BASIC MECHANICS

.
PE/NG/PG/RP 167
2023

COMPILED BY:
FREDERICK ABANGBA AKENDOLA

INSTRUSTOR:
FREDERICK ABANGBA AKENDOLA

Email: [email protected]
[email protected]

OFFICE LOC.: NEXT TO FLUID LAB

MECH. ENG. DEP.
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COURSE OBJECTIVES

The aim of the course is to enable students:

1. to represent forces and moments in scalar and vectorial forms.
2. to draw Free body diagrams of engineering bodies
3. to analysis particles and in two and three dimensions.
4. to understand the effect of friction in equilibrium.

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COURSE OUTLINE

1. Fundamental Concepts
2. Force and moment
3. Equilibrium of rigid bodies
4. Structural Analysis
5. Friction

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REFERENCE BOOKS

i. Beer, F. P., Johnston Jr., E. R., Mazurek, D. F., Cornwell, P. and Self, B. (2019),
Vector Mechanics for Engineers, Statics and Dynamics, 12 th Edition, McGraw-Hill
Education, 1504 pp.
ii. Pytel, A. and Kiusalaas, J. (2016), Engineering Mechanics: Statics, 4 th Edition,
Cengage Learning, 608 pp.
iii. Hibbeler, R.C., (2016), Engineering Mechanics: Dynamics 14th Edition, Pearson,
760 pp.
iv. Cleghorn, W. L. and Dechev, N. (2014), Mechanics of Machines, 2 nd Edition,
Oxford University Press, 640 pp.

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SCHEDULE OF LECTURES

Week Date Topic Coverage Remarks

1 23-27th Jan Introduction
2 30th Jan-3rd Feb Fundamentals
3 6-10th Feb Force and moment
4 13-17th Feb Force and moment
5 20-24th Feb Equilibrium of rigid bodies
6 27th-3rd Mar Equilibrium of rigid bodies
7 6-10th Mar Structural analysis
8 13-17th Mar Structural analysis
9 20-24th Mar Friction (dry)
10 27-31st Mar Friction (dry)
11 3-7th April Revision
12 10th April, 2o23 Examination
13 17th April, 2o23 Examination
14 28th April, 2o23 Examination

GRADING POLICY

Activity Proportion (%)

Attendance 10
Assignments 10
Quizzes 20
Group presentations -
End of Semester Exam 60
Total 100

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Contents
COURSE OBJECTIVES ............................................................................................................................. i
COURSE OUTLINE .................................................................................................................................. ii
REFERENCE BOOKS .............................................................................................................................. iii
SCHEDULE OF LECTURES ................................................................................................................... iv
GRADING POLICY .................................................................................................................................. iv
TABLE OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................. vii
LIST OF TABLES ..................................................................................................................................... ix
What is Mechanics .................................................................................................................................. 1
Fundamental Concepts ............................................................................................................................ 1
Fundamental Principles ........................................................................................................................... 3
System of Units ....................................................................................................................................... 6
Method of problem solution .................................................................................................................... 6
UNIT 2: FORCES AND MOMENTS ........................................................................................................ 8
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 8
System of Forces ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Resultant of two forces ............................................................................................................................ 8
Resultant of multiple Concurrent and nonconcurrent forces ................................................................ 10
Addition of a System of Coplanar forces .............................................................................................. 13
Three dimensional components of forces.............................................................................................. 19
Vector dot product and cross product ................................................................................................... 24
Moments and couple ............................................................................................................................. 26
UNIT 3: EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODIES ........................................................ 42
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 42
Free Body Diagrams.............................................................................................................................. 42
UNIT 4: STRUCTURES .......................................................................................................................... 48
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 48
Trusses................................................................................................................................................... 48
Analysis of trusses................................................................................................................................. 50
Zero force members .............................................................................................................................. 57
Method of Sections................................................................................................................................ 60

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 Practice Problems .................................................................................................................................. 62
UNIT5: FRICTION .................................................................................................................................. 65
Introduction ........................................................................................................................................... 65
Theory of dry friction ............................................................................................................................ 65
Laws of dry friction ............................................................................................................................... 69
Limitations of the theory ....................................................................................................................... 70
Features of dry friction .......................................................................................................................... 70
Angles of Repose and angle of Friction ................................................................................................ 77
Wedges .................................................................................................................................................. 82
Screws ................................................................................................................................................... 85

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TABLE OF FIGURES
Figure 1. 1: Point force shown by the arrow ............................................................................................... 2
Figure 1. 2: Newton's First Law of Motion ................................................................................................ 3
Figure 1. 3: Newton's Second Law of Motion ............................................................................................ 3
Figure 1. 4: Newton's Third Law of Motion ............................................................................................... 4
Figure 1. 5: Newton's Law of gravitaiton ................................................................................................... 4
Figure 1. 6: parallelogram law of vector addition....................................................................................... 5
Figure 1. 7: Principle of transmissibility..................................................................................................... 5

Figure 2. 1: System of forces ...................................................................................................................... 8

Figure 2. 2: Resultant of two forces ............................................................................................................ 9
Figure 2. 3: Resultant multiple concurrent forces ..................................................................................... 10
Figure 2. 4: Resultant of nonconcurrent force .......................................................................................... 10
Figure 2. 5: Scalar vector notation A ........................................................................................................ 13
Figure 2. 6: Scalar vector notation B ........................................................................................................ 14
Figure 2. 7: Cartesian vector notation of forces ........................................................................................ 15
Figure 2. 8: Coplanar (a) ........................................................................................................................... 15
Figure 2. 9: Coplanar (b) ........................................................................................................................... 16
Figure 2. 10: Three-dimensional coordinate system ................................................................................. 19
Figure 2. 11: Rectangular vector representation in three dimension ........................................................ 20
Figure 2. 12: Cartesian vector representation in three dimensions ........................................................... 20
Figure 2. 13: Direction angles ................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 2. 14: Addition and subtraction of cartesian vectors ..................................................................... 22
Figure 2. 15: Dot product .......................................................................................................................... 24
Figure 2. 16: Cross product ....................................................................................................................... 25
Figure 2. 17: The right hand rule .............................................................................................................. 25
Figure 2. 18: Moment of a force, F ........................................................................................................... 27
Figure 2. 19: Moment of a force inclined at an angle ............................................................................... 27
Figure 2. 20: Zero moment of a force ....................................................................................................... 28
Figure 2. 21: Moment of a force vector (a) ............................................................................................... 31
Figure 2. 22: Moment of a force vector (b) .............................................................................................. 31
Figure 2. 23: Moment of a force vector (c) ............................................................................................... 32
Figure 2. 24: moment of a force vector (d) ............................................................................................... 33
Figure 2. 25: Couple ................................................................................................................................. 37
Figure 2. 26: Couple moment ................................................................................................................... 37

Figure 4. 1: Sample trusses ....................................................................................................................... 48

Figure 4. 2: Truss joints ............................................................................................................................ 49
Figure 4. 3: Loading regime of the members of truss ............................................................................... 49

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Figure 4. 4: Simple truss ........................................................................................................................... 50
Figure 4. 5: Zero-force members in trusses .............................................................................................. 58
Figure 4. 6: Truss after eliminating zero-force members ......................................................................... 58
Figure 4. 7: Zero-force members in truss.................................................................................................. 59
Figure 4. 8: Truss after eliminating zero-force members ......................................................................... 59
Figure 4. 9: Method of sectioning ............................................................................................................. 60
Figure 4. 10: Lead and lead angle of a screw ........................................................................................... 86
Figure 4. 11: Screw as an incline plane .................................................................................................... 86

Figure 5. 1: The effect of friction on two bodies in contact ..................................................................... 66

Figure 5. 2: Friction under dynamic condition ......................................................................................... 68
Figure 5. 3: Laws of friction ..................................................................................................................... 69
Figure 5. 4: Interrelationship between co-efficient of dynamic and static friction ................................... 70

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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. 1: Base and derived quantities and their units ....................................................... 6

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UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION AND FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

What is Mechanics
Mechanics is a branch of the physical sciences that is concerned with the state of rest or
motion of bodies that are subjected to the action of forces. It has three divisions:

i. mechanics of rigid bodies

ii. mechanics of deformable bodies
iii. mechanics of fluids

A rigid body can be considered as a combination of a large number of particles in which

all the particles remain at a fixed distance from one another, both before and after applying
a load. All bodies under consideration deform, except that the amount of deformation in
rigid bodies is highly infinitesimal that they are neglected. Rigid body mechanics is
subdivided into statics and dynamics. Whereas statics involves bodies at rest, dynamics
with bodies in motion. In mechanics of fluids, compressible (eg. Gases) and incompressible
fluids (eg. Liquids) are considered.

Fundamental Concepts
We shall discuss the basic concepts that will form the foundation of our study in
engineering mechanics. Four main quantities are used throughout mechanics. They
include: length, mass, time and force.

Time
Time is a succession of events. Although the principles of statics are time independent, this
quantity plays an important role in the study of dynamics. In order to define an event, it is
not sufficient to indicate its position in space. The basis unit of time is second according to
international system (SI).

Mass
It is the quantity of the matter contained in a body. This quantity of matter that the body
contains is used to compare the action of one body with that of another. This property
manifests itself as a gravitational attraction between two bodies and provides a measure of

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the resistance of matter to a change in velocity. It is basically measured in kg according to
the SI.

A particle has a mass, but a size that can be neglected. For example, the size of the earth
is insignificant compared to the size of its orbit, and therefore the earth can be modeled as
a particle when studying its orbital motion. When a body is idealized as a particle, the
principles of mechanics reduce to a rather simplified form since the geometry of the body
will not be involved in the analysis of the problem.

Figure 1. 1: Point force shown by the arrow

Length

It is used to locate the position of a point in space and thereby describe the size of a
physical system. Once a standard unit of length is defined, one can then use it to define
distances and geometric properties of a body as multiples of this unit.

On the other hand, space is the geometric environment in which the study of bodies occurs.
One can locate a point in space where an event occurs or an object lies respect to a reference
(predetermined point) by a set of linear and angular measurements. The reference point is
called the origin and set of measurements as coordinates. If coordinates involved are only
in mutually perpendicular directions, they are known as Cartesian coordinates. If the
coordinates involve angular position as well as distances, it is termed as polar coordinate
system.
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Force
Generally, a force is considered as a “push” or “pull” exerted by one body on another. This
interaction can occur when there is direct contact between the bodies, such as a person
pushing on a wall, or it can occur through a distance when the bodies are physically
separated. Examples of the latter type include gravitational, electrical, and magnetic forces.
In any case, a force is completely characterized by its magnitude, direction, and point of
application. Forces are either concentrated force in which the force is considered to be
acting at a point; or distributed force, in which the force is considered to be acting over an
area.

Fundamental Principles
Basic mechanics is driven by the following fundamental principles established by empirical
evidence.

i. Newton’s First Law

A body will continue to be at rest or be in uniform motion in a straight line (if it is
moving) unless it is acted upon by an external force.

Figure 1. 2: Newton's First Law of Motion

ii. Newton’s Second Law

The rate of change of momentum is directly proportional to the applied force and it
takes place in the direction of the force. It is algebraically represented as follows.
𝑣−𝑢
𝐹∝𝑚
𝑡

Figure 1. 3: Newton's Second Law of Motion

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iii. Newton’s Third Law
The forces of action and reaction between two particles have the same magnitude and
line of action with opposite sense.

Figure 1. 4: Newton's Third Law of Motion

iv. Newton’s Law of Gravitation

It states that any two particles of matter in the universe attract each other with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional
to the square of the distance between their centers.

Figure 1. 5: Newton's Law of gravitaiton

𝑚𝐴 𝑚𝐵
𝐹∝𝐺
𝑅2

A body of mass, m near the surface of the earth, which has a mass, M, and radius, R, then
the force of gravity will be equal to the gravitational attraction.
𝑀𝑚
𝑚𝑔 = 𝐺
𝑅2

𝐺𝑀
𝑔=
𝑅2

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Where G is a constant of proportionality called universal gravitational constant. The value
of G is 6.67384x10-11 m3/kg.s2.

v. The Parallelogram Law for the Addition of Forces:

This states that two forces acting on a particle may be replaced by a single force,
called their resultant, which resultant obtained by drawing the diagonal of the
parallelogram which has sides equal to the given forces.

Figure 1. 6: parallelogram law of vector addition

vi. The principle of transmissibility states that the conditions of equilibrium or of

motion of a rigid body will remain unchanged if a force acting at a given point of
the rigid body is replaced by a force of the same magnitude and same direction, but
acting at a different point, provided that the two forces have the same line of action.
All the loadings shown below are identical.

Figure 1. 7: Principle of transmissibility

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System of Units
The International System of units, abbreviated SI after the French “Système International
d’Unités,” is a modern version of the metric system which has received worldwide
recognition. They are grouped into Base and Derived units.

Base units are the fundamental units from which all derived units are obtained. Whereas
the derived units are obtained by a combination of two or more base units.

Table 1. 1: Base and derived quantities and their units

Base quantities and units Derived quantities and units
Quantity SI unit Symbol Quantity SI unit Symbol
Length meter m Force Newton N
Mass kilogram kg Work Joule J
Time second s Power Watt W
Electric current ampere A Electric Volt V
potential
Temperature kelvin K Electric charge Coulomb C
Luminous candela cd
intensity
Amount of mole mol
substance

Method of problem solution

i. Problem Statement: Includes given data, specification of what is to be
determined, and a figure showing all quantities involved.

ii. Free-Body Diagrams: Create separate diagrams for each of the bodies involved
with a clear indication of all forces acting on each body.

iii. Fundamental Principles: The six fundamental principles are applied to express the
conditions of rest or motion of each body. The rules of algebra are applied to solve
the equations for the unknown quantities.

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iv. Solution Check: Test for errors in reasoning by verifying that the units of the
computed results are correct,
- test for errors in computation by substituting given data and computed results into
previously unused equations based on the six principles,
- always apply experience and physical intuition to assess whether results seem
“reasonable”.

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UNIT 2: FORCES AND MOMENTS

Introduction
This chapter deals with the influence of forces on particles, resultant of multiple forces as
equilibrium of forces as well as moments of forces, all of which will be considered in both
two and three dimensions. This implies that the body under consideration, which is the
particle has a mass but its size and shape are negligible. Thus, all forces acting on such a
body are assumed to be acting at a point.
System of Forces
A system of forces involves a collection of multiple forces acting on an object
simultaneously either in a two- or three-dimensional plane. System of forces include
concurrent, coplanar, collinear, spatial, parallel. Whereas in concurrent forces the line of
action of the forces involved meet at a common point, coplanar forces lie in a common
plane. Conversely, collinear forces have the same line of action whereas the line of action
of parallel forces do not meet. Spatial forces lie in different planes.

Figure 2. 1: System of forces

Resultant of two forces

Two concurrent forces, say F1 and F2 of given magnitudes and directions acting on a
particle could be combined using the parallelogram law of vector addition as discussed

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earlier to form a resultant single force, FR with a magnitude and direction as shown in the
figure below.

Figure 2. 2: Resultant of two forces

Since the resultant FR has a magnitude and direction, then FR is a vector quantity. Other
vector quantities include displacement, velocity, acceleration, etc. scalar quantities on the
other hand have magnitude but no direction. Example is mass.

The analysis of these forces could also be done using trigonometry. That is; the sine rule
(also known as Lami’s theorem) and the cosine rule. Consider the triangle below. Let A,
B, and C be F1, F2 and FR respectively.

According to Lami’s theorem.

𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= =
sin 𝑎 sin 𝑏 sin 𝑐

According to the cosine rule,

𝐶 2 = 𝐴2 + 𝐵2 − 2𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝑐

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Resultant of multiple Concurrent and nonconcurrent forces
Several concurrent forces acting on a particle which all have their line of action passing
through the same point could also be added vectorially and replaced with a single resultant
as shown in the figure below.

Figure 2. 3: Resultant multiple concurrent forces

Figure 2. 4: Resultant of nonconcurrent force

Problem 2.1

The screw eye below is subjected to two forces F 1 and F2. Determine the magnitude and
direction of the resultant force.

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Solution:

The parallelogram is formed by drawing a line from the head of F1 that is parallel to F2,
and another line from the head of F2 that is parallel to F1. The resultant force FR extends
to where these lines intersect at point A. FR and the angle θ are the magnitude and
direction of the resultant.

𝐹𝑅 = √1002 + 1502 − 2(100)(150). 𝑐𝑜𝑠115

𝐹𝑅 =213 N

Using Lami’s theorem;

150 213
=
𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛115

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𝜃 = 39.8°

∅ = 𝜃 + 15 = 39.8 + 15 = 54.8°

Example 2.2

It is required that the resultant force acting on the eyebolt be directed along the positive x
axis and that F2 have a minimum magnitude. Determine this magnitude, the angle θ, of F2
and the corresponding resultant force.

Solution:

But since F2 has a minimum value with respect to F1, then it will be perpendicular to the
line of action of FR.

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Applying Lami’s theorem to the free body diagram above yields:

𝐹𝑅 = 400 N

𝐹2 = 693 N

𝜃 = 90°

Addition of a System of Coplanar forces

When a force is resolved into two components along the x and y axes, the components are
then called rectangular components. For analytical work we can represent these
components in one of two ways, using either scalar or Cartesian vector notation.

Scalar notation
The rectangular components of force F shown are found using the parallelogram law, so
that F = Fx + Fy. Because these components form a right triangle, they can be determined
from:

Figure 2. 5: Scalar vector notation A

Fx = F cos θ and Fy = F sin θ

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Instead of using the angle θ, however, the direction of F can also be defined using a small
“slope” triangle, as in the example shown below. Since this triangle and the larger shaded
triangle are similar, the proportional length of the sides gives:

Figure 2. 6: Scalar vector notation B

Here the y component is a negative scalar since Fy is directed along the negative y axis. It
is important to keep in mind that this positive and negative scalar notation is to be used
only for computational purposes, not for graphical representations in figures. Throughout
the book, the head of a vector arrow in any figure indicates the sense of the vector
graphically; algebraic signs are not used for this purpose. Thus, the vectors in notation A
and B are designated by using boldface (vector) notation. Whenever italic symbols are
written near vector arrows in figures, they indicate the magnitude of the vector, which is
always a positive quantity.

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Cartesian notation

It is also possible to represent the x and y components of a force in terms of Cartesian unit
vectors i and j. They are called unit vectors because they have a dimensionless magnitude
of 1, and so they can be used to designate the directions of the x and y axes, respectively.
Since the magnitude of each component of F is always a positive quantity, which is
represented by the (positive) scalars Fx and Fy, then we can express F as a Cartesian vector

Figure 2. 7: Cartesian vector notation of forces

Coplanar resultant of forces

We can use either of the two methods just described to determine the resultant of several
coplanar forces, i.e., forces that all lie in the same plane. To do this, each force is first
resolved into its x and y components, and then the respective components are added using
scalar algebra since they are collinear. The resultant force is then formed by adding the
resultant components using the parallelogram law. For example, consider the three
concurrent forces below in (a) which have x and y components shown in (b).

Figure 2. 8: Coplanar (a)

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 Figure 2. 9: Coplanar (b)

Using Cartesian vector notation, each force is first represented as a Cartesian vector, i.e.,

The resultant, FR is given as follows:

In using the scalar notation, then indicating the positive directions of components along
the x and y axes with symbolic arrows, we have:

We can represent the components of the resultant force of any number of coplanar forces
symbolically by the algebraic sum of the x and y components of all the forces, i.e.,

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 (𝐹𝑅 )𝑥 = ∑ 𝐹𝑥

(𝐹𝑅 )𝑦 = ∑ 𝐹𝑦

Once these components are determined, they may be sketched along the x and y axes with
their proper sense of direction, and the resultant force can be determined from vector
addition. From this sketch, the magnitude of FR is then found from the Pythagorean
theorem; that is,

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝑅 )𝑥 2 + (𝐹𝑅 )𝑦 2

Also, the angle θ, which specifies the direction of the resultant force, is determined from
trigonometry:
(𝐹𝑅 )𝑦
𝜃 = tan−1
(𝐹𝑅 )𝑥

Problem 2.3

The link below is subjected to two forces F1 and F2. Determine the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force.

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Solution:
+
(𝐹 ) = ∑ 𝐹𝑥 ; 600𝑐𝑜𝑠30 − 400𝑠𝑖𝑛45 = 236.8 𝑁
→ 𝑅 𝑥
+
(𝐹 ) = ∑ 𝐹𝑦 ; ; 600𝑠𝑖𝑛30 − 400𝑐𝑜𝑠45 = 582.8 𝑁
→ 𝑅 𝑦

𝐹𝑅 = √(𝐹𝑅 )𝑥 2 + (𝐹𝑅 )𝑦 2 = 𝐹𝑅 = √236.82 + 582.82

𝐹𝑅 = 629 N

(𝐹𝑅 )𝑦 582.8
𝜃 = tan−1 = tan−1
(𝐹𝑅 )𝑥 236.8

𝜃 = 67.9 °

Four forces act on bolt A as shown. Determine the resultant of the force on the bolt.

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Three dimensional components of forces
The operations of vector algebra, when applied to solving problems in three dimensions,
are greatly simplified if the vectors are first represented in Cartesian vector form. In this
section we will present a general method for doing this; then in the next section we will
use this method for finding the resultant force of a system of concurrent forces.

Figure 2. 10: Three-dimensional coordinate system

Rectangular vector components in three-dimension

A vector A may have one, two, or three rectangular components along the x, y, z coordinate
axes, depending on how the vector is oriented relative to the axes. In general, though, when
A is directed within the x, y, z frame, in the figure below, then by two successive
applications of the parallelogram law, we may resolve the vector into components as A =
A’ + Az and then A’ = Ax + Ay. Combining these equations, to eliminate A’, A is
represented by the vector sum of its three rectangular components.

𝑨 = 𝑨𝒙 + 𝑨𝒚 + 𝑨𝒛

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 Figure 2. 11: Rectangular vector representation in three dimension

The corresponding cartesian representation as shown in the figure below is:

𝑨 = 𝑨𝒙 𝒊 + 𝑨𝒚 𝒋 + 𝑨𝒛 𝒌

Figure 2. 12: Cartesian vector representation in three dimensions

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In both cases, the magnitude of A is represented as follows.

𝑨 = √𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

Coordinate direction angles

The direction of A is defined by the coordinate direction angles as shown in the figure
below.

Figure 2. 13: Direction angles

𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑨 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘
𝒖𝑨 = =
𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑨 𝑨

𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘
𝒖𝑨 =
√𝐴𝑥 2 + 𝐴𝑦 2 + 𝐴𝑧 2

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 𝐴𝑥 𝑖 + 𝐴𝑦 𝑗 + 𝐴𝑧 𝑘 = 𝑨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 + 𝑨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 + 𝑨𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾

𝐴𝑥
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 =
𝑨

𝐴𝑦
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛽 =
𝑨

𝐴𝑧
𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾 =
𝑨

𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛼 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛽 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝛾 = 1

Arithmetic operation of Cartesian vectors

Figure 2. 14: Addition and subtraction of cartesian vectors

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Problem 2.4

Express the force, F as Cartesian vectors.

Problem 2.5

Two forces act on the hook shown. Specify the magnitude of F2 and its coordinate direction
angles so that the resultant force FR acts along the positive y axis and has a magnitude of
800 N.

Problem 2.6
Consider the figure below.

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 i. Find for each of the forces.
ii. Find for each of the forces.
iii. Determine the resultant force.

Vector dot product and cross product

The dot product of a vector is a scalar.

Figure 2. 15: Dot product

All axes are perpendicular to each other and the angle between any two of them is 90°.
i.j = /i/./j/.cos (90)

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 i.j = 0

i.j = i.k = j.k = 0

i.i = j.j = k.k =1

The cross product of a vector remains a vector.

Figure 2. 16: Cross product

All the axes are perpendicular to each other and the angle between an axis and itself is 0.
ixi = /i/./i/.sin (0)

i.i = 0

i.i = j.j = k.k = 0

i.j = i.k = j.k = 1

Figure 2. 17: The right-hand rule

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Problem 2.7
Given that: A = 3i – j + 5k, and B = 4i + 2j – k. Find:
i. A.B
ii. AxB

Solution:
i. A.B = 5
𝑖 −𝑗 𝑘
ii. AxB = [3 −1 5]
4 2 −1
AxB = (1-10)i – (-3-20)j + (6 - -4)k
AxB = -9i + 23j +10k

Moments and couple

When a force is applied to a body it will produce a tendency for the body to rotate about a
point that is not on the line of action of the force. This tendency to rotate is sometimes
called a torque, but most often it is called the moment of a force or simply the moment.
For example, consider a wrench used to unscrew the bolt below.

26 | P a g e
 Figure 2. 18: Moment of a force, F

If a force is applied to the handle of the wrench it will tend to turn the bolt about point O
(or the z axis). The magnitude of the moment is directly proportional to the magnitude of
F and the perpendicular distance or moment arm d. The larger the force or the longer the
moment arm, the greater the moment or turning effect. Note that if the force F is applied
at an angle, θ as shown below, then it will be more difficult to turn the bolt since the
moment arm d = d sin θ will be smaller than d.

Figure 2. 19: Moment of a force inclined at an angle

27 | P a g e
If F is applied along the wrench, its moment arm will be zero since the line of action of F
will intersect point O (the z axis). As a result, the moment of F about O is also zero and no
turning can occur.

Figure 2. 20: Zero moment of a force

Problem 2.8

For each case illustrated below, determine the moment of the force about point O.

28 | P a g e
Solution:

a. MO = (100 N)(2 m) = 200 Nm

b. MO = (50 N)(0.75 m) = 37.5 Nm

c. MO = (40 lb)(4 ft + 2 cos 30 ft) = 229 lb.ft

d. MO = (60 lb)(1 sin 45 ft) = 42.4 lb.ft

e. MO = (7 kN)(4 m - 1 m) = 21.0 kNm

29 | P a g e
Problem 2.9

Determine the resultant moment of the four forces acting on the rod shown below about
point O.

Solution:

Assuming that positive moments act in the +k direction, i.e., counterclockwise, we have a
(MR)O= ∑Fd;

(MR)O = -50 N(2 m) + 60 N(0) + 20 N(3 sin 30 m) - 40 N(4 m + 3 cos 30 m)

(MR)O = -334 N m = 334 Nm

Moment of a force vector

The moment of a force F about point O, or actually about the moment axis passing
through O and perpendicular to the plane containing O and F, can be expressed using the
vector cross product.

30 | P a g e
 Figure 2. 21: Moment of a force vector (a)
MO = r x F

Here r represents a position vector directed from O to any point on the line of action of F.
We will now show that indeed the moment MO, when determined by this cross product,
has the proper magnitude and direction.

The magnitude of the cross product is defined as MO = rF sin θ, where the angle θ is
measured between the tails of r and F. To establish this angle, r must be treated as a sliding
vector so that θ can be constructed properly. Since the moment arm d = r sin θ, then:

Figure 2. 22: Moment of a force vector (b)

31 | P a g e
The cross-product operation is often used in three dimensions since the perpendicular
distance or moment arm from point O to the line of action of the force is not needed. In
other words, we can use any position vector r measured from point O to any point on the
line of action of the force F.

Figure 2. 23: Moment of a force vector (c)

Since F can be applied at any point along its line of action and still create this same
moment about point O, then F can be considered a sliding vector. This property is called
the principle of transmissibility of a force.

Also, a Cartesian vector representation of moment as shown in the figure below is:

32 | P a g e
 Figure 2. 24: moment of a force vector (d)

Problem 2.10

Determine the moment produced by the force F in the figure below about point O.
Express the result as a Cartesian vector.

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Problem 2.11

Two forces act on the rod shown below. Determine the resultant moment they create
about the flange at O. Express the result as a Cartesian vector.

Solution:

Position vectors are directed from point O to each force.

34 | P a g e
rA = {5j} ft

rB = {4i + 5j - 2k} ft

The resultant moment about O is therefore

Varignon’s Theorem

This theorem states that the moment about a given point O of the resultant of several
concurrent forces is equal to the sum of the moments of the various moments about the
same point O. Thus the theorem makes it possible to replace the direct determination of the
moment of a force F by the moments of two or more component forces of F.

Problem 2.12

The rectangular plate is supported by the brackets at A and B and by a wire CD. Knowing
that the tension in the wire is 200 N, determine the moment about A of the force exerted
by the wire at C.

35 | P a g e
Solution:

The moment MA of the force F exerted by the wire is obtained by evaluating the vector
product,
  
M A = rC A F

36 | P a g e
Couple

A couple is defined as two parallel forces that have the same magnitude, but opposite
directions, and are separated by a perpendicular distance d.

Figure 2. 25: Couple

Since the resultant force is zero, the only effect of a couple is to produce an actual rotation,
or if no movement is possible, there is a tendency of rotation in a specified direction. For
example, imagine that you are driving a car with both hands on the steering wheel and you
are making a turn. One hand will push up on the wheel while the other hand pulls down,
which causes the steering wheel to rotate. The moment produced by a couple is called a
couple moment. We can determine its value by finding the sum of the moments of both
couple forces about any arbitrary point. For example, in the figure below, position vectors
rA and rB are directed from point O to points A and B lying on the line of action of -F and
F.

Figure 2. 26: Couple moment

37 | P a g e
The couple moment determined about O is therefore:

This result indicates that a couple moment is a free vector, i.e., it can act at any point since
M depends only upon the position vector r directed between the forces and not the position
vectors rA and rB, directed from the arbitrary point O to the forces. This concept is unlike
the moment of a force, which requires a definite point (or axis) about which moments are
determined.

Problem 2.13

Determine the couple moment acting on the pipe shown below. Segment AB is directed
30° below the x–y plane.

Solution:

The moment of the two couple forces can be found about any point. If point O is
considered,

38 | P a g e
 OR

It is easier to take moments of the couple forces about a point lying on the line of action of
one of the forces, e.g., point A. In this case the moment of the force at A is zero, so that:

Example 2.14

Three cables are attached to the bracket as shown. Replace the forces with an equivalent
force-couple system at A.

Solution:

i. Determine the relative position vectors for the points of application of the cable
forces with respect to A.

39 | P a g e
 ii. Resolve the forces into rectangular components.
iii. Compute the equivalent force,
 
R = F

Compute the equivalent couple

R  
M A =  (r  F )
• Determine the relative position vectors with respect to A.
  
rB A = 0.075 i + 0.050k (m )
  
rC A = 0.075 i − 0.050k (m )
  
rD A = 0.100 i − 0.100 j (m )

• Resolve the forces into rectangular components.

 
FB = (700 N )
   
 rE B 75 i − 150 j + 50k
 = =
rE B 175
  
= 0.429 i − 0.857 j + 0.289k
   
FB = 300 i − 600 j + 200k ( N )

  
FC = (1000 N )(cos 45 i − cos 45 j )
 
= 707 i − 707 j (N )

  
FD = (1200 N )(cos 60 i + cos 30 j )
 
= 600 i + 1039 j (N )

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  
R = F

= (300 + 707 + 600) i

+ (− 600 + 1039) j

+ (200 − 707)k
   
R = 1607i + 439 j − 507k ( N )

• Compute the equivalent couple,

   
M AR = 30 i + 17.68 j + 118.9k

41 | P a g e
UNIT 3: EQUILIBRIUM OF PARTICLES AND RIGID BODIES

Introduction
A particle is said to be in equilibrium when the resultant of all forces acting on a particle
is constant. It is recalled from Newton’s First Law that if the resultant force on a particle
is zero, the particle will remain at rest or will continue at constant speed in a straight line.
In this section, we will develop both the necessary and sufficient conditions for the
equilibrium of a rigid body, which is subjected to an external force or forces.
For a particle held in equilibrium by three or more forces, the algebraic vector sum of all
forces equals zero as expressed by equation.
 
R = F = 0
 Fx = 0  Fy = 0
Also, the resultant moment due to the forces acting on the body is constant.

Free Body Diagrams

Successful application of the equations of equilibrium requires a complete specification of
all the known and unknown external forces that act on the body. The best way to account
for these forces is to draw a free-body diagram. This diagram is a sketch of the outlined
shape of the body as shown in the figure below, which represents it as being isolated or
“free” from its surroundings, i.e., a “free body.” On this sketch it is necessary to show all
the forces and couple moments that the surroundings exert on the body so that these effects
can be accounted for when the equations of equilibrium are applied. A thorough
understanding of how to draw a free-body diagram is of primary importance for solving
problems in mechanics.

42 | P a g e
The body may rest on supports or joints, which must all be shown together with their
direction of influence. The supports commonly used in mechanics are:

i. Roller joints
ii. Pin or hinge joints
iii. Cantilever joints

Pin/hinge/
fixed joint Roller joint Cantilever

Problem 3.1

Draw the free-body diagram of the uniform beam shown below. The beam has a mass of
100 kg.

Solution:

43 | P a g e
Problem 3.2

Draw the free-body diagram of the foot lever shown below. The operator applies a vertical
force to the pedal so that the spring is stretched 1.5 in. and the force on the link at B is 20
lb.

Solution:

44 | P a g e
Problem 3.3

The uniform smooth rod shown below is subjected to a force and couple moment. If the
rod is supported at A by a smooth wall and at B and C either at the top or bottom by rollers,
determine the reactions at these supports. Neglect the weight of the rod.

Problem 3.4

Determine the support reactions on the member in the figure below. The collar at A is fixed
to the member and can slide vertically along the vertical shaft.

45 | P a g e
Problem 3.5

Determine the magnitude of force at the pin A and in the cable, BC needed to support the
500-lb load. Neglect the weight of the boom AB.

Problem 3.6

Knowing that α = 20°, determine the tension (a) in cable AC, (b) in rope BC.

46 | P a g e
Problem 3.7

A fixed crane has a mass of 1000 kg and is used to lift a 2400-kg crate. It is held in place
by a pin at A and a rocker at B. The center of gravity of the crane is located at G. Determine
the components of the reactions at A and B.

47 | P a g e
UNIT 4: STRUCTURES

Introduction
A simple structure is composed solely of two-force members. Equilibrium equations are
used to determine forces and moments acting on statically determinate structures and
machines. A machine is composed of multi-force members. The method of joints and the
method of sectioning are commonly used in their analysis.

Trusses
A truss is a structure composed of slender members joined together at their end points. The
members commonly used in construction consist of wooden struts or metal bars. In
particular, planar trusses lie in a single plane and are often used to support roofs and
bridges Two-dimensional plane trusses carry loads acting in their planes and are often
connected to form three-dimensional space trusses.

Figure 4. 1: Sample trusses

In the case of a bridge, the load on the deck is first transmitted to stringers, then to floor
beams, and finally to the joints of the two supporting side trusses. Like the roof truss, the
bridge truss loading is also coplanar.

The following assumptions are made in the analysis of trusses.

i. All loadings are applied at the joints

ii. The members are joined together by smooth pins.

48 | P a g e
 Figure 4. 2: Truss joints

Figure 4. 3: Loading regime of the members of truss

Because of these two assumptions, each truss member will act as a two-force member, and
therefore the force acting at each end of the member will be directed along the axis of the
member. If the force tends to elongate the member, it is a tensile force (T), Fig (a) above;
whereas if it tends to shorten the member, it is a compressive force (C), Fig. (b). In the
actual design of a truss, it is important to state whether the nature of the force is tensile or
compressive. Often, compression members must be made thicker than tension members
because of the buckling or column effect that occurs when a member is in compression.

49 | P a g e
Simple truss

Figure 4. 4: Simple truss

Analysis of trusses
i. Method of joints
ii. Method sectioning

Method of joints

In order to analyze or design a truss, it is necessary to determine the force in each of its
members. One way to do this is to use the method of joints. This method is based on the
fact that if the entire truss is in equilibrium, then each of its joints is also in equilibrium.
Therefore, if the free-body diagram of each joint is drawn, the force equilibrium equations
can then be used to obtain the member forces acting on each joint. Since the members of a
plane truss are straight two-force members lying in a single plane, each joint is subjected
to a force system that is coplanar and concurrent. As a result, only ∑Fx = 0 and ∑Fy = 0
need to be satisfied for equilibrium. Consider the steps below.

i. Draw the free body diagram of the entire truss

ii. Determine the reaction forces
iii. Pick any arbitrary joint with only one or two unknown forces.
iv. Draw its free body diagram and write its equilibrium equations.
v. Draw the free body diagram of the other joints and repeat step four for all until the
loads in each member is determined.

50 | P a g e
Problem 4.1

Determine the force in each member of the truss shown below and indicate whether the
members are in tension or compression.

Solution:

Since we should have no more than two unknown forces at the joint and at least one known
force acting there, we will begin our analysis at joint B.

Joint B. The free-body diagram of the joint at B is drawn. Applying the equations of
equilibrium, we have:

Since the force in member BC has been calculated, we can proceed to analyze joint C to
determine the force in member CA and the support reaction at the rocker.

Joint C. From the free-body diagram of joint C, we have:

51 | P a g e
Joint A. Although it is not necessary, we can determine the components of the support
reactions at joint A using the results of FCA and FBA.

52 | P a g e
Problem 4.2

Determine the forces acting in all the members of the truss shown below.

Solution:

By inspection, there are more than two unknowns at each joint. Consequently, the support
reactions on the truss must first be determined. Show that they have been correctly
calculated on the free-body diagram below.

We can now begin the analysis at joint C.

53 | P a g e
Problem 4.3

Determine the force in each member of the truss shown below. Indicate whether the
members are in tension or compression.

54 | P a g e
Solution:

No joint can be analyzed until the support reactions are determined, because each joint
has at least three unknown forces acting on it. A free-body diagram of the entire truss is
given below.

Applying equilibrium equations, we have:

The analysis can now start at either joint A or C. The choice is arbitrary since there are
one known and two unknown member forces acting on the pin at each of these joints.

55 | P a g e
56 | P a g e
Zero force members
Truss analysis using the method of joints is greatly simplified if we can first identify
those members which support no loading. These zero-force members are used to increase
the stability of the truss during construction and to provide added support if the loading is
changed. The zero-force members of a truss can generally be found by inspection of each
of the joints. For example, consider the truss shown below. If a free-body diagram of the
pin at joint A is drawn, it is seen that members AB and AF are zero-force members. (We
could not have come to this conclusion if we had considered the free-body diagrams of
joints F or B simply because there are five unknowns at each of these joints.) In a similar
manner, consider the free-body diagram of joint D. Here again it is seen that DC and DE
are zero-force members. From these observations, we can conclude that if only two non-
collinear members form a truss joint and no external load or support reaction is applied
to the joint, the two members must be zero-force members. The load on the truss in is
therefore supported by only five members as shown below.

57 | P a g e
 Figure 4. 5: Zero-force members in trusses

Figure 4. 6: Truss after eliminating zero-force members

Now consider the truss shown below and the free-body diagram of the pin at joint D. By
orienting the y axis along members DC and DE and the x axis along member DA, it is seen
that DA is a zero-force member. Note that this is also the case for member CA. In general,
then, if three members form a truss joint for which two of the members are collinear, the
third member is a zero-force member provided no external force or support reaction has a
58 | P a g e
component that acts along this member. The truss shown below is therefore suitable for
supporting the load P.

Figure 4. 7: Zero-force members in truss

Figure 4. 8: Truss after eliminating zero-force members

59 | P a g e
Method of Sections
The method of sections is useful when only a few forces in truss members need to be
determined regardless of the size and complexity of the entire truss structure. This method
employs any section of the truss as a free body in equilibrium. The chosen section may
have any number of joints and members in it, but the number of unknown forces should
not exceed three in most cases. Only three equations of equilibrium can be written for each
section of a plane truss. The following procedure is recommended.
1. Determine the support reactions if the section used in the analysis includes the joints
supported.
2. 2. Section the truss by making an imaginary cut through the members of interest;
preferably through only three members in which the forces are unknowns. Indicate
either tensile or compressive forces on the sectioned members. The cut need not be
a straight line. The sectioning is illustrated by lines l-l, m-m, and n-n in figure 4.2.
3. Write equations of equilibrium. Choose a convenient point of reference for moments
to simplify calculations such as the point of intersection of the lines of action for two
or more of the unknown forces. If two unknown forces are parallel, sum the forces
perpendicular to their lines of action.
4. Solve the equations. If necessary, use more than one cut in the vicinity of interest to
allow writing more equilibrium equations. Positive answers indicate assumed
directions of unknown forces were correct, and vice versa.

Figure 4. 9: Method of sectioning

60 | P a g e
Problem 4.4
In the truss shown find the forces in EF, BE and CB and state whether they are in tension
or compression.

Solution:
Create a section k-k through the members CB, BE, EF to obtain two statically equivalent
diagrams. We choose figure (a) for the rest of the analysis because it has no unknown
external reactions.

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∑ Fx = 0; 10 + 5 − FBE cos45 = 0

∑ Fy = 0; −FBC − FEF − FBE sin45 − 5 = 0

+↺ ∑ ME = 0; FBC (4) − 5(4) = 0

𝐅𝐁𝐂 = 5kN (Tension)

𝐅𝐁𝐄 = 21.21kN (Tension)

𝐅𝐄𝐅 = −25kN(Compression)

Practice Problems
Problem 4.1
Using the method of joints, determine the force in each member of the truss shown. State
whether each member is in tension (T) or compression (C).
(a) (b)

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 (c) (a) (d)

(e)
Problem 4.2
Find the tension/compression in members CE, DF.

63 | P a g e
Problem 4.3
Determine the tensions/compressions in members EG, BD and DG for the bridge truss
shown below. The method of sections is recommended

Problem 4.4
Determine the forces in members EF and GI in the truss shown below.

64 | P a g e
UNIT5: FRICTION

Introduction
In the equilibrium problems that we have analyzed in the preceding sections, the surfaces
of contact have been frictionless. The reactive forces were, therefore, normal to the contact
surfaces. The concept of a frictionless surface is, of course, an idealization. For all real
surfaces in contact there exist a frictional force which acts tangential to the surface of
contact whenever they slide relative to one another, or when sliding tends to occur. This
force always acts in a sense that opposes the direction of possible sliding motion, and its
magnitude depends on the normal force pressing the bodies together and, on the material,
and condition of the contacting surfaces

In many situations, friction forces are helpful. For example, friction enables you to walk
without slipping, it holds nails and screws in place, and it allows transmission of
mechanical power by means of clutches and belts. On the other hand, friction can also be
detrimental: It causes wear in machinery and reduces efficiency in the transmission of
power by converting mechanical energy into heat. Dry friction refers to the friction force
that exists between two unlubricated solid surfaces.
Fluid friction acts between moving surfaces that are separated by a layer of fluid. The
friction in a lubricated journal bearing is classified as fluid friction, because the two halves
of the bearing are not in direct contact but are separated by a thin layer of liquid lubricant.
In this chapter, we consider only dry friction. A study of fluid friction involves
hydrodynamics, which is beyond the scope of this text.

Theory of dry friction

Dry friction is a complex phenomenon that is yet to be completely understood.
A highly simplified theory, known as Coulomb’s theory of dry friction, has been found to
give satisfactory results in many practical problems.

Coulomb’s theory is best explained by considering two bodies that are in contact with each
other, as shown in the figure below. The plane of contact shown in the figure below and its
subsequent removal to separate the two bodies in contact respectively indicates the
following.

65 | P a g e
 Figure 5. 1: The effect of friction on two bodies in contact

i. The contact plane is tangent to both bodies at the point of contact.

ii. The removal of the contact plane and separation of the two bodies in contact displays
the free-body diagrams of the bodies.
Where:
N is the normal contact force
F is the friction force.

The force N is perpendicular to the plane of contact, whereas F lies in the plane of contact.
Coulomb’s theory consists of several postulates that are explained in the following.

Conditions of friction
When two bodies are in contact, there exist three conditions or states of the bodies occur.
66 | P a g e
 i. Equilibrium or static condition
ii. Impending motion
iii. Motion or dynamic condition

a. Equilibrium or Static condition

Coulomb proposed the following law: If there is no relative motion between two surfaces
in contact, the normal force N and the friction force F satisfy the following relationship;
𝑭𝒔 ≤ 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝒔 𝑵

Where 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum static friction force that can exist between the contacting
surfaces and μs is known as the coefficient of static friction.
The coefficient of static friction is an experimental constant that depends on the
composition and roughness of the contacting surfaces.

b. Impending sliding condition

Consider the equilibrium condition in which the friction force equals its limiting value; that
is,
𝑭𝒔 = 𝑭𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝒔 𝑵

For this condition, the surfaces are on the verge of sliding, a condition known as impending
sliding. When sliding impends, the surfaces are at rest relative to each other. However, any
change that would require an increase in the friction force would cause sliding. The
direction for Fmax can be determined from the observation that Fmax always opposes
impending sliding.

67 | P a g e
c. Dynamic condition
If the two contact surfaces are sliding relative to each other, the friction force F is
postulated to be:
𝑭 = 𝑭𝒌 = 𝝁𝒌 𝑵

Where N is the contact normal force; μk is an experimental constant called the coefficient
of kinetic friction; and Fk is referred to as the kinetic or dynamic friction force. For the same
pair of surfaces, the coefficient of kinetic friction is usually smaller than its static
counterpart. As in the static case, Fk always opposes sliding.

Figure 5. 2: Friction under dynamic condition

NB:

When applying Coulomb’s theory, the difference between Fmax and Fk must be clearly
understood:

i. Fmax is the maximum friction force that can exist under static conditions
ii. Fk is the friction force that does exist during sliding.

68 | P a g e
Laws of dry friction
To illustrate Coulomb’s laws of friction, consider the situation the following instant. The
block of weight W is assumed to be at rest on a horizontal surface when it is not subjected
to the horizontal force in the first instant, and in the second instant when it is subjected to
the horizontal force P. (We limit our attention here to sliding motion; the possibility that
the block may tip about its corner is considered later).

Figure 5. 3: Laws of friction

Because the friction force F resists the tendency of the block to slide, F is directed opposite
to P. We now examine the variation of F with P as the latter increases slowly from zero. If
P is relatively small, the block will remain at rest, and the force equations of equilibrium,
yield F = P and N =W. Therefore, as long as the block remains at rest, the friction force F
equals the applied force P.
The figure below is a graphical representation that illustrates the interrelationship between
P, F, Fs and Fk.

69 | P a g e
 Figure 5. 4: Interrelationship between co-efficient of dynamic and static friction
Limitations of the theory
i. Tabulated values for the coefficients of friction should be treated as approximate
values because there is no theoretical explanation that accurately describes friction
phenomena.
ii. The coefficients of friction may vary widely with environmental conditions, such as
humidity, the cleanliness of the surfaces, and so on.
iii. The theory of dry friction is applicable only to surfaces that are dry or that contain
only a small amount of lubricant.
iv. If there is relative motion between the surfaces of contact, the theory is valid for low
speeds only.

Features of dry friction

i. The frictional force acts tangent to the contacting surfaces in a direction opposed to
the motion or tendency for motion of one surface relative to another.
ii. The maximum static frictional force Fs that can be developed is independent of the
area of contact, provided the normal pressure is not very low nor great enough to
severely deform or crush the contacting surfaces of the bodies.
iii. The maximum static frictional force is generally greater than the kinetic frictional
force for any two surfaces of contact. However, if one of the bodies is moving with
a very low velocity over the surface of another, Fk becomes approximately equal to
Fs, i.e., 𝜇𝑠 ≈ 𝜇𝑘 .

70 | P a g e
iv. When slipping at the surface of contact is about to occur, the maximum static
frictional force is proportional to the normal force, such that 𝐹𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁.
v. When slipping at the surface of contact is occurring, the kinetic frictional force is
proportional to the normal force, such that 𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁.

Problem 5.1
The uniform 10-kg ladder below rests against the smooth wall at B, and the end A rests on
the rough horizontal plane for which the coefficient of static friction is 𝜇𝑠 = 0.3. Determine
the angle of inclination θ of the ladder and the normal reaction at B if the ladder is on the
verge of slipping.

Solution:
Since the ladder is on the verge of slipping, then

71 | P a g e
Problem 5.2
The man is trying to push the homogeneous 20-kg ladder AB up a wall by applying the
horizontal force P. Determine the smallest value of P that would move the ladder. The
coefficient of static friction between the ladder and both contact surfaces is 0.3.

Solution

For the problem described, the bar is in static equilibrium at a condition of impending
sliding motion.
Thus 𝐹 = 𝜇𝑁

72 | P a g e
Applying the equations of equilibrium
∑ Fx = 0; NB + FA − P = 0
NB + μNA − P = 0
NB + 0.3NA − P = 0 [1]

∑ Fy = 0; −FB + NA − W = 0
−μNB + NA − mg = 0
−0.3NB + NA − 20(9.81) = 0 [2]
∑ MA = 0; −NB (5) + FB (2) + W(1) + P(1.5) = 0
−NB (5) + 0.3NB (2) + (20 × 9.81)(1) + P(1.5) = 0 [3]
Solving simultaneously;

NA = 227.07 N; NB = 102.89 N; P = 171.01 N

Problem 5.3

Beam AB is subjected to a uniform load of 200 N/m and is supported at B by post BC. If
the coefficients of static friction at B and C are 𝜇𝐵 = 0.2 and 𝜇𝐶 = 0.5, determine the force

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P needed to pull the post out from under the beam. Neglect the weight of the members and
the thickness of the beam.

Solution:

Taking moments about point A, NB = 400 N

Two cases may be considered here.

Either slip occurs at end B and end C rotates, or otherwise.

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If slip occurs at B, and C rotates, then:

and

If slip occurs at C, and B rotates, then:

and

Solve for equation (4) and put it into equations (1) and (3).

This scenario occurs since it requires a smaller value of P.

Problem 5.4
The 100-N block in Fig. (a) is initially at rest on a horizontal plane. Determine the friction
force between the block and the surface after P was gradually increased from 0 to 30 N.

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Solution:
From the problem statement, impending motion is not specified. Furthermore, we do not
know if the block will even remain at rest in static equilibrium when P = 30 N.
Assume Equilibrium. Once we have assumed that the body remains at rest, the equilibrium
equations for the free-body diagram can be used to calculate the two unknowns
(N and F), as follows.

+↑ ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 ∶ 𝑁 − 100 = 0
𝑁 = 100 𝑁

+
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 ∶ 𝑃 − 𝐹 = 0
→
𝐹 = 𝑃 = 30 𝑁
Before we can accept this solution, the assumption of equilibrium must be checked.

Check
The maximum static friction force is
Fmax = μsN = 0.5(100) = 50 N
Because F < Fmax, we conclude that the block is in static equilibrium, and the correct
value of the friction force is F = 30 N

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Note that if the coefficient of static friction had been 0.25, instead of 0.5, the block would
not be in equilibrium. The 30-N friction force required for equilibrium would be greater
than𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0.25(100) = 25 𝑁; therefore, the friction force would be
𝐹 = 𝐹𝑘 = 𝜇𝑘 𝑁 = 0.2(100) = 20𝑁
thus the block would be sliding to the right.

Angles of Repose and angle of Friction

Angle of repose is the minimum angle that an inclined plane makes with the horizontal
when a body placed on it just begin to slide down. Or the value of the angle of inclination
corresponding to impending motion is called the angle of repose.

At that time, the angle between R (mgcosθ) and the normal, N will have reached its
maximum value ∅𝑠 .
Clearly, the angle of repose is equal to the angle of static friction ∅𝑠 . If the angle of
inclination 𝜃 is further increased, motion starts and the angle between R and the normal
drops to the lower value ∅𝑘 . The reaction R is not vertical any more, and the forces acting
on the block are unbalanced.

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Angle of friction is the angle which the resultant of the limiting friction and the normal
reaction makes with the normal reaction.

Under static condition:

F s μs N
tan∅s = =
N N
tan∅s = μs
∅s is called the angle of static friction

When motion is impending, then:

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under dynamic condition:

If motion actually takes place, the magnitude of the friction force drops to 𝐹𝑘 ; similarly,
the angle ∅ between R and N drops to a lower value ∅𝑘 , called the angle of kinetic friction.
F k μk N
tan∅k = =
N N
tan∅k = μk

Problem 5.5

A support block is acted upon by two forces as shown. Knowing that the coefficients of
friction between the block and the incline are 𝜇𝑠 = 0.35 and 𝜇𝑘 = 0.25, determine the
force P required (a) to start the block moving up the incline, (b) to keep it moving up, (c)
to prevent it from sliding down.

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Solution:

a. Force, P required to start moving the block upwards:

tan∅s = μs
∅s = tan−1 (μs )
∅s = tan−1 (0.35) = 19.29o

From the polygon of forces:

𝑃 = (800 N)tan 44.29° = 780 𝑁

OR:
𝐹 = 𝜇𝑠 𝑁

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 ∑ FH = 0; μs N + 800sin25 − Pcos25 = 0 [1]

∑ FV = 0; N − 800cos25 − Psin25 = 0 [2]

Solving the equations simultaneously:

N = 1054 𝑁; P = 780 𝑁

b. Force, P required to keep moving the block upwards:

tan∅𝑘 = μk
∅𝑘 = tan−1 (μk )
∅k = tan−1 (0.25) = 14.04o
𝑃 = 800tan (39.04𝑜 ) = 649 𝑁

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 OR:

∑ FH = 0; μk N + 800sin25 − Pcos25 = 0

∑ FN = 0; N − 800cos25 − Psin25 = 0
Solving the equations simultaneously yields:
N = 999𝑁; P = 649 N

c. Force P to Prevent Block from Sliding Down

∑ FH = 0; −μs N + 800sin25 − Pcos25 = 0

∑ FN = 0; N − 800cos25 − Psin25 = 0

Solving the equations simultaneously yields:

N = 759 𝑁; P =80 N

Wedges
A wedge is a simple machine that is often used to transform an applied force into much
larger forces, directed at approximately right angles to the applied force. Wedges also can
be used to slightly move or adjust heavy loads. Consider, for example, the wedge shown
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below which is used to lift the block by applying a force to the wedge. Free-body diagrams
of the block and wedge are all indicated below. Here we have excluded the weight of the
wedge since it is usually small compared to the weight W of the block. Also, note that the
frictional forces F1 and F2 must oppose the motion of the wedge. Likewise, the frictional
force F3 of the wall on the block must act downward so as to oppose the block’s upward
motion. The locations of the resultant normal forces are not important in the force analysis
since neither the block nor wedge will “tip.” Hence the moment equilibrium equations will
not be considered. There are seven unknowns, consisting of the applied force P, needed to
cause motion of the wedge, and six normal and frictional forces. The seven available
equations consist of four force equilibrium equations applied to the wedge and block, and
three frictional equations, F = μN, applied at each surface of contact.

If the block is to be lowered, then the frictional forces will all act in a sense opposite to that
shown in below. Provided the coefficient of friction is very small or the wedge angle u is
large, then the applied force P must act to the right to hold the block. Otherwise, P may
have a reverse sense of direction in order to pull on the wedge to remove it. If P is not
applied and friction forces hold the block in place, then the wedge is referred to as self-
locking.

Problem 5.6

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Solution:

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Screws
In most cases, screws are used as fasteners; however, in many types of machines they are
incorporated to transmit power or motion from one part of the machine to another. A
square-threaded screw is commonly used for the latter purpose, especially when large
forces are applied along its axis. In this section, we will analyze the forces acting on
square-threaded screws. The analysis of other types of screws, such as the V-thread, is
based on these same principles.

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For analysis, a square-threaded screw, can be considered a cylinder having an inclined
square ridge or thread wrapped around it. If we unwind the thread by one revolution, the
slope or the lead angle θ is determined from θ = tan-1(l/2πr). Here l and 2πr are the
vertical and horizontal distances between A and B, where r is the mean radius of the
thread. The distance l is called the lead of the screw and it is equivalent to the distance
the screw advances when it turns one revolution.

Figure 4. 10: Lead and lead angle of a screw

Figure 4. 11: Screw as an incline plane

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Lead of a screw should not be confused with its pitch. The lead was defined as the distance
through which the screw advances in one turn; the pitch is the distance measured between
two consecutive threads. While lead and pitch are equal in the case of single-threaded
screws, they are different in the case of multiple-threaded screws, i.e., screws having
several independent threads. It is easily verified that for double-threaded screws, the lead
is twice as large as the pitch; for triple-threaded screws, it is three times as large as the
pitch; etc.

Problem 5.7
A clamp is used to hold two pieces of wood together as shown. The clamp has a double
square thread of mean diameter equal to 10 mm with a pitch of 2 mm. The coefficient of
friction between threads is 𝜇𝑠 = 0.30. If a maximum couple of 40 𝑁. 𝑚 is applied in
tightening the clamp, determine
(a) The force exerted on the pieces of wood
(b) the couple required to loosen the clamp.

Solution

a. Force Exerted by Clamp.

The mean radius of the screw is 𝑟 = 5 𝑚𝑚 = 0.005 𝑚.
Since the screw is double-threaded, the lead L is equal to twice the pitch:
𝐿 = 2(2 𝑚𝑚) = 4 𝑚𝑚.
The lead angle 𝜃 and the friction angle∅𝑠 are obtained by writing:
𝐿 4
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = 𝜃 = 7. 3𝑜
2𝜋𝑟 10𝜋

𝑡𝑎𝑛∅𝑠 = 𝜇𝑠 = 0.3 ∅𝑠 = 16. 7𝑜

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 𝑄𝑟 = 𝑀
𝑄(0.005) = 40
𝑄 = 8 𝑘𝑁

𝑄 8 𝑘𝑁
𝑊= = = 17.97 𝑘𝑁
tan(𝜃 + ∅𝑠 ) 𝑡𝑎𝑛24𝑜
b. Couple Required to Loosen Clamp.
The force Q required to loosen the clamp and the corresponding couple are obtained
from the free-body diagram and force triangle shown

𝑄 = 𝑊 tan(∅𝑠 − 𝜃)
= (17.97 𝑘𝑁) tan 9.4 ° = 2.975 𝑘𝑁
𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑝𝑙𝑒 𝑀 = 𝑄𝑟 = (2.975 𝑘𝑁)(5 𝑚𝑚) = 2975(0.005) = 14.87 𝑁. 𝑚

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