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Public Service Motivation and Employee Change-

Supportive Intention: Utilizing the Theory of Planned
Behavior

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PPMXXX10.1177/0091026020934515Public Personnel ManagementHassan et al.

Original Article
Public Personnel Management

Public Service Motivation and

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Theory of Planned Behavior

Hemin Ali Hassan1,2 , Xiaodong Zhang1,

Ahmad Bayiz Ahmad2,3 , and Bangcheng Liu3

Abstract
Implementing change is considered as a difficult task for public organizations. Some
individual dispositional factors have been suggested to influence recipient responses
to change in public organizations. Past research has shown a link between public
service motivation (PSM) and employee positive responses to organizational
change. However, the psychological processes underlining this relationship are not
specified. Building on the PSM theory and the theory of planned behavior (TPB), this
study examines the role of psychological variables (attitude, subjective norm, and
perceived behavioral control) in mediating the relationship between PSM and change-
supportive intention. A sample of 143 employees is collected from a public university
in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq that was going through a change initiative. The
results revealed that PSM predicts change-supportive intention, and the relationship
between PSM and change-supportive intention is mediated by change-related attitude
and subjective norm. The implications of the findings for theory and practice are
discussed.

Keywords
public service motivation, theory of planned behavior, public sector, Kurdistan
Region, organizational change

1
University of Science and Technology Beijing (USTB), China
2
University of Raparin (UOR), Ranya, Kurdistan Region of Iraq
3
Shanghai Jiao Tong University (SJTU), China

Corresponding Author:
Hemin Ali Hassan, Donlinks School of Economics and Management, University of Science and
Technology Beijing, 30 Xueyuan Rd., Haidian District, Beijing 100083, China.
Email: [email protected]
2 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

Introduction
Due to financial pressures and growing public demands on government performance,
public organizations constantly need to implement changes (Pollitt & Bouckaert,
2011). However, organizations face serious problems through change implementation
and often fail in achieving their intended change objectives (Beer & Nohria, 2000;
Smith, 2003). According to Beer and Nohria (2000), up to 70% of change efforts fail.
One main reason of organizational change failure is related to employee reactions to
change (Choi, 2011; van der Voet et al., 2017). Extant literature contends that while
reform policies and change programs are often initiated by elected or politically
appointed officials and executives (Ahmad et al., 2019), the actual changes in public
organizations are implemented by middle and frontline managers as well as frontline
employees (i.e., change recipients; van der Voet, 2014; van der Voet et al., 2016a).
Consequently, organizations can only change through their employees (Paulsen et al.,
2005).
According to a recent literature review on change management in the public sector
(Kuipers et al., 2014), several factors have been identified to antecede recipient
responses to change, namely, individual dispositions, change content, context, pro-
cess, and leadership (Ahmad & Cheng, 2018; Oreg et al., 2011). An important indi-
vidual dispositional factor which is suggested to influence recipient responses to
change in public organizations is public service motivation (PSM; Wright et al., 2013).
PSM is defined as a “general, altruistic motivation to serve the interests of a commu-
nity of people, a state, a nation or humankind” (Rainey & Steinbauer, 1999, p. 20).
PSM has become one of the essential concepts of the public administration literature
due to many favorable outcomes to support public organizations (Vandenabeele,
2014). As an individual-level variable, PSM has been suggested to have an important
role during times of organizational change. Perry and Wise (1990), for instance, sug-
gested that PSM facilitates organizational change in the public sector because it is
positively related to organizational commitment and committed employees assist their
organizations to adjust to contingencies.
While previous research offers empirical insights into the relationship between
PSM and employee reactions to change (e.g., Wright et al., 2013), the underlying psy-
chological processes linking PSM with change-supportive intention (CSI) are not
specified. Hence, it is unclear how and to what extent psychological factors mediate
the relationship between PSM and employee behavioral intention to support organiza-
tional change. Furthermore, although research on public employee responses to orga-
nizational change is increasing, a recent literature review by Kuipers et al. (2014) on
managing organizational change in public organizations showed that most of the pub-
lications on change management are from the United States/Anglo-Saxons that could
be biased in terms of results (Kuipers et al., 2014). Thereby, not much research has
been conducted in non-Western, Islamic contexts (cf. Ahmad & Cheng, 2018).
In an attempt to address these concerns in the literature, this study aims to investi-
gate the underlining relationships between PSM and CSI in the Kurdistan Region of
Iraq’s public organizations, utilizing the established theory of planned behavior (TPB;
Hassan et al. 3

Figure 1. Research model based on the TPB (Ajzen, 1991).

Note. TPB = theory of planned behavior.

Ajzen, 1991). The TPB is a widely accepted model of intention–behavior relationships

(Armitage & Conner, 2001) and consistent links of intentions to behaviors lend sup-
port to the notion that intention is the most proximal variable to behaviors (McEachan
et al., 2011). Despite its potential utility, the TPB has not received ample attention to
be employed as a theoretical framework guiding investigation into the effects of PSM
and the CSI during times of change in public organizations.
This study intends to contribute to the literature on PSM and employee responses
to organizational change in the public sector by empirically examining the relationship
between PSM and CSI. In addition to the direct effect of PSM on CSI, this study
explores indirect effects of PSM on employee’s CSI through three mediating factors
(change-related attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavioral control [PBC])
derived from the TPB (see Figure 1). By doing so, the study aims to complement and
extend previous studies regarding the relationship between PSM and employee inten-
tion to support change by utilizing the TPB to underline the factors that may mediate
the relationship between PSM and CSI. The study will also provide more evidence to
support the applicability of the TPB in organizational change efforts in a relatively
overlooked setting, such as the Kurdistan Region of Iraq.

Theory and Hypotheses

Public organizations have to carry out changes in the administration, design, and pro-
vision of public services every so often (Fernandez & Rainey, 2006; Pollitt &
Bouckaert, 2004). However, prior research has showed that “many organizational
change initiatives neither result in their intended aims nor foster sustained change”
4 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

(Choi, 2011, p. 479), because implementing change is more complex and unpredict-
able than initiating and planning for it (Brunsson, 2009). One of the challenges, which
is generally seen as an important determinant in succeeding organizational change, is
employee responses for change (Herold et al., 2008). For this reason, a number of
recent studies have been conducted to understand and predict public servants’ inten-
tions and behaviors in times of change using different theoretical lenses (Ahmad &
Cheng, 2018; Ahmad et al., 2019; van der Voet et al., 2015).
Past research on employee responses to organizational change has employed a vari-
ety of theoretical perspectives. The TPB (Ajzen, 1991) is one of the theories that has
been applied in organizational change and is suggested as a suitable approach for bet-
ter understanding employee responses to change. The TPB is a widely accepted model
of intention–behavior relationships, which is designed to predict and explain human
behavior. It is similar to other models of cognitive decision-making, in which the
underlying basis states that individuals rationally and systematically make decisions
through available information (Ajzen, 1991). The theory has been successfully uti-
lized in a wide range of settings to understand individuals’ intentions and behaviors
(Braun & Turner, 2014; Dawkins & Frass, 2005; Fraser et al., 2011; Hunsinger &
Smith, 2005; Jasper & Waldhart, 2013; Maurer & Palmer, 1999; Parry & Wilson,
2009; van der Zee et al., 2002; Wiethoff, 2004). In the last few years, the TPB has been
applied in the organizational change context to predict employee intentions to provide
subsequent change-supportive behaviors in private sector (Jimmieson et al., 2008;
Straatmann et al., 2016).
According to the TPB, intention is the indication of the individual’s willingness to
perform a certain behavior. Intention is the most proximal indicator of human behavior
with meta-analyses suggesting that, on average, 22% of the variance in behavior is
explained by intention alone (see Armitage & Conner, 2001).
According to the TPB, intention is determined by three independent psychological
variables: attitude, subjective norm, and perceived behavior control. Attitude toward a
specific behavior (change-supportive behavior in this study) reflects “the degree to
which a person has a favorable or unfavorable evaluation or appraisal of the behavior
in question” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 188). Attitude is formed based on an individual’s views
about the consequences of behavior and their general evaluation of those consequences
(Ajzen, 1991; Fishbein & Ajzen, 2010). It is argued that having favorable views about
the need for organizational change results in a more positive response to change efforts
(Jimmieson et al., 2008). Paralleling with this, public management literature proposed
that when employees have favorable evaluation of the change, they might show behav-
iors that are supportive of the organizational change (Ahmad & Cheng, 2018; Ahmad
et al., 2019; van der Voet, 2014; van der Voet et al., 2015b, 2016a).
The second factor that determines intention is subjective norm related to the behav-
ior. Subjective norm is conceptualized as perceived social pressure or societal influ-
ence on individuals to perform the behavior of concern (Ajzen, 1991). It reflects the
perceived views of referent others whose views may be influential to the individual.
The impact of social pressure for the analysis of events in organizational change pro-
cess has long been recognized (e.g., Armenakis et al., 1993). According to change
Hassan et al. 5

management literature, the social pressure can result from the influence from cowork-
ers and managers on employees’ change reaction and behavior (e.g., Armenakis &
Bedeian, 1999; Self et al., 2007).
The third factor that influences intention is PBC. PBC is defined as “perceived ease
or difficulty of performing the behavior of interest” (Ajzen, 1991, p. 183). It is a non-
volitional determinant of intention. It indicates “a person’s belief as to how easy or
difficult it would be to perform the behavior” (De Groot & Steg, 2007, p. 1818). It also
shows the individual’s perceptions of “ . . . the presence or absence of requisite
resources and opportunities” (Ajzen & Madden, 1986, p. 457) which is necessary to
engage in the behavior. In organization change contexts, individuals with high PBC
are likely to attempt a behavior to support change. PBC is found to help employees in
accommodating to changes in an organizational context (e.g., Jimmieson et al., 2004).
It is also proposed that confidence in the ability to change is an important determinant
of actual behavior (Conner, 1992).
Therefore, based on the conceptualization of the TPB, individuals who hold posi-
tive attitudes toward a change, who think that there is normative support for engaging
in change-supportive behavior, and who perceive that they can easily engage in
change-supportive behavior and supporting the change is under their personal control,
should show positive intention to support the change initiative. Therefore, we hypoth-
esize that

Hypothesis 1 (H1): (a) Favorable change-related attitudes, (b) positive change-

related subjective norm, and (c) higher levels of change-related PBC will be posi-
tively related to recipients’ intention to engage in the change.

PSM and CSI

The TPB explains the integration of external factors in specific settings (Ajzen, 1991).
The TPB also postulates that, just as behaviors and intention have antecedents, exter-
nal influences on individuals’ intention are mediated by attitudes, subjective norm, and
perceived control of the relevant behavior (M. Conner & Armitage, 1998). In this
study, we integrate PSM with the TPB as a possible predictor of employee CSI.
PSM is one of the individual dispositional factors that is suggested to influence
employees’ response to change (Wright et al., 2013). It is an important attribute of
public servants which is linked to many beneficial attitudes and behaviors to organiza-
tions such as organizational commitment (Camilleri, 2006; Castaing, 2006; Crewson,
1997; Vandenabeele, 2009), organizational citizenship behavior (Gould-Williams
et al., 2015), organizational performance (Kim, 2004), intention to remain (Bright,
2008; Steijn, 2008), and job satisfaction (Bright, 2008; Norris, 2003). Perry and Wise
(1990) suggested that PSM would be positively related to individual performance and
facilitation of organizational change in public sector organizations. The authors also
proposed that PSM might increase employee’s support for change in public organiza-
tions. That is, PSM is positively related to organizational commitment, and “commit-
ted employees are likely to engage in spontaneous, innovative behaviors on behalf of
6 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

the organization, such employees are likely to facilitate an organization’s adjustment

to contingencies” (p. 371). In addition, Kjeldsen (2019) stated that public service–
motivated employees could be beneficial change agents for public organizations as the
study showed that employees engage more in distributed leadership practices during
change implementation. Furthermore, Homberg et al. (2017) argued that “PSM is not
only directed towards the societal environment of public organizations, but may also
drive members to engage in an internal change in work-related procedures” (p. 13).
Therefore, public service–motivated individuals are expected to support organiza-
tional change because of their willingness to help society (Naff & Crum, 1999; Wright
et al., 2013).
The assumptions about the relationship between PSM and supporting organiza-
tional change have received some empirical support. For example, Naff and Crum
(1999) found a significant relationship between PSM and support for government’s
organizational change efforts among federal employees in the United States. In addi-
tion, Cerase and Farinella (2009) found a positive relationship between PSM and
change in the working situation among employees in the Italian Revenue Agency and
concluded that employees with high PSM levels are more likely to accept change.
Wright et al. (2013) also found that a positive impact of PSM (especially self-sacrifice
and compassion) on affective commitment to change. Self-sacrifice is considered as
the “foundational concept” demonstrating the philanthropic or pro-social origins of
PSM (Kim et al., 2013). Wright et al. (2013) claimed that “employees with higher
PSM are more likely to support organizational change, primarily because of their
direct commitment to changes that improve public service provision and less because
of their commitment to the organization” (p. 739). Similar results have also been found
by Liu and Zhang (2019). In addition, van der Voet et al. (2017) found that pro-social
motivation of public employees is positively related to commitment to change.
Moreover, PSM is also found to be positively related to employees’ innovative behav-
ior (Miao et al., 2018) and change-oriented organizational citizenship behavior
(Campbell & Im, 2016). Ahmad et al. (2019) also found that pro-social motivation is
positively related to recipients’ change proactive behaviors. Therefore, as PSM is
associated with many positive changes and work-related attitudes and behaviors, we
argue that PSM could also be associated with employees’ CSI as the change benefits
the organization. Thus, aligning implications of previous research which show that
public service–motivated individuals will support organizational change, we hypoth-
esize that

Hypothesis 2 (H2): PSM will be positively related to CSI.

Although research on PSM as a direct determining factor remains as the most com-
mon empirical approach in the public management literature, results across studies are
conflicting. This phenomenon might be due to the overly simplistic conceptual models
(Ritz et al., 2016). Therefore, in addition to the direct association between PSM and
CSI, the TPB suggests that external factors’ (i.e., PSM) impact on individual’s inten-
tion is mediated by the three psychological variables specified in the TPB: attitudes,
Hassan et al. 7

subjective norm, and perceived behavior control of the relevant behavior (Conner &
Armitage, 1998). Previous research suggested that PSM is a valuable and effective
construct for predicting important attitudes and outcomes (Le Grand, 2003; Perry &
Hondeghem, 2008) and may have a positive influence on employee attitudes toward
change (Wright et al., 2013). Furthermore, the relationship between PSM and attitudes
to support change in public organizations is also theoretically feasible (Perry & Wise,
1990; Wright et al., 2013). Therefore, we believe that public service–motivated
employees may have the intention to support the change if they think their behavior
will have positive results, and therefore they will develop a positive attitude toward the
change.
In addition, public service–motivated employees may also have a higher perception
of social norm to support change as PSM theory emphasizes that public servants are
motivated by meeting higher-order needs, such as values and other normative concerns
(Perry & Wise, 1990). Norm-based motives of PSM compose of willingness to serve
public interest, dedication to duty and government, and social justice (Schede, 2011).
Bright (2008) found that PSM helps employees to be more congruent with norms in
their organizations and facilitates the person–organization fit. With this compatibility,
the characteristics of individuals harmonize with the characteristics of organizations
(Bright, 2008). Furthermore, one of the distinctive characteristics of public servants is
higher commitment to social network (Brewer, 2002). Moreover, Steen (2008) sug-
gested that employees might engage in public service–motivated behavior, especially
when they believe that the organizational culture is based on socially desirable values
and consistent with their concern for public good.
Finally, public service–motivated employees may also show high change-related
PBC. This is based on the positive association of PSM with performance and organi-
zational commitment. There is sufficient theoretical and empirical evidence showing
that high levels of PSM can enhance organizational performance (see Walker et al.,
2010) and commitment (Pandey & Stazyk, 2008; Perry & Wise, 1990). Both organiza-
tional performance (Jacobsen & Bøgh Andersen, 2017) and commitment (Meyer et al.,
2002) are positively related to employee self-efficacy. Moreover, according to Le
Grand (2003), one of the factors that encourage public employees is their ability “to
engage in independent or autonomous actions”. Therefore, we believe that public ser-
vice–motivated employees may feel capable to act to support change. Therefore, in
addition to the direct impact of PSM on CSI, we hypothesize that

Hypothesis 3 (H3): The relationship between PSM and CSI will be mediated by
recipients’ (a) change-related attitude, (b) change-related subjective norm, and (c)
change-related PBC.

Method
To empirically test our aforementioned hypotheses, this study used a sample from a
fully funded public university in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Kurdistan Region is
located in the north part of Iraq and is governed by the Kurdistan Regional Government
8 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

(KRG). According to the Iraq’s Constitution, the KRG and Kurdistan Parliament are
recognized as the region’s formal institutions. Since 2010, the Ministry of Higher
Education and Scientific Research (MHESR) of the KRG has initiated a series of
reforms in all public and private universities to improve the quality of higher educa-
tion and also the efficiency and effectiveness of the universities’ management system
(Ahmad & Cheng, 2018; Ahmad et al., 2017).
The university where we collected the data from has gone through some changes
since its establishment in 2010. Recently, as a step toward the utilization of e-govern-
ment, the ministry requested all public universities to adopt an electronic system to
connect the ministry with all public universities and higher education institutions. The
university was one of the first that initiated to adopt and implement the electronic
system. It was at the beginning of a change from traditional paper-based communica-
tion to establishing an electronic system to facilitate communication. The system will
be installed to support electronic communication within and with outside the univer-
sity electronically with the application of information and communication technolo-
gies (ICTs). The new ICT will be used for communication to its fullest potential to
interact with its various constituents such as the MHESR and other universities. It also
facilitates archiving information about all employees in the system so that employees
can have access to their personal information. The system will also be used to save and
process information regarding employees’ salary, salary increments, deductions, and
more. In addition, the system will be used for admission purposes such as acceptance,
registering and transferring students, and recording their grades. The ministry aims to
have in place an effective and efficient way of communication.
To investigate the relationship between PSM and employee intention to support the
change, we decided to collect data from the university prior to implementing the
change. After getting permission from the university officials, two trained research
assistants helped with the data collection. In March 2019, 150 questionnaires were
distributed among the employees who were expected to be exposed to the change and
were to implement the changes. After three callbacks, all the 150 distributed question-
naires were retrieved. After removing seven responses due to too many missing
answers and monotonous answering patterns, 143 valid responses (95%) were retained.
The average age of participants was 33.1 years (SD = 6.07), and 51.5% of the
respondents were male. In terms of educational background, most respondents held a
bachelor degree (69%), followed by master’s degree (14.7%), and PhD degree (6.3%).
The respondents had an average overall working experience of 8.36 years (SD =
5.71). There were also 31.5% of participants with managerial positions.

Measures
A full list of the measures is provided in the appendix. Unless stated otherwise, all
measures were based on a 5-point Likert-type scale (1 = strongly disagree; 5 =
strongly agree). Previously established scales were adapted from Ahmad et al. (2020)
to measure the four dimensions of TPB (change-related attitude, change-related sub-
jective norms, change-related PBC, and CSI).
Hassan et al. 9

PSM was measured with eight items (two items from each PSM dimension) from
the items validated by Kim et al. (2013). Questionnaires were administered in the par-
ticipants’ mother tongue (Kurdish). Questionnaires were translated to Kurdish by the
authors as recommended by Brislin (1980), followed by the back-translation by two
independent researchers. Any differences found between the original and back-trans-
lated versions were discussed until agreement was reached concerning the most appro-
priate translation. To reach an agreement over the last version of the questionnaires,
the original and back-translated versions were compared and discussed.

Results
Measurement Models
Confirmatory factor analysis was conducted to test the construct validity of the key
model variables. A full measurement model was initially tested in which the indicators
for all variables were allowed to load onto their respective factors. All factors were
allowed to correlate. Five fit indices, the χ2/df and incremental fit index (IFI) as rec-
ommended by Gerbing and Anderson (1993); the comparative fit index (CFI) and the
root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), recommended by Jaccard and
Wan (1996); the Tucker–Lewis index (TLI), recommended by Bentler (1990), were
calculated to determine how the model fit the data. Acceptable fit is evidenced by χ2/df
values lower than 2.5; an INF, CFI, and TLI of .90 or higher; and an RMSEA of .10 or
lower (Bentler, 1990). The five-factor model showed a good model fit (χ2 = 319.149;
df = 160; χ2/df = 1.99; IFI = 0.91; CFI = 0.91; TLI = .90; RMSEA = 0.08). We then
tested for a one-factor solution in which all the items were loaded on a single factor.
The one-factor model showed poor fit to data (χ2 = 905.591; df = 170; χ2/df = 5.33;
IFI = 0.59; CFI = 0.58; TLI = .54; RMSEA = 0.18). The results showed that the
five-factor model had a superior fit as compared with the one-factor model.

Descriptive Statistics
Descriptive statistics, Cronbach’s alphas, and correlation coefficients of the variables are
presented in Table 1. As can be seen, all correlations among the main variables are sta-
tistically significant and in the anticipated direction. The highest correlation is between
change-related attitude and CSI (r = .64; p < .05), whereas PSM had the lowest signifi-
cant correlation with CSI (r = .42; p < .05). Of the five control variables, education and
supervisory position were not significantly related to the dependent variables. Therefore,
these two variables were excluded in the regression analyses.
In addition, collinearity diagnostics were inspected for any multicollinearity
between the variables by examining variance inflation factors (VIFs). Hair et al.
(2010) suggested that VIF scores of greater than 10.0 indicate that multicollinearity
biases the results. Our results showed that the VIF ranged from 1.00 to 1.63. Thus, the
study concludes that the level of multicollinearity in this study is not so severe as to
invalidate the results.
10
Table 1. Descriptive Statistics, Zero-Order Correlation Matrix and Reliability Values of Study Variables.

Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
1. Change-supportive intentions 4.05 0.83 (.92)
2. Change-related attitude 4.23 0.84 .64** (.88)
3. Change-related subjective norm 3.73 0.78 .50** .36** (.66)
4. Change-related PBC 4.40 0.79 .63** .60** .35** (.85)
5. Public service motivation 4.43 0.64 .42** .29* .35** .35** (.89)
6. Age 33.1 7.7 .19* .21* .14 .13 .13 1
7. Tenure 8.36 5.7 .17* .15 .09 .08 .09 .66* 1
8. Gender — — −.24** −.29** −.22** −.21* −.18* −.30** −.16 1
9. Education — — −.02 .09 −.02 −.002 .02 .29** .07 −.12 1
10. Supervisory position — — .08 .07 −.06 .13 .10 −.01 .08 .10 −.18* 1

Note. PBC = perceived behavioral control.

*p < .05. **p < .001.
Hassan et al. 11

Table 2. Regression Analysis for Change-Supportive Intentions.

Variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4

Female (Dummy: Yes) −.22 −.04 −.002 .05
Age .01 −.09 −.10 −.10
Tenure .13 .13 .14 .15
Change-related attitude .71*** .62*** .49***
Change-related subjective norm .28*** .24***
Change-related perceived .26***
behavioral control
R2 .08 .53 .60 .64
Δf 3.78 134.593 22.182 15.228
df 139 138 137 136

Note. Standardized regression coefficients are reported.

*Statistically significant with p < .05. **Statistically significant with p < .01. ***Statistically significant with
p < .001.

Table 3. Indirect Effects of PSM on Change-Supportive Intentions Through CRA, CRSN,

and CRPBC.

95% BC CI
Parameter
Mediator estimate SE Lower Upper
Total .38* .12 .14 .61
Change-related attitude .18* .09 .02 .35
Change-related subjective norm .09* .04 .03 .20
Change-related PBC .10 .06 −.005 .24

Note. CI that excludes zero indicates that the conditional indirect effects are significant. PSM = public
service motivation; BC CI = bias-corrected confidence interval; CRA = change-related attitude; CRSN =
change-related subjective norm; CRPBC = change-related perceived behavioral control.
*Significant conditional indirect paths (95% CI).

Hypotheses Testing
The hypotheses were tested using regression analyses in SPSS and the PROCESS
macro for SPSS from Hayes (2017).
In the first step, a multiple hierarchical linear regression analysis was conducted
to test the impact of the control variables: change-related attitude, change-related
subjective norm, and change-related PBC on CSI by estimating four separate models
(see Table 2). As can be seen in Table 3, the control variables explained very little
variance (2%) in CSI. The introduction of the TPB variables resulted in substantial
increases in explained variance (change-related attitude: R2 of Model 2 is .45;
change-related subjective norm: adjusted R2 of Model 3 is .60; change-related PBC:
R2 of Model 4 is .65). When all variables were entered, change-related attitude was
12 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

Figure 2. Results of the Regression Model.

**Statistically significant with p < .01.

significantly related to CSI (β = 0.49, p < .001), as were change-related subjective

norm (β = 0.24, p < .001) and change-related PBC (β = 0.26, p < .001). Thus,
Hypothesis 1 was confirmed.
In the second step, CSI was regressed on PSM. Results show that PSM explained
18% variance in CSI and was significantly related to CSI (β = 0.42, p < .01). Thus,
Hypothesis 2 was supported.
H3 was tested using the PROCESS macro for SPSS from Hayes (2017). Model 4 in
PROCESS was selected to examine the roles of change-related attitude, change-elated
subjective norm, and change-related PBC in mediating the relationship between PSM
and CSI. The PROCESS macro tests the indirect effects using the normal theory-based
product of coefficient approach (Sobel, 1982) and reports bootstrapped bias-corrected
95% confidence intervals for each indirect effect. Bootstrapping was set to 5,000 boot-
strap samples.
Table 3 contains the parameter estimates and confidence intervals for the total and
specific indirect effects on the relationships between PSM and CSI mediated by
change-related attitude, change-related subjective norm but not through change-
related PBC.
Consistent with Hypotheses 3a and 3b, Table 3 shows that the indirect effect of
PSM on CSI was significant through change-related attitude and change-related sub-
jective norm as evidenced by the no-zero in their respective confidence intervals, but
not through change-related PBC. Thus, change-related attitude and change-related
subjective norm are significant mediators, such that PSM was positively related to
change-related attitude (B = 0.29); change-related subjective norm (B = .35), as well
Hassan et al. 13

as change-related PBC (B = 0.35), which in turn were positively related to CSI (B =

0.48, B = 0.21, and B = 0.22, respectively; see Figure 2).
In addition, the direct effect of PSM on CSI was significant, indicating that change-
related attitude and change-related subjective norm partially mediate the relationship
between PSM and the CSI.

Discussion
Given that employees normally prefer to preserve the status quo, rather than changing
and adapting to a new work system that requires them to change their attitudes or
behaviors, past research shows that employees are normally resistant to change or are
passive recipients of change (Ahmad et al., 2019, 2020). Moreover, employees often
fear changes that might result in changing comfortable social dynamics and gaining
additional, less desirable, or even more difficult tasks (Wright et al., 2013). In addi-
tion, Meier and O’Toole (2011) suggested that the specific public sector environment
leads to a higher degree of employee change resistance and a more distressing experi-
ence of change. Holten et al. (2019) also found that public employees report less posi-
tive change experience and have less positive change consequences. PSM has been
suggested to have a link with employee positive responses to organizational change. In
cases where employees are not willing to adopt a new system of work, we hypothe-
sized that, based on theories and empirical work, those employees with high levels of
PSM may sacrifice their interest and support the change.
The main purpose of this study was to advance our understanding of the psycho-
logical factors that underline the relationship between PSM and CSI in public sector
organizations. This study proposed that PSM would be related to employee CSI and
the relationship would be mediated by employee change-related attitudes, change-
related subjective norm, and change-related PBC. The results support our hypotheses
and show that public service–motivated individuals are more likely to support organi-
zational change efforts.
The first significant theoretical implication of this study is the utilization of the
TPB to explain the main effects underlying the intention of employees to support orga-
nizational change. Our data offer good support for the TPB as a valid framework to
predict change-related intention of employees in public organizations in a way that all
the psychological variables were significantly related to intention to support change.
That is, as conceptualized by Ajzen (1991), change-related attitude, subjective norm,
and PBC were all predictive to employee’s intention to support the upcoming change
in their institution, accounting for 65% of the variance. Thus, employees with a posi-
tive evaluation of performing the behavior, who perceive social pressure to engage in
the behavior, and who felt that the performance of the behavior was under their con-
trol, were more likely to engage in change-supportive behaviors. This suggests that
targeting individuals’ personal attitudes, their perceptions of social pressure to per-
form the behaviors, and elements of personal control might be useful strategies to
encourage the uptake of change-supportive behaviors (Jimmieson et al., 2008).
14 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

Another significant implication of this study is that this study deepens our under-
standing of individual-level impact of PSM. As expected, the result showed that PSM
is significantly and positively related to CSI. That is, employees who were highly
motivated to public service showed higher intention to engage in change-supportive
behavior. These results are largely consistent with existing research about the relation-
ship between PSM and organizational change support in public organizations. Perry
and Wise (1990) proposed that PSM facilitates organizational change in the public
sector. The results are also in line with empirical findings from previous research relat-
ing PSM to employees’ support for organizational change (Crewson, 1997; Naff &
Crum, 1999; Ritz & Fernandez, 2011; Wright et al., 2013). This adds further support
for the role of PSM as significant individual-level variable that predicts CSI. More
importantly, understanding psychological factors that underline this relationship might
be helpful to find extra levers for nurturing organizational change support.
This study also proposed a mediation model relating PSM to CSI. The results
showed the significant role of PSM in creating of employees’ CSI through the mediat-
ing effect of the TPB variables. Explicitly, the result showed change-related attitude
and subjective norm mediate the relationship between PSM and CSI, supporting H3a
and H3b. However, change-related PBC does not moderate the relationship; therefore,
H3c is not supported. The mediating roles of change-related attitude and subjective
norm suggest that PSM could shape employees’ attitude and norm regarding perform-
ing organizational change support.
Overall, the results of this study reinforce the significant role of PSM during change
processes. PSM was found to be positively related to CSI particularly when public
employees have a positive change-related attitude, feel social pressure to support the
change, and feel that the performance of the behavior is under their control. Therefore,
in addition to the theoretical contributions, this study has practical implications for
change managers in the public sector. Rather than examining stable individual factors
that are often beyond a manager’s sphere of influence or control (for a review, see
Armenakis & Bedeian, 1999; Oreg et al., 2011); this study examined a predictor (PSM)
of employee CSI which is, to a great extent, dynamic (Brænder & Andersen, 2013;
Brewer & Selden, 1998; Kjeldsen, 2012; Kjeldsen & Jacobsen, 2012) and amenable to
managers’ influence. Our results, therefore, provide practical levers with which man-
agers can actively influence employee reactions and change outcomes. Therefore, to
enhance employee CSI and subsequent behaviors, managers should select employees
with high levels of PSM (Ahmad et al., 2019). Alternatively, managers should culti-
vate high levels of PSM among change recipients as past research has shown that
employee levels of PSM are not mainly attributable to attraction–selection–attrition
mechanisms (Cable & Parsons, 2001), but can be cultivated through organizational
processes of socialization and adaptation (Bellé, 2013).

Limitations and Future Research

Like all studies, our study has some limitations. The first limitation is that we used
self-reported data to test the hypotheses. Such a research design may cause
Hassan et al. 15

methodological problems such as social desirability or common method bias.

However, self-reports are still considered as the primary method of identification for
PSM (Mann, 2006) and other variables (such as those in the TPB model) that are
perceptual in nature (George & Pandey, 2017) as such variables cannot directly be
observed or be measured using peer or supervisor ratings (Brewer, 2002). Second, it
is not possible to make causal inferences about the relationship between PSM and
CSI due to the cross-sectional nature of the study. Third, the study investigated
employee intention to support organizational change, rather than employee behav-
iors. Although intention has been shown to be a good predictor of actual behavior
and a meta-analysis showing mean correlation intention–behavior amounting to r =
.47 (Armitage & Conner, 2001), future research should employ longitudinal designs
for examining the association between intention and actual behavior to see whether
intention to support change will lead to an act to support the change to demonstrate
the full potential of the TPB. Fourth, our findings are based on a sample of employ-
ees of a public university employee in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. Therefore, the
findings may not be generalizable to other contexts. It would be interesting to repli-
cate the study in different public organizations in different countries. Finally, the
data collected rely solely on self-reported questionnaire rather than information
from peers.

Conclusion
In conclusion, the current study supports the potential use of the TPB to predict
employee CSI in public organizations. It also adds to the literature that shows a posi-
tive relationship between PSM and its positive outcomes. Our results build on the
existing research in public change management by studying intention to support
change of public employees in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq. The TPB seems promis-
ing to have the ability to explain supportive intention among public servants. That is,
it shows the link between PSM and CSI through the TPB. Overall, the present study is
important for our understanding of the psychological processes that may underlie
employee PSM in CSI in public organizations. It also identifies the psychological
variables, attitude, subjective norm, and PBC, and shows the influential role of PSM
in the three variables. In consistency with the TPB, intention to support change was
found to be a function of the three variables. The identification of the variables might
help public managers to have a better understanding of the psychological factors rec-
ognize employees who intend to support the change (Jimmieson et al., 2008). In addi-
tion, this study adds further support to change management literature as it is conducted
in a non-Western context like Kurdistan that enhances the generalizability and validity
of previous findings.

Appendix
1. Change-related attitude
It will be good to adopt and implement the electronic system in my daily work.
I look forward to adopting the electronic system. ·
16 Public Personnel Management 00(0)

 Adopting the electronic system is an important step for offering a better man-
agement at our university.
Overall, I have a positive attitude toward adopting the electronic system.

2. Change-related subjective norms

 My colleagues think that it is important to adopt the electronic system in my
daily work. My manager promotes adopting the electronic system.
Overall, it is recommended to adopt the electronic system.

3. Change-related perceived behavioral control

I am confident that I will be able to adopt the changes in my daily work.
I will have the knowledge and skills to implement the change.
Overall, I have the impression that I can implement the change.

4. Intention to engage in the change process

I am willing to implement the new system.
I intend to promote the new system.
 I am willing to take an active role to turn this change (adopting the electronic
system) into success.
 Overall, I intend to integrate the changes resulting from adopting the elec-
tronic system.

5. Public Service Motivation.

Meaningful public service is very important to me.
 It is important for me to contribute to the common good . . . It is important that
citizens can rely on the continuous provision of public services . . . It is funda-
mental that the interests of future generations are taken into account when
developing public policies.
I empathize with other people who face difficulties . . .
Considering the welfare of others is very important . . .
I am prepared to make sacrifices for the good of society.
I believe in putting civic duty before self.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship,
and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of
this article.

ORCID iDs
Hemin Ali Hassan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7517-7431
Ahmad Bayiz Ahmad https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1708-133X
Hassan et al. 17

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Author Biographies
Hemin Ali Hassan is a PhD candidate at Donlinks School for Economics and Management at
the USTB. He is also a lecturer (on-leave) at the UOR in the Kurdistan Region. His current
research focuses on public service motivation, public sector reform, and public servants’
responses to reform processes.
Xiaodong Zhang is a professor at Donlinks School for Economics and Management at the
USTB. Her research interests include lean production and operations management, collabora-
tive product development and innovation management, networked project, management and
simulation.
Ahmad Bayiz Ahmad is a postdoctoral research fellow at SJTU. He is also a lecturer at the
UOR in the Kurdistan Region. His current research focuses on organizational change and public
sector reform and employees’ reaction to such change.
Bangcheng Liu is professor of Organizational Behavior and Human Resource Management at
the School of International and Public Affairs, Shanghai Jiao Tong University. He received his
PhD in Management at the Antai School of Management, Shanghai Jiao Tong University. His
current research focuses on cross-cultural organizational behavior and strategic human resource
management, especially for public organizations. He also is interested in talent policy and inno-
vational and entrepreneurial management.

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