Why Problem-Based Learning Works: Theoretical Foundations

Ref: Marra, R., Joenassen, D. H., Palmer, B., & Luft, S. (2014). Why problem-based learning works:
Theoretical foundations. Journal on Excellence in College Teaching, 25(3&4), 221-238.

The primary characteristics of a PBL learning environment are as follows

Problem-focused: Learners begin learning by addressing simulations of an authentic, ill-structured

problem. The content and skills to be learned are organized around problems rather than as a
hierarchical list of topics. Thus, knowledge is learned in the context of the problem, and there is a
reciprocal relationship between knowledge and the problem. Knowledge building is stimulated by the
problem and applied back to the problem. • Student-centered: Faculty do not dictate the learning
activities, but rather serve in a supportive role. •Self-directed: Students individually and collaboratively
assume responsibility for generating learning issues and processes through self-assessment and peer
assessment 224 Journal on Excellence in College Teaching and access their own experiential knowledge
and learning materials. Required assignments are rarely given. • Self-reflective: Learners monitor their
understanding and learn to adjust strategies for learning. • Facilitative: Instructors are facilitators
(not lecturers) who support and model reasoning processes facilitate group processes and interpersonal
dynamics, probe students’ knowledge deeply, but do not interject content or provide direct answers to
questions.

Theoretical framework

Constructivism

Constructivism can be described in terms of five tenets about knowledge, meaning making, and learning
(Jonassen, 1991).

1 Knowledge is constructed via interactions with the environment.

2 Reality (the sense thatwe make of the world) is in themind of the knower

3 Meaning and thinking are distributed among the culture and community in which we exist and the
tools we use..

4. Knowledge is anchored in and indexed by relevant contexts.

5. Knowledge construction is stimulated by a question or need or desire to know.

Situated Learning p6

proposed by Brown et al. (1989) and argued that meaningful and lasting learning takes place best when
it is embedded in a social and physical context as similar as possible to that in which the learning would
be applied in contrast to the way most formal learning took place at that time (and still, unfortunately,
does)—that is, devoid of authentic context and far removed from any aspect of actually using what is to
be learned. Situated cognition proposes that the contextual setting of knowledge is essential and that
meaning making is rooted in the relationships that we construct between ourselves as learners and our
surrounding situations and interactions (Hung, 2002). Stated another way, knowledge is, at its root,
produced via interactions between the mind and the world in which it is situated. In a PBL, the
“situation” or the meaningful context is to a large degree provided by the ill-structured problem the
learners are solving. This learning situation is similar to what we do in our everyday and professional
lives, where we are continuously solving ill-structured problems. Because meaning is derived by learners
from the contexts in which they are working or learning—ideas abstracted from contexts and presented
as theories have little, if any, meaning to learners—knowledge that is anchored, or “situated” in specific
contexts is more meaningful, more integrated, better retained, and more transferable. One reason for
this phenomenon is the means by which students represent their understanding (Jonassen,

Discussion: Implications for Supporting PBL

PBL and Metacognition pg7

is the awareness of one’s own knowledge, of one’s actions, and of one’s current “cognitive or affective
state” (Hacker, Dunlosky, & Graesser, 1998, p. 3). Thus, metacognition can include students’ knowledge
of what they know, what they do not know, how they learn new knowledge or skills, and what strengths
and weaknesses they have in regard to their area of study. Metacognition is an important meta-level set
of cognitive strategies that enables learners to perform better. Flavell (1976, 1979) distinguished two
characteristics of metacognition: knowledge of cognition and self-regulation of cognition. Knowledge of
cognition includes knowledge of task, strategy, and personal variables. while PBL develops problem-
solving skills, those skills cannot develop without the development of “appropriate metacognitive and
reasoning strategies” (p. 240).

PBL and Cases

Although Brown et al. (1989) argued for implementations that were based on a cognitive apprenticeship
(adapting the principles of a traditional apprenticeship to cognitive skills), providing students with cases
is another way of accomplishing the in situ PBL setting (Jonassen, 2010).

Cases are fundamental to PBL implementations. That is, problems are represented as cases, and cases
are used in various ways as instructional support. Cases are one of the primary ways that situated
learning theory

Cases as Examples and Experiences to Analyze

Cases as Problems to Solve

Using Theory to Improve PBL

Dolmans, Snellen-Balendong, Wolfhagen, and Van der Vleuten (1997) outlined seven principles of
problem design. They described that problems should (1) simulate real life, (2) lead to elaboration, (3)
encourage integration of knowledge, (4) encourage self-directed learning, (5) fit in with students’ prior
knowledge, (6) interest students, and (7) reflect the faculty member’s learning objectives. Jonassen and
Hung (2008) focused on one of the problem characteristics originally indicated by Shaw (1976)—problem
difficulty—and defined it to be characterized by problem complexity and problem structuredness.
According to Jonassen and Hung (2008), problem complexity refers to the breadth, difficulty level,
intricacy, and interrelatedness of problem space, while problem structuredness represents the
intransparency, variety of interpretations, interdisciplinary, and interdisciplinary nature of problems.

Des Marchais (1999) used a Delphi technique with six PBL experts who were asked to identify three
criteria considered most essential for the design of problems. The study identified that the two most
important criteria were that the problem should stimulate thinking or reasoning and lead to self-directed
learning in students. Sockalingam and Schmidt (2011) turned to PBL students and p 11 now p12

used reflective essays to ascertain their perceptions of the characteristics of well-designed PBL problems.
Students identified 11 problem characteristics that helped lead them to desired learning outcomes. They
said the problem should (1) lead to learning, (2) trigger interest, (3) be of suitable format, (4) stimulate
critical reasoning, (5) promote self-directed learning, (6) be of suitable clarity, (7) be of appropriate
difficulty, (8) enable application or use, (9) relate to prior knowledge, (10) stimulate elaboration, and (11)
promote teamwork. Major and Palmer (2001) offer that those implementing PBL should consider two
techniques for problem improvement: outside evaluation by experts and content analysis of projects.

Outside Evaluation by Experts

Content Analysis of Projects

Strategies for Monitoring Students’ Metacognitive Skills: The Iron Range

Engineering Program p12 going on 13
he Iron Range Engineering (IRE) program, a collaboration between Itasca Community College (ICC) and
Minnesota State University Mankato, is an exemplar of the gradually growing number of engineering
programs implementing PBL (Litzinger, Lattuca, Hadgraft, & Newstetter, 2011). The IRE curriculum is
unusual, however, in the degree to which it implements PBL as there are no formal classes.

Conclusions

PBL is one of several instructional methodologies being implemented in higher education settings that
are student centered. In PBL environments, learning is entirely focused around solving an authentic
problem, which is often presented in a case. And in contrast to traditional pedagogies, learners do not
learn the “basic” first and in a separate, often inauthentic mode (for example, read “about” a theory or a
model rather than use it); rather, they learn basic content in the context of solving the complex,
authentic problem. The challenging news is that this pedagogy requires significant changes for both
learners and teachers. The hopeful news is that understanding the basic theoretical premises on which
PBL is founded—specifically, constructivism and situated cognition—can help practitioners be more
effective in designing, implementing, and improving PBL environments. This article has explored those
theoretical foundations and then applied them to help educators understand and use cases effectively to
support PBL, design problems appropriate for PBL environments, and develop and use the metacognitive
supports students need during PBL activities.Why PBL Works References 23