistance oscillators: Negative resistance oscillators uses negative resistance of
the amplifying device to neutralize the positive resistance of the oscillators
 Feedback oscillators: These oscillators use positive feedback in the feedback amplifier to
satisfy the Barkhausen criterion.
3. According to the type of oscillations
 LC tuned oscillator
 RC Oscillators

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Sinusoidal Oscillator
An electronic device that generates sinusoidal oscillations of desired frequency is known as a
sinusoidal oscillator. Although we speak of an oscillator as “generating” a frequency, it should be
noted that it does not create energy, but merely acts as an energy converter. It receives d.c.
energy and changes it into a.c. energy of desired frequency. The frequency of oscillations
depends upon the constants of the device. It may be mentioned here that although an alternator
produces sinusoidal oscillations of 50Hz, it cannot be called an oscillator. Firstly, an alternator is
a mechanical device having rotating parts whereas an oscillator is a non-rotating electronic
device. Secondly, an alternator converts mechanical energy into a.c. energy while an oscillator
converts d.c. energy into a.c. energy. Thirdly, an alternator cannot produce high frequency
oscillations whereas an oscillator can produce oscillations ranging from a few Hz to several
MHz.
Advantages of sinusoidal oscillator
Although oscillations can be produced by mechanical devices (e.g., alternators), but electronic
oscillators have the following advantages:
 An oscillator is a non-rotating device. Consequently, there is little wear and tear and hence
longer life.
 Due to the absence of moving parts, the operation of an oscillator is quite silent.
 An oscillator can produce waves from small (20 Hz) to extremely high frequencies (> 100
MHz).
 The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed when desired.
 It has good frequency stability i.e., frequency once set remains constant for a considerable
period of time.
 It has very high efficiency.
Types of Sinusoidal Oscillations
Sinusoidal electrical oscillations can be of two types viz damped oscillations and undamped
oscillations.
(i) Damped oscillations. The electrical oscillations whose amplitude goes on decreasing with
time are called damped oscillations. Figure 3, shows waveform of damped electrical
oscillations.

Figure 3

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 (ii) Undamped oscillations. The electrical oscillations whose amplitude remains constant
with time are called undamped oscillations. Figure 4, shows waveform of undamped
electrical oscillations.

Figure 4

Oscillatory Circuit
A circuit which produces electrical oscillations of any desired frequency is known as an
oscillatory circuit or tank circuit.
A simple oscillatory circuit consists of a capacitor (C) and inductance coil (L) in parallel as
shown in Figure 5. This electrical system can produce electrical oscillations of frequency
determined by the values of L and C. To understand how this comes about, suppose the capacitor
is charged from a d.c. source with a polarity as shown in Figure 5 (i).

Figure 5.

 In the position shown in Figure 5 (i), the upper plate of capacitor has deficit of electrons
and the lower plate has excess of electrons. Therefore, there is a voltage across the
capacitor and the capacitor has electrostatic energy.
 When switch S is closed as shown in Figure 5 (ii), the capacitor will discharge through
inductance and the electron flow will be in the direction indicated by the arrow. This
current flow sets up magnetic field around the coil. Due to the inductive effect, the
current builds up slowly towards a maximum value. The circuit current will be maximum
when the capacitor is fully discharged. At this instant, electrostatic energy is zero but
because electron motion is greatest (i.e., maximum current), the magnetic field energy
around the coil is maximum. This is shown in Figure 5 (ii). Obviously, the electrostatic

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 energy across the capacitor is completely converted into magnetic field energy around the
coil.
 Once the capacitor is discharged, the magnetic field will begin to collapse and produce a
counter e.m.f. According to Lenz's law, the counter e.m.f. will keep the current flowing in
the same direction. The result is that the capacitor is now charged with opposite polarity,
making upper plate of capacitor negative and lower plate positive as shown in Figure 5
(iii).
 After the collapsing field has recharged the capacitor, the capacitor now begins to
discharge; current now flowing in the opposite direction. Figure 5 (iv) shows capacitor
fully discharged and maximum current flowing.
The sequence of charge and discharge results in alternating motion of electrons or an oscillating
current. The energy is alternately stored in the electric field of the capacitor (C) and the magnetic
field of the inductance coil (L). This interchange of energy between L and C is repeated over and
again resulting in the production of oscillations.
Frequency of oscillations.
The frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is determined by the constants of the circuit viz L
and C. The actual frequency of oscillations is the resonant frequency (or natural frequency) of
the tank circuit given by:
1
f r=
2 π √ LC
It is clear that frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit is inversely proportional to L and C.
This can be easily explained. If a large value of capacitor is used, it will take longer for the
capacitor to charge fully and also longer to discharge. This will lengthen the period of
oscillations in the tank circuit, or equivalently lower its frequency. With a large value of
inductance, the opposition to change in current flow is greater and hence the time required to
complete each cycle will be longer. Therefore, the greater the value of inductance, the longer is
the period or the lower is the frequency of oscillations in the tank circuit.
Basic Theory of The Positive Feedback Amplifier Oscillator
The feedback is a property which allows to connect the part of the output to the same circuit of
the input. As the phase of the feedback signal is same as that of the input applied, the feedback is
called positive feedback.

Figure 6(i)

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A transistor amplifier with proper positive feedback can act as an oscillator i.e., it can generate
oscillations without any external signal source. Figure 6(i) shows a transistor amplifier with
positive feedback. Remember that a positive feedback amplifier is one that produces a feedback
voltage (V f ) that is in phase with the original input signal. As you can see, this condition is met
in the circuit shown in Figure 6(i). A phase shift of 180° is produced by the amplifier and a
further phase shift of 180° is introduced by feedback network. Consequently, the signal is shifted
by 360° and fed to the input i.e., feedback voltage is in phase with the input signal.
(i) We note that the circuit shown in Figure 6(i) is producing oscillations in the output.
However, this circuit has an input signal. This is inconsistent with our definition of an
oscillator i.e.; an oscillator is a circuit that produces oscillations without any external
signal source.

Figure 6(ii)
(ii) When we open the switch S of Figure 6(i), we get the circuit shown in Figure 6(ii). This
means the input signal (Vin) is removed. However, (V f ) (which is in phase with the original
signal) is still applied to the input signal. The amplifier will respond to this signal in the same
way that it did to Vin i.e., ( V f ) will be amplified and sent to the output. The feedback network
sends a portion of the output back to the input. Therefore, the amplifier receives another input
cycle and another output cycle is produced. This process will continue so long as the amplifier is
turned on. Therefore, the amplifer will produce sinusoidal output with no external signal source.
Barkhausen Criteria (Conditions for Oscillation)
Barkhausen criterion is that in order to produce continuous undamped oscillations at the output
of an amplifier, the positive feedback should be such that:

M v A v =1

Where A v=voltage gain of amplifer without feedback

M v =¿ feedback fraction

Once this condition is set in the positive feedback amplifier, continuous undamped oscillations
can be obtained at the output immediately after connecting the necessary power supplies.

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Types of Transistor Oscillators
A transistor can work as an oscillator to produce continuous undamped oscillations of any
desired frequency if tank and feedback circuits are properly connected to it. All oscillators under
different names have similar function i.e., they produce continuous undamped output. However,
the major difference between these oscillators lies in the method by which energy is supplied to
the tank circuit to meet the losses. The following are the transistor oscillators commonly used at
various places in electronic circuits:
 Colpitt’s oscillator
 Hartley oscillator
 Phase shift oscillator
 Wien Bridge oscillator
 Crystal oscillator

Colpitt’s Oscillator
Figure 7(i). shows a Colpitt's oscillator. It uses two capacitors and placed across a common
inductor L and the centre of the two capacitors is tapped. The tank circuit is made up of C 1, C 2
and L. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of C 1, C 2 and L and is given by;
1
f r=
2 π √ LC T

Referring to Figure 7 (ii)., it is clear that C 1 and C 2 are in series. Therefore, total capacitance C T
is given by;
C1 C2
C T=
C 1+C 2

(i) (ii)
Figure 7.
Circuit operation.
When the circuit is turned on, the capacitors C 1 and C 2 are charged. The capacitors discharge
through L, setting up oscillations of frequency. The output voltage of the amplifier appears
across C 1 and feedback voltage is developed across C 2. The voltage across it is 180° out of phase

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with the voltage developed across C 1 (Vout) as shown in Figure 7 (ii). It is easy to see that
voltage feedback (voltage across C 2) to the transistor provides positive feedback. A phase shift of
180° is produced by the transistor and a further phase shift of 180° is produced by C 1− C 2
voltage divider. In this way, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous undamped
oscillation.

Feedback fraction (mv ): The amount of feedback voltage in Colpitt’s oscillator depends upon
feedback fraction mν of the circuit. For this circuit,

Vf X c 2 C1
Feedback fraction, mv = = =
V out X c 1 C2

N/B…The circulating current for the two capacitors is the same. Further, capacitive reactance is
inversely proportional to capacitance.
C
mv = 1
C2

Example 1.
Determine the (i) operating frequency and (ii) feedback fraction for Colpitt's oscillator shown
below.

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Hartley Oscillator
The Hartley oscillator is similar to Colpitt’s oscillator with minor modifications. Instead of using
tapped capacitors, two inductors L1 and L2 are placed across a common capacitor C and the
centre of the inductors is tapped as shown in Figure 8. The tank circuit is made up of L1, L2 and
C. The frequency of oscillations is determined by the values of L1, L2 and C and is given by:
1
f=
2 π √ C LT

It is clear that L1 and L2 are in series. Therefore, total inductance LT is given by

LT = L1 + L2 + 2 M

Here M = mutual inductance between L1 and L2 Note that L1 − L2 − C is also the feedback
network that produces a phase shift of 180°.

(i) (ii)

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 Figure 8.
Circuit Operation.
When the circuit is turned on, the capacitor is charged. When this capacitor is fully charged, it
discharges through coils L1 and L2setting up oscillations of frequency. The output voltage of the
amplifier appears across L1 and feedback voltage across L2. The voltage across L2 is 180° out of
phase with the voltage developed across L1 (Vout) as shown in Figure 8 (ii). It is easy to see that
voltage feedback (i.e., voltage across L2) to the transistor provides positive feedback. A phase
shift of 180° is produced by the transistor and a further phase shift of 180° is produced by L1 −
L2 voltage divider. In this way, feedback is properly phased to produce continuous undamped
oscillations.

Feedback fraction (mv ): In Hartley oscillator, the feedback voltage is across L2 and output
voltage is across L1.

Vf Xl2 L2
∴ Feedback fraction, m v =V = X = L
out l1 1

Referring to Figure 8 (ii)., the circulating current for the two inductors is the same. Further,
inductive reactance is directly proportional to inductance.
L
mv = 2
L1

Example 2.
Calculate the (i) operating frequency and (ii) feedback fraction for Hartley oscillator shown in
Figure below. The mutual inductance between the coils, M = 20 μH.

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Phase Shift Oscillator
Figure 9. shows the circuit of a phase shift oscillator. It consists of a conventional single
transistor amplifier and a RC phase shift network. The phase shift network consists of three
sections R1 C1, R2 C2 and R3 C3 . At some particular frequency f 0, the phase shift in each RC
section is 60º so that the total phase-shift produced by the RC network is 180º. The frequency of
oscillations is given by:

1
f 0=
2 πRC √ 6
where R1 = R2 = R3 = R
C1 = C2 = C3 = C

Figure 9

Circuit operation.
When the circuit is switched on, it produces oscillations of frequency. The output E0 of the
amplifier is fed back to RC feedback network. This network produces a phase shift of 180º and a
voltage Ei appears at its output which is applied to the transistor amplifier. Obviously, the
feedback fraction m = Ei / E0 . The feedback phase is correct. A phase shift of 180º is produced by
the transistor amplifier. A further phase shift of 180º is produced by the RC network. As a result,
the phase shift around the entire loop is 360º.

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Advantages Phase Shift Oscillator
 It does not require transformers or inductors.
 It can be used to produce very low frequencies.
 The circuit provides good frequency stability.

Disadvantages Phase Shift Oscillator

 It is difficult for the circuit to start oscillations as the feedback is generally small.
 The circuit gives small output.

Example 3.
In the phase shift oscillator shown in Figure 9, R1 = R2 = R3=1MΩ and C 1 = C 2 = C 3= 68pF. At
what frequency does the circuit oscillate?

Example 4.
A phase shift oscillator uses 5 pF capacitors. Find the value of R to produce a frequency of 800
kHz.

Wien Bridge Oscillator

The Wien-bridge oscillator is the standard oscillator circuit for all frequencies in the range of 10
Hz to about 1 MHz. It is the most frequently used type of audio oscillator as the output is free
from circuit fluctuations and ambient temperature. Figure 10, shows the circuit of Wien bridge
oscillator. It is essentially a two-stage amplifier with R-C bridge circuit. The bridge circuit has
the arms R1 C1, R3, R2 C2 and tungsten lamp LP . Resistances R3 and LP are used to stabilise the
amplitude of the output. The transistor T 1 serves as an oscillator and amplifier while the other
transistor T 2 serves as an inverter (i.e., to produce a phase shift of 180º). The circuit uses positive

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and negative feedbacks. The positive feedback is through R1 C1, R2 C2 to the transistor T 1. The
negative feedback is through the voltage divider to the input of transistor T 2. The frequency of
oscillations is determined by the series element R1 C1 and parallel element R2 C2 of the bridge.

1
f=
2 π √ R 1 C 1 R2 C 2

If R1 = R2 = R
And C1 = C2 = C
1
Then f=
2 πRC

Figure 10

Circuit Operation
When the circuit is started, bridge circuit produces oscillations of frequency. The two transistors
produce a total phase shift of 360º so that proper positive feedback is ensured. The negative
feedback in the circuit ensures constant output. This is achieved by the temperature sensitive
tungsten lamp LP . Its resistance increases with current. Should the amplitude of output tend to
increase, more current would provide more negative feedback. The result is that the output would
return to original value. A reverse action would take place if the output tends to decrease.

Advantages Wien Bridge Oscillator

 It gives constant output.
 The circuit works quite easily.
 The overall gain is high because of two transistors.
 The frequency of oscillations can be easily changed by using a potentiometer.

Disadvantages Wien Bridge Oscillator

 The circuit requires two transistors and a large number of components.
 It cannot generate very high frequencies.

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Example 5.
In the Wien bridge oscillator shown in Figure 10, R1 = R2 = 220 kΩ and C1 = C2 = 250 pF.
Determine the frequency of oscillations.

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