TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS.

THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM.

The circulatory system, consists of :

 blood vessels ,

1
  the heart and valves to ensure one-way flow of blood.
 Blood
Functions of the circulatory system:
 To transport nutrients and oxygen to the cells.
 To remove waste and carbon dioxide from the cells.
 To provide for efficient gas exchange.
SINGLE CIRCULATION OF FISH.
Single circulation - a simple loop in which blood passes

through the heart ones in complete circuit.

 Blood flows from the heart to the gills, to the body organs and
back to the heart.

2
 Single circulatory is sufficient to meet the needs for the fish
because they are not very active,
 More active animals like mammals need a double circulatory
system.

3
THE DOUBLE (DUAL) CLOSED CIRCULATION.
Double circulation- the blood in blood vessels passes through

the heart twice in one circulation.

NB:It is described as closed because blood flows inside blood vessels.

4
 The right side of the heart collects deoxygenated blood from the
body and pumps it to the lungs.
 The left side collects oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it
to the body.

5
 Beginning at the lungs, blood flows into the left-hand side of the
heart, and then out to the rest of the body. It is brought back to the
right-side of the heart, before going back to the lungs again.
 This is called a double circulation system, because the blood travels
through the heart twice on one complete journey around the body:
(a)Pulmonary Circulation: links the heart and lungs ( blood
flows at low pressure circulation).
(b) Systemic Circulation: links the heart with the rest of the
body ( blood flows at high pressure ).

6
7
BLOOD PRESSURES IN THE BLOOD VESSELS.

THE IMPORTANCE OF A DOUBLE CIRCULATION.

 Oxygenated blood is kept separate from deoxygenated
blood.
 The blood pressure in the systemic circulation is kept
higher than that in the pulmonary circulation to ensure that
blood reaches parts a distant from the heart e.g. toes.
 The left ventricle, with a thicker wall, pumps blood under
higher pressure to the body and delivers oxygenated blood
effectively to all parts of the body. The right ventricle has a

8
 thinner wall and pumps blood to the lungs under lower
pressure, thereby avoiding any lung damage.
 Allows different blood pressure in each circulation or loop ;
 Allows animals to have high metabolic rates ;
 Allows animals to be, large ;

SAMPLE QUESTION.
J16P42Q1 (b) (i) Describe what is meant by the term double
closed circulation. [2]
(ii) State three advantages of a double circulation.
[3]

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE HEART.

9
10
11
CROSS SECTION OF THE HEART.

12
DIAGRAM OF THE HUMAN HEART.

13
 FUNCTIONS OF PARTS OF THE HEART.

Right atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to right ventricle

Right ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs

Pulmonary artery: carries deoxygenated blood from right ventricle to

lungs

Septum: separates left and right sides of the heart

Pulmonary vein: carry oxygenated blood from lungs to left atrium

Left atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to left ventricle

Left ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via the aorta

Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from left ventricle to rest of body

Tricuspid and bicuspid valves: prevent backflow of blood into the atria

when ventricles contract (atria ventricular valves)

Semi-lunar valves(Pulmonary and aortic valves): prevent backflow of

blood from the arteries into the ventricles (semi-lunar valves)

SAMPLE QUESTION.
14
 1 (a) Fig. 1.1 shows the human heart and the main blood
vessels. The functions of the parts of the heart and some of
the blood vessels are given in Table 1.1.

Fig. 1.1

Complete Table 1.1. One row has been done for you.

15
16
RELATING THE STRUCTURE OF THE HEART TO IT’S
FUNCTION.
 The heart is a pump , made of muscles (cardiac muscles),
which moves blood around the body.
 The muscle is constantly active and coronary arteries provide
heart muscles with oxygen and glucose.
 The left and right side of the heart of the heart is
completely separated from each other by a muscle called
septum.
 The right side receives deoxygenated blood from the body and
pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation.
 Left side receives oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it
to the body.
 The right atrium receives blood from the vena cava and the left
atrium and the left atrium from the pulmonary vein.
 Both atria the squeeze the blood into the ventricles.
 The tricuspid valve open allow blood to flow from right
ventricle and the bicuspid valve open allow blood to flow
from the left atrium to the left ventricle preventing backflow.

17
 The right and left ventricles then squeeze the blood into the
arteries.
 When ventricles contract the atrioventricular (tricuspid and
bicuspid) valves close to prevent backflow.
 The semilunar valves open to allow blood to move into the
arteries and prevent backflow when ventricles relax.
 The wall of the left ventricle is much thicker than the
right ventricle right ventricle because it needs to build up
enough pressure to send the blood to all the main organs.
 Thus the blood in the aorta has a much higher pressure than in the
pulmonary artery.

18
SAMPLE QUESTION.
N11 P32Q1 Heart surgeons may stop the heart beating during
operations. While this happens blood is pumped through a
heart-lung machine that oxygenates the blood.
Fig. 1.1 is a diagram showing a heart-lung machine in use.

Fig. 1.1
(a) Name the structures labelled A to D.
[4]

19
(b) Name the blood vessels E and F.
[2]

SAMPLE QUESTION.
N11 P32 Q1 Humans have a double circulation system. There is
a low pressure circulation and a high pressure circulation.
(e) Explain how the structure of the heart enables it to pump
blood into two circulations at different pressures. [4]
Marking points.
 The heart has cardiac muscle ;
 It has its own pacemaker ;
 septum divides heart into two;
 There are two (separate) ventricles ;
 ventricle(s), contract ;
 Contraction increases blood pressure ;
 The right ventricle has thin(er) wall and left ventricle has
thick(er) wall ;
Blood that goes to the lungs has low(er) pressure than blood that goes
to the rest of body ;

20
EFFECT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY ON THE HEART RATE.
 Heart beats about 70 times a minute, more if one is younger.
 The rate becomes lower with fitness.
 Exercise is needed to keep the heart muscle in good tone.
 This results in the heart being more efficient in maintaining blood
pressure and reduces the risk of coronary heart disease
WHY HEART RATE INCREASES WITH EXERCISE.
 Heart rate increases to supply the muscles with more oxygen and
glucose.
 These are needed to allow the muscles to respire aerobically, so
they have sufficient energy to contract.
 Also to pump deoxygenated blood to the lungs for excretion.

21
 SAMPLE QUESTION.
(b) A group of students used a heart monitor to record the pulse rate
of an athlete during a 5000 metre race. The recordings started just
before the race began and ended just after it had finished, as shown in
Fig. 1.2

Fig. 1.2

22
 (i) Use data from Fig. 1.2 to describe the effect of exercise on the pulse rate of the
athlete. [3]
(ii)Explain the change in pulse rate between 2 minutes and 3 minutes after the recordings
started. [4]

THE CARDIAC CYCLE.

Cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in one heartbeat.
 Heart rate- is the number of beats per minute.
 The heart pumps blood when the muscles contract.
 When the muscles contract the chambers get smaller and squeezes blood out.
 Two sides of the heart work together.
 The cardiac cycle is divided into two main stages the relaxation phase and
the contraction phase.

23
 1.RELAXATION PHASE(DIASTOLE)
 The muscles of both ventricle and atria relax.
 Blood into the atria.
 Semilunar valves close to prevent backflow.
2.CONTRACTION PHASE (SYSTOLE).
(a)Contraction of atria.
 Both left and right atria contract and force blood into the ventricles.
 Atrioventricular valves open.
(b)Contraction of the ventricles.
 Both left and right ventricle contract.
 The atrioventricular valves close to prevent the backflow of blood.
 Semilunar valve s of the aorta and the pulmonary artery open .

24
A SUMMARY OF THE CARDIAC CYCLE.

25
METHODS OF MONITORING HEART ACTIVITY.

26
 Three methods of monitoring heart activity.
1. Heart sounds.
2. Electrocardiogram.
3. Pulse rate.

1.HEART SOUNDS.

 The noise of the blood when heart valves open and close make the sound of
the heartbeat-‘lub-dub’.
 These can be heard using a stethoscope.
 The first heart sound the (lub) sound is produced when the atrioventricular
valves close when ventricles contract to prevent backflow.
 The second(dub) sound is produced when the semilunar valves close when
ventricles relax when refilling to prevent backflow.

 If heart sounds are not clear then this may point to a problem with faulty
valves.
27
 2.ELECTROCARDIOGRAM.
 Control of heart beat depends on electrical activity.
 Electrocardiogram is used to detect the electrical activities.
 Electrodes are taped at various positions on the body and the electrical
activity of the heart is displayed on a monitor.
 Electrocardiogram trace is viewed.
The electrical activity of the heart can be recorded on an ECG.

Fig. below shows an ECG of one heartbeat.

Table below shows how the electrical activity, during one heartbeat, corresponds to
the opening and closing of the valves in the heart.
P – Artria contract.
QRS- ventricles contract.
T-Artria and ventricles relax.

SAMPLE QUESTION.
Complete Table using the words ‘open’ and ‘closed’.

28
 One heart beat takes about 0.8 seconds.
Question: Calculate the number of beats in one minute.

3. PULSE RATE.
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 Pressure of blood flowing down an artery as a result of the heart beat can be
felt as a pulse when the artery is near the body surface.
 This can be felt by pressing the fingertips of one hand on the wrist of the
other.
 The number of pulses per minute is the pulse rate and is equal to the heart
rate .
 A digital pulse rate monitor can be used and give a more accurate reading of
the pulse rate.

CORONARY ARTERIES.
30
Coronary arteries are blood vessels which branch from the aorta and

supply heart muscles with blood rich in oxygen and glucose.

 The muscles of the heart are so thick that the nutrients and oxygen in the
blood inside the heart would not be able to diffuse to all the muscles quickly
enough.
 The heart muscles need a constant supply of nutrients and oxygen.

Why heart muscles need a constant supply of

nutrients and oxygen.

31
  Muscle contraction requires energy.
 Glucose and oxygen are constantly supplied for aerobic respiration.
 To release energy needed for muscle contraction..
 If a coronary artery gets blocked – e.g. by a blood clot – the cardiac muscles
run short of oxygen aerobic respiration cannot occur and cannot obtain
energy to contract .
 Heart attack or cardiac arrest- is when the heart stops beating..

CORONARY HEART DISEASES(CHDS).

These are diseases caused by the blockage of coronary arteries.

32
  Coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting the supply of blood to
the heart muscle.
 The heart muscle cells are deprived of oxygen and glucose, and
poisonous wastes such as lactic acid build up.
 Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a heart attack
HOW THE CORONARY ARTERY IS BLOCKED.

33
34
MAIN CAUSES OF CHDs AND PREVENTATIVE MEASURES.

35
 TREATMENT OF CHD.

1.CORONARY BYPASS.
 A blood vessel is taken from another part of the body, usually the leg or the
arm and is attached to the coronary artery above and below the narrowed and
blocked area .
 The blocked area is bypassed.

36
 2. ANGIOPLASTY AND STENT.
 This is a less complex operation, angioplasty involves the insertion of a
long,thin tube called a catheter into the blocked or narrowed blood vessels.
 A wire is attached to a deflated balloon is then fed through the catheter to the
damaged area.
 Once in place it is inflated to widen the artery wall.
 Sometimes a mesh wire called a stent is applied and is left in place to keep
the artery open.

37
3.ANTIPLATELETS MEDICINES.
 Aspirin is an example of an antiplatelet drug.
 It prevents blood clots forming in the arteries.
SAMPLE QUESTION.
N12 P21 Q3 Fig. 3.1 shows an external view of the heart.

Fig. 3.1
(a) A blood clot is stuck at X. Explain what will happen to the heart muscle cells in
the shaded area on Fig. 3.1. [3]
(b) List three actions people can take to reduce the risk of having a blood clot in
the coronary arteries. [3]

38
BLOOD AND LYMPHATIC VESSELS.
Three main kinds of blood vessels:
1.Arteries - carry blood away from the heart
2.Veins - carry blood towards the heart
3. Capillaries.- gradually join up with one another to form large vessels
called veins.

39
COMPARISON OF BLOOD VESSELS.

40
41
42
ADAPTATIONS OF BLOOD VESSELS FOR THEIR FUNCTIONS

1.ARTERY. coil

ADAPTATIONS OF ARTERIES FOR THEIR FUNCTIONS

43
 Thick, tough wall with muscles and elastic tissue.
 Thick walls help to withstand and maintain blood
pressure(prevents bursting).
 Elastic tissue enable the artery to contract and relax causing
blood to flow in pulses.
 Narrow lumen.
 Narrow lumen maintains high blood pressure.
 High blood pressure prevents backflow of blood.
 Folded endothelium ( Inner lining).
 Folded endothelium allows artery to stretch.
 Do not have valves as backflow is prevented by high

blood pressure.

44
 SAMPLE QUESTION.
(d) Fig. 5.1 shows a section across part of an artery.

Fig. 5.1 With reference to Fig. 5.1, explain how the structure of an artery is related to its
function. [3]

45
SAMPLE QUESTION.
J19P63 Q2 (a) Fig. 2.1 is a photomicrograph showing a cross-section of an artery.

Fig. 2.1
Make a large drawing of the artery in Fig. 2.1 to show the layers that make up the artery
wall.Do not draw individual cells. [4]

46
 2. VEIN.
 Thin wall with less muscles and elastic tissue.
 Thin walls allow muscles to exert pressure on the veins.
 Large lumen.
 Wide lumen allows great volume of blood to pass or
reduces resistance to blood flow.
 Valves present.
 Valves prevent backflow of blood.

How blood returns to the heart in the vein against

the pull of gravity.

47
  contraction of muscles (in the legs) / movement of legs ;
 push/ squeeze blood ;
 valves, ensure blood flows towards heart / prevents backflow ;
 negative pressure in the right atrium due to relaxation of atria enables blood to move back ;

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ARTERIES AND VEINS.

vein
Artery

ARTERY VEIN
Smaller lumen Larger lumen
thicker elastic and muscular wall thinner elastic and muscular wall
All arteries carry oxygenated blood All veins carry deoxygenated blood

except pulmonary artery except pulmonary veins.

Blood flows in pulses and at higher Blood flows slower, smoother and at

pressure low pressure

Arteries carry blood away from the Veins carry blood to the heart from the
body.
heart to the body
Blood in arteries flow due to the Blood in veins flow due to the

pumping action of the heart contraction of the muscles.

Do not have valves Have valves.

48
SAMPLE QUESTION.

5090N15P23Q2(b) Fig. 2.2(a) shows how the mean blood pressure changes as blood flows
through different types of blood vessel after leaving the heart.

Fig. 2.2(a) Fig. 2.2(b)

(i) Draw a line on Fig. 2.2(b) to show how the diameters of the vessels that blood flows
through vary. [2]
(ii) Use the line you have drawn on Fig. 2.2(b), and your biological knowledge, to explain
why the mean blood pressure is higher in an artery than in a vein. [4]

MARKING POINTS.
(b) (i) line decreases (lowest at capillaries) followed by increase ;
vein diameter drawn to be higher than artery ; [2]
(ii)
 Blood is pumped out of the heart at a higher pressure ;

49
  pressure decreases as the distance from the heart increases;
 resistance/ friction reduces the blood pressure
 narrow lumen in artery increases pressure ;
 thick / muscular / elastic walls in artery expand and recoil to maintain pressure;
 Pressure in the arteries has to high in order to generation of tissue fluid in capillaries

3.CAPILLARY.

 Permeable wall(one cell thick) with no muscle and elastic

tissue.
 One cell thick wall allows diffusion of materials between capillary
and the surrounding tissue.
 Lumen approximately of red blood cell wide.
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  Narrow lumen allows red blood cells to pass through slowly and
increase oxygen diffusion from red blood cells.

SAMPLE QUESTION.
J16P43Q4b (ii) Explain how capillaries are adapted for their functions.[3]

SAMPLE QUESTION.
4 (a) Mammals have a double circulatory system.
Explain what is meant by a double circulatory system.[1]
Fig. 4.1 shows sections of three blood vessels: an artery, a capillary and a vein.

Fig. 4.1
(b) State one function for each of the blood vessels shown in Fig. 4.1. [3]
(c) Explain how the structure of the artery shown in Fig. 4.1 is adapted to its
function. [4]
(d) Explain how valves help the transport of blood in veins. [2]

MAIN BLOOD VESSELS TO AND FROM THE HEART,LUNGS,LIVER

AND THE KIDNEYS.
Organ To From
Heart Vena cava and Pulmonary artery and
Pulmonary vein Aorta

51
Lungs Pulmonary artery Pulmonary vein

Liver Hepatic portal vein and Hepatic vein

hepatic artery.
Kidney Renal artery. Renal vein.

52
SAMPLE QUESTION.
3 Mammals have a double circulation system.
(a).Explain what is meant by a double circulation system. [ 1]

(b) Table 5.1 shows some of the main organs in a mammal and the vessels that deliver

blood and take it away. Complete the table.

53
ARTERIOLES, VENULES AND SHUNT VESSELS.

1.ARTERIOLES

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  Arterioles are small subdivisions of arteries that carry blood to
capillary networks.
 Arterioles’ wall have more smooth muscle
 The muscle can contract – controlling the volume of blood moving in
and out of a certain body part
 Vasoconstriction and vasodilation occurs with arterioles
 They regulate blood pressure.
 They receive nerve impulses and respond to various hormones in
order to regulate their diameter.
 This regulates blood flow through the capillaries.

2.VENULES.
 Venules collect blood from the capillary beds.
 They are thin walled vessels, they unite to from veins which transport
deoxygenated blood to the heart.

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3. SHUNT VESSELS.

A shunt vessel is a blood vessel that links an artery directly to a vein.

56
 Shunt vessels allow the blood to bypass the capillaries in certain areas.
 They control blood flow by constriction and dilation.
 In warm blooded animals, shunt vessels constrict in response to cold,
thereby cutting off the blood flow to the extremities and reducing heat loss.

57
THE TRANSFER OF MATERIALS BETWEEN CAPILLARIES AND
TISSUE FLUID.

 As blood enters capillaries from arterioles (small arteries), it slows down to

give time for diffusion of substances in the plasma, as well as O2 from red
blood cells, to diffuse through the capillary wall into the surrounding tissues
 Blood pressure in the arterioles is high enough to cause filtration of fluid
through the pores on the capillaries.
 Liquid in the plasma also passes out to forms tissue fluid, bathing the
cells.
 Waste products from the cells, e.g. CO2, diffuse back through the capillary
walls into the plasma.
58
 NB:Diffusion is responsible for the transfer of materials between
capillaries and tissue fluid.
COMPARISON
OF ALL BLOOD
VESSELS

Veins and Venules Capillaries Arteries and Arterioles

Function is to allow exchange of

Function is to carry blood from Function is to carry blood from the
materials between the blood and the
tissues to the heart heart to the tissues
tissues
Very thin, permeable walls, only one Thick walls with smooth elastic
Thin walls, mainly collagen, since
cell thick to allow exchange of layers to resist high pressure and
blood at low pressure
materials muscle layer to aid pumping
Large lumen to reduce resistance to Very small lumen. Blood cells must
Small lumen
flow. distort to pass through.
Many valves to prevent back-flow No valves No valves (except in heart)
Blood at low pressure Blood pressure falls in capillaries. Blood at high pressure

Blood usually deoxygenated (except Blood changes from oxygenated to Blood usually oxygenated (except in
in pulmonary vein) deoxygenated (except in lungs) pulmonary artery)

THE LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.

The lymphatic system is a collection of lymph vessels and glands.

59
FUNCTIONS OF LYMPHATIC SYSTEM.

60
 It has 3 main functions.
 Returns tissue fluid to the blood
 Produce white blood cells lymphocytes for protection
against pathogens.
 Transport digested fats from villi in small intestines to the
blood stream.

LYMPH AND TISSUE FLUID.

 Tissue fluid is a fluid surrounding the cells of a tissue.

61
  It is leaked plasma -plasma from the blood capillaries move to the tissue
through gaps in the walls and become tissue fluid.
 Tissue fluid allow substance exchange between blood and cells.
 It supplies cells with O2 and nutrients (eg.glucose and amino acids) ,a
and takes away waste products including CO2.
 At the end of the capillary bed, the tissue fluid leaks back into the blood, and
becomes plasma again, but not all of it.
 A little of it is absorbed by the lymphatic vessel and becomes lymph.
 The lymphatic vessel takes the lymph to the blood stream by secreting them
in a vein near the heart, called subclavian vein.
 The lymph in the lymphatic vessels are moved along by the squeeze of
muscles against the vessel, just like some veins.

 The return of tissue fluid to the blood in the form of lymph fluid prevents
fluid built up in the tissue.

SAMPLE QUESTION

62
6 Fig. 6.1 is a diagram showing some body cells and parts of the human lymphatic and
circulatory systems.

(a) Capillaries allow blood to reach most cells in the body.

(i) State the name of the process by which oxygen moves from A to Z as shown in Fig. 6.1.
[1]
(ii) Describe how some of the liquid in A moves to B in Fig. 6.1.[2]
(iii) State one component of blood that remains inside the capillaries as the blood flows
from X to Y in Fig. 6.1. [1]
(b) Lymphatic vessels are similar in structure to veins.
(i) Describe the structure of veins. [2]
(ii) Describe the role of the lymphatic vessel shown in Fig. 6.1. [2]
(c) Lacteals are another part of the lymphatic system.
State where in the body lacteals are found and state their function. [2]
(d) In the lymphatic system, there are structures that contain large numbers of
lymphocytes.(i) State the name of these structures. [1]
(ii) State the role of lymphocytes. [2]

63
THE BLOOD.
COMPONENTS OF THE BLOOD.
 Plasma.
 Blood cell.

64
1.THE BLOOD PLASMA.

Plasma is the liquid part of the blood.

Plasma transports:
 blood cells
 soluble nutrients e.g. glucose, amino acids.
 plasma proteins that are important in blood clotting (e.g.
fibrinogen).
 CO2 (waste gas produced by respiration in cells) from the organs to
lungs
 Urea from deamination of excess amino acids in the liver to the kidneys.
 Antibodies and antitoxins
 Hormones
 Ions
 Heat from the liver and muscles to all parts of the body.

65
CELLS.
 Red blood cells
 White blood cells.
 Platelets.
THE BLOOD CELLS AS SEEN THROUGH A MICROSCOPE.

66
PHOTOMICROGRAPH OF BLOOD CELLS .

67
 RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)

 Made in the bone marrow of some bones, including ribs, vertebrae

and some limb bones.
 Transport O2 from lungs to all respiring tissue.

68
ADAPTATIONS OF RED BLOOD CELLS FOR TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN.
 Contain haemoglobin (Hb), a red iron-containing pigment which can
carry O2.
 In the lungs, Hb combines with O2 to form oxyhaemoglobin. In
other organs, oxyhaemoglobin splits up into Hb and O2
 Have no nucleus to have more space for Hb inside the cytoplasm, but
can live only for about 4 months.
NB: Only mammals have red blood cells which do not have nuclei.
 Have a special biconcave disc shape to increases the surface area for
the diffusion of oxygen into & out of the cell.
 Have very flexible membranes to enable them to squeeze through
narrow blood capillaries.
NB:Old red blood cells are broken down in the liver, spleen and bone
marrow. Some of the iron from the Hb is stored, and used for making
new Hb, some of it is turned into bile pigment and excreted.

69
SAMPLE QUESTION.
N18P32Q8 Fig. 8.1 shows a photomicrograph of some red blood cells.

Fig. 8.1
(a) (i) State the function of a red blood cell. [1]
(ii) Explain how red blood cell are adapted for their function. [4]

70
2. WHITE BLOOD CELLS (LEUKOCYTES).
 Made in the bone marrow and in the lymph nodes.
 Have a nucleus, often large and lobed.
 Can move around and squeeze out through the walls of blood capillaries
into all parts of the body.
 There are many different kinds of white blood cells.
 They all have the function of fighting pathogens (disease-causing bacteria
and (viruses) and to clear up any dead body cells in your body:
TWO EXAMPLES OF WHITE BLOOD CELLS.

(a). Phagocyte:
71
  Have lobed nuclei and granular cytoplasm.
 Can move out of capillaries to the site of an infection.
 Remove any microorganisms that invade the body and might cause
infection, engulf (ingest) and kill them by digesting them.
(b). Lymphocytes:
 produce antibodies to fight bacteria and foreign
materials.
 Have large nuclei which fill most of the space in the cell.
 Responsible for active immunity
There are two different types of lymphocytes:
1.B-lymphocytes:
 Secrete special proteins called antibodies in response to contact with their
particular antigen, which may be an invading pathogen or a foreign tissue
that has been transplanted.
2.T-lymphocytes .
 Produce chemicals which activate other lymphocytes.
 Attack foreign or infected cells and kill them.

3. PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTES).

72
  Small fragments of cells, with no nucleus.
 Made in the red bone marrow.
 Involved in blood clotting: form blood clot, which stop blood loss at a
wound and prevent the entry of germs into the body.

SAMPLE QUESTION.
5 Fig. 5.1 shows a photomicrograph of human blood.

73
 Fig. 5.1
(a) Describe the differences in appearance and the roles of the three cells
labelled in Fig. 5.1.[6]

74
SAMPLE QUESTION.
5090 N 08 P2Q4 Fig. 4.1 shows human blood containing pathogenic (disease-causing)
organisms.

Fig. 4.1
(a) (i) Name the liquid labelled Q in Fig. 4.1. ................................................................ [1]
(ii) Name two mineral ions which may be found in liquid Q and, for each ion, state its
function in the body.
ion 1 ................................................. function .........................................................
ion 2 ................................................. function ..................................................................[3]
(b) On Fig. 4.1, label
(i) a white blood cell,
(ii) a red blood cell infected with the pathogenic organism. [2]
(c) The pathogenic organisms were introduced into the blood by a mosquito while feeding.
Suggest why the mosquito feeds from a capillary and not from an artery. [3]

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SAMPLE QUESTION.
J19P43Q4 Mammals have a double circulation.
(a) State what is meant by the term double closed circulation. [2]
(b) Table 4.1 shows some information about the functions of the components of blood.

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BLOOD CLOTTING.

STAGES OF CLOTTING.

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 When an injury causes a blood vessel wall to break, platelets are activated.
 They stick to the broken vessel wall and each other, and begin to plug the
break.
 The platelets secrete an enzyme thrombin which converts fibrinogen, a
soluble plasma protein, to an insoluble fibrin.
 Calcium is needed to stimulate the process.
 Fibrin strands form a net/ mesh of fibers that entrap more platelets and
other blood cells (red cells and white cells), producing a clot that plugs the
break.

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 ROLES OF BLOOD CLOTTING.
 Prevent excessive blood loss from the body when there is a

damage of the blood vessel.

 Prevent the entry of microorganism and foreign particles into

the body.

 Maintains blood pressure.

 Promotes wound healing.

SAMPLE QUESTION
NJ5P323Q3d) Some people in accidents lose a lot of blood. Doctors give patients fluid to
replace lost blood.
(ii) Describe the process of blood clotting. [5]

MARKING POINTS.
 platelets are involved in blood clotting;
 Prothrombin is activated to become an active enzyme thrombin

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 Thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin ;
 Fibrinogen is soluble and fibrin is insoluble ;
 Fibrin forms a mesh / network / web, to trap blood (cells) ;
 calcium ions are needed during the process.

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