Implant Training Report

A Report submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the

Requirement for the Award of the Dissertation of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
Electronics & Communication Engineering
By

PRN Name of the Student

2014111045 Swastik Gupta

Under the guidance of Course In-charge

Dr. A.K. Kushwaha

Department of Electronics & Communication Engineering

Bharati Vidyapeeth
(Deemed to be University)
College of Engineering,
Pune – 411043

Academic Year: 2023-24

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 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Inplant training entitled “Intern/Industrial Trainning ”

has been completed by Swastik Gupta from Bharati Vidyapeeth (Deemed to
be University) College of Engineering Pune in the required duration of the
training period from 22/06/23 to 22/08/23.

The content of this project is based on the client’s original demand, and she has
prepared this report under my guidance. Her attitude and interest shown in the
completion of her project are highly appreciable.

Guide In-Plant Training Coordinator HOD

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 INDEX
S. No. Content Page No.
1 Introduction about the Industry 4
2 Telecommunication Exchange 5
3 Optical Fiber Communication 11
4 Network Topologies 13
5 Cables 18
6 Optical Connectors 21
7 Conclusion 24

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 INTRODUCTION ABOUT INDUSTRY

Indian Railway

The Indian railway system is regarded as the foundation and lifeblood of the economy. Indian
railways span thousands of kilometres practically covering the entire nation, making it the
fourth largest in the world after the US, China, and Russia. The Railways Board, which has a
monopoly over the provision of rail services in India, oversees overseeing the whole
infrastructure. Due to its low cost and effective operations, railways continue to be the most
popular means of transportation for most Indians when travelling long distances.

India's railway network is recognised as one of the largest railway systems in the world under
single management. The railway network is also ideal for long-distance travel and movement of
bulk commodities, apart from being an energy-efficient and economic mode of conveyance and
transport. Indian Railways is the preferred carrier of automobiles in the country.

The government of India has focused on investing in railway infrastructure by making investor-
friendly policies. It has moved quickly to enable Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in railways to
improve infrastructure for freight and high-speed trains. At present, several domestic and
foreign companies are also looking to invest in Indian rail projects.

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 TELECOMMUNICATION EXCHANGE

A telecommunications exchange office, commonly referred to as a telephone exchange or

telecom exchange, serves as the central hub within the telecommunications network,
responsible for the intricate task of routing, switching, and managing telecommunications
services. Its fundamental role is to connect calls and data between users within its service area
and enable long-distance and international communications. When a user initiates a call or data
transmission, the exchange office first receives the signal, including relevant routing
information. It then examines this information to determine the call's destination or data
transmission's route. Using switch equipment, which can be mechanical or digital, the exchange
establishes the necessary electrical connections between the calling and called parties or data
centers. Routing algorithms are applied to efficiently direct the signal to its destination,
considering factors such as distance and network load. Interconnection with other exchanges,
including toll offices and international gateways, allows for extensive call routing. The
exchange monitors call quality and records usage for billing purposes. It also plays a vital role
in facilitating emergency services, ensuring accurate and swift routing of emergency calls.
Furthermore, telecom exchange offices often act as interconnection points for various service
providers, promoting competition and choice for consumers. Security measures are in place to
protect against unauthorized access and ensure the privacy of communications. As technology
evolves, many exchange offices have transitioned to IP-based networks to accommodate the
demands of the modern, digital telecommunications landscape.

A telecommunications exchange office in the context of a railway system serves as a central

facility responsible for managing and facilitating various communication services critical to
railway operations. These exchange offices are essential for ensuring the smooth and safe
functioning of the railway network.Function of Telecommunication Exchange office in
Railway:-

1. Voice Communication: Railway exchange offices handle voice communication systems,

allowing railway personnel to communicate with each other. This includes
communication between train operators, station staff, maintenance crews, and control
centers. Two-way radios, public address systems, and telephone lines are commonly
used to establish these voice connections.

2. Signaling and Control: Communication exchange offices are integral to the signaling
and control systems of the railway network. They facilitate the transmission of signals
and commands from control centers to various points along the railway track. This
includes instructions for train movement, track switching, and ensuring the safety of
railway operations.

3. Safety and Emergency Services: In the event of an emergency, exchange offices play a
crucial role in connecting with emergency services such as fire departments, police, and
medical responders. They ensure that emergency calls are promptly routed to the
appropriate agencies, allowing for a rapid response to accidents, medical emergencies,
or security incidents on the railway.

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 4. Data and Telemetry: Railways rely on a vast amount of data for monitoring and
controlling various aspects of operations. Exchange offices manage the transmission of
data, including information related to train location, speed, passenger information, and
the condition of railway infrastructure. This data is vital for optimizing schedules,
ensuring safety, and improving overall efficiency.

5. Passenger Services: Telecommunications exchange offices also support passenger

services. They manage communication systems used for ticketing, customer inquiries,
and onboard passenger information systems. These systems enhance the passenger
experience and help keep travelers informed about schedules and services.

6. Maintenance and Repairs: Railway exchange offices are used for coordinating
maintenance and repair activities. Communication between maintenance crews,
dispatchers, and control centers is essential for ensuring the ongoing reliability and
safety of the railway infrastructure.

7. Interconnection with Other Transport Networks: In some cases, railway exchange

offices may be interconnected with other transportation networks, such as local transit
systems or intermodal transportation hubs. This integration allows for seamless
connectivity and coordination between different modes of transportation.

8. Network Security: Ensuring the security of railway communication networks is

paramount. Exchange offices implement security measures to protect against
unauthorized access and potential cyber threats.

Components of Telecom exchange :-

i. FDMS:
A Fiber Distribution Management System (FDMS) is an integral component of
modern telecommunications and data networks, providing centralized control and
organization of optical fiber connections. At its core, the FDMS features fiber patch
panels where optical fibers are terminated and interconnected. It excels at cable
routing and organization, ensuring that fiber cables are neatly managed to minimize
signal loss, prevent damage, and simplify maintenance. Each fiber port on the patch
panels is labeled and mapped to indicate its connection destination, simplifying
identification and reducing the likelihood of configuration errors. A key function of
the FDMS is its ability to facilitate cross-connections and patching, allowing for
flexible routing of data. Many systems offer real-time monitoring and testing,
enabling network operators to detect issues promptly. Some FDMS solutions
incorporate redundancy and protection features for enhanced network reliability.
Security measures are often integrated to safeguard critical connections, and detailed
documentation and records are maintained to track changes and facilitate
troubleshooting. Scalability, fault localization, and integration with broader network
management are additional features that enhance the utility of an FDMS, making it
indispensable in data centers, telecommunications facilities, and enterprise networks
where efficient, reliable fiber connectivity is essential for network performance and
growth.

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 Figure 1:FDMS

ii. STM:
Synchronous Transfer Mode (STM), also known as Synchronous Digital Hierarchy
(SDH), is a crucial telecommunications technology used primarily in long-distance
and high-capacity network transmissions. STM operates on the principle of time-
division multiplexing, where data from multiple sources is organized into fixed-size
time slots and transmitted in well-defined frames, ensuring precise synchronization.
The technology is structured hierarchically, with levels like STM-1, STM-4, and
STM-16, which allow the aggregation and management of vast data volumes. STM
connections maintain a constant bit rate and include features like error correction
and performance monitoring for enhanced data reliability. STM is often utilized over
optical fiber networks due to its capacity and reliability, and it is governed by
international standards, ensuring interoperability worldwide.

Figure 2:STM_1

Synchronous Transfer Mode (STM) is a hierarchical structure used for high-speed

data transmission in telecommunications networks. The numbers associated with
STM (e.g., STM-0, STM-1, STM-4, STM-8, and STM-16) represent different levels
within this hierarchy, each with specific data rates and capacities. Here are the key
differences between STM-0, STM-2, STM-4, STM-8, and STM-16:

 STM-0:
 Data Rate: 51.84 Mbps (Megabits per second).
 It is the lowest level in the STM hierarchy.
 -STM-0 corresponds to the basic rate for transmitting voice and data
traffic.
 -Often used for local and metropolitan area networks, as well as in basic
voice and data services.

 STM-1:
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  Data Rate: 155.52 Mbps.
 STM-1 is the fundamental building block of the STM hierarchy.
 It can carry multiple STM-0 containers or equivalent lower-rate data
streams.
 Used for voice and data services and as a unit for aggregation in
larger telecommunications networks.

 STM-4:
 Data Rate: 622.08 Mbps.
 STM-4 carries four times the data of an STM-1.
 It is used to aggregate multiple STM-1 streams or equivalent lower-
rate streams.
 Often found in the core of high-capacity telecommunications
networks.

 STM-8:
 Data Rate: 1244.16 Mbps (1.244 Gbps).
 STM-8 has eight times the data rate of an STM-1.
 Used for high-capacity voice and data services, especially in the
backbone of telecommunications networks.

 STM-16:
 Data Rate: 2488.32 Mbps (2.488 Gbps).
 -STM-16 carries sixteen times the data rate of an STM-1.
 It provides very high data capacity, often used in long-haul and core
network infrastructure.

iii. MUX:
A multiplexer, often abbreviated as "mux," is an essential device within the realm of
telecommunications and data communication. Its primary function is to amalgamate
multiple input signals or data streams into a single output signal, effectively
optimizing the utilization of a shared communication channel. A multiplexer boasts
several key components, including multiple input channels (referred to as "n" input
lines), control signals, and an output channel, often labeled as the "multiplexed"
channel. The multiplexer's operation hinges on control signals, which dictate the
selection of one input signal for transmission, with the chosen signal switched to the
output. This process is fast and efficient, allowing different input channels to share
the same communication channel periodically. They are particularly invaluable in
scenarios where the efficient utilization of available bandwidth is paramount, such
as phone systems, digital networks, and satellite communications.

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 Figure 3:MUX

This equipment shall multiplex 30 analogue and/or data channel to 2048 kbps ITU
compatible digital stream on transmit side and on receive side, it shall demultiplex
ITU compatible 2048 kbps digital stream to 30 analogue voice /data channels. (b)
Following type of primary multiplexers are in use :-
a. TERMINAL MUX :
It shall have one 2048 kbps port each for trans and receive side and shall be used as
end multiplexer.
b. PRIMARY DROP/INSERT MUX:
This shall have at least two 2048 kbps ports (P1 and P2 port) each for send and
receive side. It shall be possible in drop/insert any channel to P1/P2 port or make a
time slot through P1 port to P2 port and vice versa.
c. DROP/INSERT MUX WITH CONFERENCE FACILITY :
Its function is similar to drop insert MUX described above with additional facility of
at least 3 party conference between any combination of time slots of either P1 port
or P2 port and voice interface.

iv. E-Carrier:
E-carrier, a digital telecommunications system primarily used in Europe and other
regions following its standards, provides a structured framework for transmitting
voice and data over digital communication networks. Operating within a digital
hierarchy, E-carrier offers various levels, such as E1, E2, E3, and E4, each
designating higher data rates and capacities. E1 is the most common level,
functioning at 2.048 Mbps and comprising 30 voice or data channels, each operating
at 64 kbps. These levels are based on the principle of time-division multiplexing
(TDM), efficiently allocating time slots for each channel within a frame to facilitate
precise synchronization and data transmission. International standards underpin E-
carrier, ensuring compatibility and interoperability across diverse equipment and
networks. Error correction mechanisms and synchronization are integral
components, while backward compatibility allows for support of legacy systems,
making E-carrier versatile and well-suited for a range of applications, including
telephone networks, data transmission, and digital services.

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v. SFP- Small Form-factor Pluggable (SFP) modules play a pivotal role in optical fiber
communication (OFC) by serving as compact and adaptable transceivers that enable
seamless connectivity between network equipment and optical fiber cabling. Their
small form factor is ideal for environments with limited space, allowing for high
port density on network devices. These hot-pluggable modules can be inserted and
removed from compatible equipment without network disruptions, simplifying
maintenance and upgrades.
The interchangeability of SFP modules is a key feature, as they can be tailored to
diverse network requirements. They support a wide range of data rates, including
Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, and 10 Gigabit Ethernet, making them versatile for
various network configurations. They are also compatible with different
wavelengths, facilitating the use of both multi-mode and single-mode fiber optics.
SFP modules offer varying reach capabilities, from short-distance data center
connections to long-haul telecommunications links.
Their multi-service compatibility means they can support voice, data, and video
services, making them suitable for diverse applications. With straightforward
installation and configuration, SFP modules minimize network downtime during
maintenance. Moreover, they adhere to industry standards, ensuring compatibility
with equipment from different manufacturers. In summary, SFP modules are crucial
in establishing optical connections, enabling high-speed data transmission, and
providing scalable and flexible optical fiber connectivity in modern network
infrastructures.

Figure 4:SFP

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 OPTICAL FIBER COMMUNICATION

The communication system of fiber optics is well understood by studying the parts and sections
of it. The major elements of an optical fiber communication system are shown in the following
figure.

The basic components are light signal transmitter, the optical fiber, and the photo detecting
receiver. The additional elements such as fiber and cable splicers and connectors, regenerators,
beam splitters, and optical amplifiers are employed to improve the performance of the
communication system.

Functional Advantages
The functional advantages of optical fibers are −
 The transmission bandwidth of the fiber optic cables is higher than the metal cables.
 The amount of data transmission is higher in fiber optic cables.
 The power loss is very low and hence helpful in long-distance transmissions.
 Fiber optic cables provide high security and cannot be tapped.
 Fiber optic cables are the most secure way for data transmission.
 Fiber optic cables are immune to electromagnetic interference.
 These are not affected by electrical noise.

Physical Advantages
The physical advantages of fiber optic cables are −
 The capacity of these cables is much higher than copper wire cables.
 Though the capacity is higher, the size of the cable doesn’t increase like it does in
copper wire cabling system.
 The space occupied by these cables is much less.
 The weight of these FOC cables is much lighter than the copper ones.
 Since these cables are di-electric, no spark hazards are present.
 These cables are more corrosion resistant than copper cables, as they are bent easily and
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 are flexible.
 The raw material for the manufacture of fiber optic cables is glass, which is cheaper
than copper.
 Fiber optic cables last longer than copper cables.

Disadvantages
Although fiber optics offer many advantages, they have the following drawbacks −
 Though fiber optic cables last longer, the installation cost is high.
 The number of repeaters are to be increased with distance.
 They are fragile if not enclosed in a plastic sheath. Hence, more protection is needed
than copper ones.

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 NETWORK TOPOLOGIES

A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network devices are
connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical aspect of the
network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in a same network.

Point-to-Point:

Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers,
servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of one
host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.

If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, then may have multiple
intermediate devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and
see each other as if they are connected directly.

Bus Topology:

In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable.Bus topology may
have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time. Therefore, Bus topology
either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus Master to solve the issue. It is
one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a device does not affect the other
devices. But failure of the shared communication line can make all other devices stop
functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one direction and
as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the line.

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Star Topology:

All hosts in Star topology are connected to a central device, known as hub device,
using a point-to-point connection. That is, there exists a point to point connection
between hosts and hub. The hub device can be any of the following:
 Layer-1 device such as hub or repeater
 Layer-2 device such as switch or bridge
 Layer-3 device such as router or gateway

As in Bus topology, hub acts as single point of failure. If hub fails, connectivity of
all hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication between hosts, takes place
through only the hub.Star topology is not expensive as to connect one more host,
only one cable is required and configuration is simple.

Ring Topology:

In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a circular
network structure. When one host tries to communicate or send message to a host which is not
adjacent to it, the data travels through all intermediate hosts. To connect one more host in the
existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable.

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Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring.Thus, every connection in the ring is a
point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.

Mesh Topology:

In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts.This topology has hosts in
point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are in point-to-
point connection to few hosts only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-to-
point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:
 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the
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 network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides the
most reliable network structure among all network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host. Hosts
connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists where we need to
provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

Tree Topology:

Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network topology in
use presently.This topology imitates as extended Star topology and inherits properties of bus
topology.
This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers of network. Mainly in LANs, a
network is bifurcated into three types of network devices. The lowermost is access-layer where
computers are attached. The middle layer is known as distribution layer, which works as
mediator between upper layer and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is
central point of the network, i.e. root of the tree from which all nodes fork.

All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.Similar to the Bus
topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even.though it is not the single
point of failure. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which divides the
network into unreachable segment.
Daisy Chain
This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology, all hosts are
connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts.Means, if the end hosts in daisy chain are
connected then it represents Ring topology.

Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every link failure splits the
network into two segments.Every intermediate host works as relay for its immediate hosts.

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Hybrid Topology:

A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies may
contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are connected by
means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly Star topology
networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology

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 CABLES

In Indian Railways different types of Telecom networks exist and play a vital role by providing
clear and distant voice and data services. Various types of telecommunication cables with
RDSO specification are being used depending upon the requirements of Telecom and safety
related Signalling circuits, which are underutilization for functioning of administrative and train
operation activities.

(a) ACSR- Aluminium conductor steel-reinforced cable (ACSR) is a type of high-

capacity, high-strength stranded conductor typically used in overhead power
lines. The outer strands are high-purity aluminium, chosen for its good
conductivity, low weight, low cost, resistance to corrosion and decent
mechanical stress resistance. The centre strand is steel for additional strength to
help support the weight of the conductor. Steel is of higher strength than
aluminium which allows for increased mechanical tension to be applied on the
conductor. Steel also has lower elastic and inelastic deformation (permanent
elongation) due to mechanical loading (e.g. wind and ice) as well as a lower
coefficient of thermal expansion under current loading.

Figure 5:ACSR cable

(b) 4-Quad cable- A 4-quad cable is a structured cabling solution widely used in
networking and telecommunications for data and voice communication. This
cable consists of four twisted pairs of copper wires, each color-coded for
identification. The color-coding scheme is typically based on pairs with white
and solid colors, allowing for clear distinction and consistent usage. In Ethernet
cables, pairs 1 and 2 are commonly employed for data transmission, while pairs
3 and 4 may serve specific purposes, such as supporting Power over Ethernet
(PoE). The twisting of the pairs is essential to reduce interference and crosstalk,
ensuring reliable signal quality. In structured cabling systems, 4-quad cables
play a pivotal role in creating organized and efficient network infrastructures,
facilitating seamless data and voice communication.

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 Figure 6:4 Quad cable

(c) 6-Quad cable- A 6-quad cable is a structured cabling solution that distinguishes
itself by incorporating six separate twisted pairs of copper wires within a single
cable sheath. The color-coded twisted pairs, like those in their 4-quad
counterparts, are essential to reduce electromagnetic interference and crosstalk,
ensuring the quality of transmitted signals. What sets 6-quad cables apart is the
enhanced capacity and versatility they provide for a wide array of networking
and telecommunications applications. Each of the six twisted pairs can be
assigned specific functions, offering flexibility and adaptability to varying
network requirements. These cables excel in data transmission, supporting high-
speed Ethernet standards, including Gigabit Ethernet and beyond. They are also
well-suited for applications that demand Power over Ethernet (PoE) capabilities,
enabling the provision of power to connected devices such as IP cameras, VoIP
phones, and wireless access points. Typically used within structured cabling
systems, 6-quad cables are integral in the creation of efficient and high-capacity
network infrastructures, efficiently addressing the demands of contemporary data
and voice communication needs.

Figure 7:6 Quad cable

(d) OFC Quad cable- An OFC quad cable, standing for Optical Fiber
Communication quad cable, is a specialized type of optical fiber cable designed
for high-speed data transmission and telecommunications applications. The
"quad" designation indicates that the cable contains four separate optical fiber
strands or cores within a single protective sheath. Each of these optical fiber
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 strands is capable of carrying data in the form of optical signals, typically light
pulses, which enables the transmission of large volumes of data over long
distances with high bandwidth.

To simplify installation and maintenance, each of the four optical fiber strands
within the cable is color-coded, making it easy to distinguish and ensure accurate
connections. These color codes are a practical aid in managing the fibers
effectively.

OFC quad cables are versatile and can be designed for either single-mode or
multi-mode optical fibers, depending on the specific requirements of the
application. Single-mode fibers are suitable for long-distance, high-bandwidth
transmissions, while multi-mode fibers are employed for shorter distances with
lower bandwidth needs.
In structured cabling systems, OFC quad cables form the backbone of efficient
and reliable optical fiber networks, serving as the physical infrastructure that
facilitates seamless data and telecommunications connections within buildings
and data centers.

(e) 6 Quad jelly filled cable- A 6 Quad jelly-filled cable is a specialized

telecommunications cable designed for outdoor and underground installations.
This cable consists of six individual pairs of insulated copper conductors, each
pair containing two twisted copper wires. What sets it apart is its "jelly-filled"
feature, denoting the presence of a petroleum-based gel-like compound within
the cable sheath. This jelly filling serves a dual purpose—first, it acts as a water-
blocking material, effectively preventing moisture ingress into the cable, which
safeguards the copper conductors from corrosion and signal degradation.
Second, it enhances the cable's overall moisture resistance, making it
exceptionally well-suited for use in outdoor and underground installations
exposed to harsh environmental conditions.

6 Quad jelly-filled cables are commonly used in telecommunications

applications where cables are subjected to environmental challenges, such as in
telephone lines, rural communications, and other situations that demand
protection against moisture. They are often suitable for direct burial, eliminating
the need for additional conduits or protective enclosures when installing them
underground. The weatherproof and UV-resistant outer sheath of the cable
provides added protection against sunlight and other environmental elements.
The individual conductor pairs are typically color-coded, facilitating easy
identification and installation. These cables play a pivotal role in ensuring
reliable and moisture-resistant connections in telecommunications and data
communication networks, where withstanding outdoor elements is essential for
dependable service.

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 OPTICAL CONNECTORS:

An optical fiber connector is a device used to link optical fibers, facilitating the efficient
transmission of light signals. An optical fiber connector enables quicker connection and
disconnection than splicing .They come in various types like SC, LC, ST, and MTP, each
designed for specific applications. In all, about 100 different types of fiber optic connectors
have been introduced to the market .These connectors include components such as ferrules and
alignment sleeves for precise fiber alignment. Quality connectors lose very little light due to
reflection or misalignment of the fibers.
Optical fiber connectors are categorized into single-mode and multimode types based on their
distinct characteristics. Industry standards ensure compatibility among different connector types
and manufacturers. These connectors find applications in telecommunications, data centers, and
industrial settings.
Major types of connectors used are:-
1. SC connector- SC fiber-optic cable connectors are widely used in optical network
applications, such as internet. The SC was developed in the mid-1980s by the
laboratories at Nippon Telegraph and Telephone (NTT), following the introduction of
ceramic ferrules. Initially its high cost, compared to the ST connector, prevented the SC
from being widely used. With improved materials and manufacturing processes,
however, the SC is now a less expensive option and much more commonly used.
The name comes from the shape (square connector), although it is actually a rectangular
connector. The name may also refer to standard connector, subscriber connector, or
stick-and-click connector.

Figure 8:SC connectors

2. ST connectors- The ST connecter was developed by AT&T shortly after the arrival of
the FC. At a glance, they can be mistaken for one another but the ST uses a bayonet
fitment rather than a screw thread. Usage has declined in recent decades, for the same
reasons as the FC. Additionally, it cannot be terminated with an angled polish, which
limits its use in single-mode fiber and FTTH applications.

21
 Figure 9:ST connector

Deployed predominately in multi-mode datacoms, it is most common in network

environments such as campuses, corporate networks and in military applications where
the quick connecting bayonet had its advantages at the time. It is typically installed into
infrastructures that were built at the turn of the century; when retro-fitting, STs are
typically swapped out for more cost-effective SC and LC connectors.

3. LC connectors- Considered by some to be the modern replacement of the SC connector;

its introduction was less successful, in part due to initially high license fees from
inventor Lucent Corporation. Also a push-pull connector, the LC utilizes a latch as
opposed to the SC locking tab and with a smaller ferrule, it is known as a small form
factor connector. Having half the footprint of the SC connector gives it huge popularity
in datacoms and other high-density patch applications, as its combination of small size
and latch feature make it ideal for densely populated racks/panels. With the introduction
of LC-compatible transceivers and active networking components, its steady growth in
the FTTH arena is likely to continue.

Figure 10:LC connectors

4. FC connectors- The FC was the first optical fiber connector to use a ceramic ferrule, but
unlike the plastic-bodied SC and LC, it utilizes a round screw-type fitment made from
nickel-plated or stainless steel. The connector end face relies on an alignment key for
correct insertion and is then tightened into the adapter/jack using a threaded collet.
Despite the additional complexity both in manufacturing and installation, it’s still the
connector of choice for precise measuring equipment such as OTDRs.
Initially intended for datacoms and telecoms applications, its use has reduced since the
introduction of the SC and LC. These deliver similar performance to the FC, but both
22
have less expensive components and are quicker to connect. However, the screw-on
collet of the FC does make it particularly effective in high vibration environments,
ensuring that the spring-loaded ferrule is firmly mated.

Figure 11:FC connectors

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 CONCLUSION

In the 2 months period of my Intern/Training in S&T Department of Indian Railway I have gain
many invaluable experiences as an Engineer. I had experience of working in one of the
backbone of IR i.e. Telecommunication Exchange from where all the working of railways are
control whether it is communication b/w two stations or controlling of running trains.
During my training period in Exchange office I had complete exposure to its working and the
components. I had learned about:
i. The components used in exchange offices like FDMS, STM, MUX of various
companies like TEJAS, PUNCOM etc.
ii. I had learned about the data communication network provided by RAILNET and
FOIS in Railway.
iii. Wide spread network of Railtel and Railway all around India, including the system
on which trains’ running are controlled.
iv. Installation of components like MUX, FDMS etc.
v. Testing of all components with its maintenance and minor repairing .
vi. Failure management.

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