Geometry Study Guide 1 Spring 2021

Parametrized Curves
Definition A parametrized differentiable curve is a differentiable map α : I → R3 of an open
interval I = (a, b) of the real line R into R3 .
Note that if α : I → R3 is given by α(t) = (x(t), y(t), z(t)) for t ∈ I, then α is a differentiable
curve if and only if x(t), y(t), z(t) are differentiable (or smooth) functions on I. If α : I → R3
is differentiable, the vector α0 (t) = (x0 (t), y 0 (t), z 0 (t)) is called the tangent vector (or velocity
vector) of the curve α at t.
Example The helix α(t) = (a cos t, a sin t, bt), t ∈ R, is a differentiable curve on the cylinder
x2 + y 2 = a2 . Note that α0 (t) = (−a sin t, a cos t, b) 6= (0, 0, 0), for all t ∈ R, i.e. the tangent
vector of α is not a zero vector for all t.
Example α(t) = (t3 , t2 ), t ∈ R is a differentiable plane curve. Note that α0 (0) = (0, 0), i.e. the
tangent vector is a zero vector at t = 0.
Definition A parametrized differentiable curve α : I → R3 is said to be regular if α0 (t) 6= 0 ∈ R3
for all t ∈ I.
Definition Let α : I → R3 , be a regular parametrized curve. Given t0 ∈ I, define the arc length
function of α from the point t0 by
Z t p
s(t) = |α0 (u)| du, where |α0 (u)| = (x0 (u))2 + (y 0 (u))2 + (z 0 (u))2 = length of α0 (u).
t0

Remarks
ds
1. Since = |α0 (t)| 6= 0 for all t ∈ I, s = s(t) has a differentiable inverse t = t(s) with
dt
dt 1
= .
ds ds/dt
ds
2. If the parameter t is already the arc length measured from some point, then = 1 = |α0 (t)|,
dt
i.e. the velocity vector has constant length equal to 1.
Conversely, if |α0 (t)| = 1 for all t, then
Z t
s= du = t − t0 ; i.e., t is the arc length of α measured from some point.
t0

3. To simplify our exposition, we shall restrict ourselves to curves parametrized by arc length;
we shall see later (see Sec. 1-5) that this restriction is not essential. In general, it is not
necessary to mention the origin of the arc length s, since most concepts are defined only in
terms of the derivatives of α(s).
4. It is convenient to set still another convention. Given the curve α parametrized by arc
length s ∈ (a, b), we may consider the curve β defined in (a, b) by β(s) = α(−(s − a) + b),
which has the same trace as the first one but is described in the opposite direction. We say,
then, that these two curves differ by a change of orientation.
The Vector Product in R3
Definition Two ordered bases e = {ei } and f = {fi }, i = 1, . . . , n, of an n-dimensional vector
space V have the same orientation if the matrix of change of basis has positive determinant. We
denote this relation by e ∼ f .
Geometry Study Guide 1 (Continued)

Remark From elementary properties of determinants, it follows that e ∼ f is an equivalence

relation; i.e., it satisfies

1. e ∼ e. [Since e = Ie and det I = 1 > 0, where I is the n × n identity matrix.]

1
2. If e ∼ f, then f ∼ e. [If f = Ae, then e = A−1 f and det A−1 = > 0.]
det A
3. If e ∼ f and f ∼ g, then e ∼ g. [If f = Ae and g = Bf, then g = BAe and det(BA) =
det B det A > 0.]

The set of all ordered bases of V is thus decomposed into equivalence classes (the elements of a
given class are related by ∼) which by property 3 are disjoint. Since the determinant of a change
of basis is either positive or negative, there are only two such classes.
Each of the equivalence classes determined by the above relation is called an orientation of V.
Therefore, V has two orientations, and if we fix one of them arbitrarily, the other one is called
the opposite orientation.
In the case V = R3 , there exists a natural ordered basis e1 = (1, 0, 0), e2 = (0, 1, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1),
and we shall call the orientation corresponding to this basis the positive orientation of R3 , the
other one being the negative orientation (of course, this applies equally well to any Rn ). We
also say that a given ordered basis of R3 is positive (or negative) if it belongs to the positive (or
negative) orientation of R3 . Thus, the ordered basis e1 , e3 , e2 is a negative basis, since the matrix
which changes this basis into e1 , e2 , e3 has determinant equal to −1.
3
X 3
X
3
Definition Let u, v ∈ R . The vector product of u = ui ei and v = vi ei (in that order) is
i=1 i=1
the unique vector u ∧ v ∈ R3 characterized by

u1 u2 u3 3
X
(u ∧ v) · w = det(u, v, w) = v1 v2 v3 for all w = wi ei ∈ R3 ,
w1 w2 w3 i=1

where |aij | denotes the determinant of the matrix (aij ). It is immediate from the definition that

u2 u3 u u u u
u∧v = e1 − 1 3 e2 + 1 2 e3 .
v2 v3 v1 v3 v1 v2

Remarks
(a) It is also very frequent to write u ∧ v as u × v and refer to it as the cross product.
The following properties can easily be checked (actually they just express the usual proper-
ties of determinants):
1. u ∧ v = −v ∧ u (anticommutativity).
2. u ∧ v depends linearly on u and v; i.e., for any real numbers a, b, we have

(au + bw) ∧ v = au ∧ v + bw ∧ v.

3. u ∧ v = 0 if and only if u and v are linearly dependent.

4. (u ∧ v) · u = 0 and (u ∧ v) · v = 0.
(b) • It follows from (a) property 4 that the vector product u∧v is normal to a plane generated
by u and v.

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Geometry Study Guide 1 (Continued)

• If u ∧ v 6= 0 ∈ R3 , then det(u, v, u ∧ v) = (u ∧ v) · (u ∧ v) = |u ∧ v|2 > 0. This implies

that {u, v, u ∧ v} is a positive basis.
• Since
e ·e e ·e
(ei ∧ ej ) · (ek ∧ e` ) = i k j k for all i, j, k, ` = 1, 2, 3,
ei · e` ej · e`
we have the foolowing identity
u·x v·x
(u ∧ v) · (x ∧ y) = for all u, v, x, y ∈ R3
u·y v·y
by observing that both sides are linear in u, v, x, y.
• It follows that
u·u v·u
|u ∧ v|2 = (u ∧ v) · (u ∧ v) = = |u|2 |v|2 (1 − cos2 θ)= A2 ,
u·v v·v
where θ is the angle of u and v, and A is the area of the parallelogram generated by u
and v.
Therefore, the vector product of u and v is a vector u ∧ v perpendicular to a plane spanned
by u and v, with a norm equal to the area of the parallelogram generated by u and v and a
direction such that {u, v, u ∧ v} is a positive basis.
(c) Since
(ei ∧ ej ) ∧ ek = (ei · ek )ej − (ej · ek )ei for all i, j, k = 1, 2, 3,
we have the following identity:
(u ∧ v) ∧ w = (u · w)v − (v · w)u,
by observing that both sides are linear in u, v, w. In particular, since
(e1 ∧ e2 ) ∧ e2 = (e1 · e2 )e2 − (e2 · e2 )e1 = −e1 6= 0 = e1 ∧ (e2 ∧ e2 ),
the vector product is not associative.
(d) Let u(t) = (u1 (t), u2 (t), u3 (t)) and v(t) = (v1 (t), v2 (t), v3 (t)) be differentiable maps from the
interval (a, b) to R3 , t ∈ (a, b). It follows that u(t) ∧ v(t) is also differentiable and that
d du dv
(u(t) ∧ v(t)) = ∧ v(t) + u(t) ∧ .
dt dt dt
The Local Theory of Curves Parametrized by Arc Length
Let α : I → R3 be a curve parametrized by arc length s, i.e. the tangent vector α0 (s) has unit
length for all s. Since α0 (s) · α00 (s) = 0, α00 (s) is perpendicular to the tangent when α00 (s) 6= 0
and the norm |α00 (s)| of the second derivative measures the rate of change of the angle which
neighboring tangents make with the tangent at s. |α00 (s)| gives, therefore, a measure of how
rapidly the curve pulls away from the tangent line at s, in a neighborhood of s. This suggests
the following definition.
Definition Let α : I → R3 be a curve parametrized by arc length s ∈ I. The number |α00 (s)| =
k(s) is called the curvature of α at s.
Example If α is a straight line, α(s) = us + v, where u and v are constant vectors with |u| = 1,
then k(s) = 0 for all s ∈ R. Conversely, if k(s) = |α00 (s)| = 0 for all s ∈ R, then by integration
α(s) = us + v, and the curve is a straight line.
Remarks

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Geometry Study Guide 1 (Continued)

• Notice that by a change of orientation, the tangent vector changes its direction; that is, if
β(s) = α(−(s − a) + b), then

β 0 (s) = −α0 (−(s − a) + b) and β 00 (s) = α00 (−(s − a) + b),

i.e., α00 (s) and the curvature remain invariant under a change of orientation.
• At points where k(s) 6= 0, a unit vector n(s) in the direction α00 (s) is well defined by the
equation α00 (s) = k(s)n(s). Moreover, α00 (s) is normal to α0 (s), because by differentiating
α0 (s) · α0 (s) = 1 we obtain α00 (s) · α0 (s) = 0. Thus, n(s) is normal to α0 (s) and is called
the (principal) normal vector at s. The plane determined by the unit tangent and normal
vectors, α0 (s) and n(s), is called the osculating plane at s.

In what follows, we shall restrict ourselves to curves parametrized by arc length without
singular points of order 1, i.e. α00 (s) 6= 0 for all s. We shall denote by t(s) = α0 (s) the unit
tangent vector of α at s. Thus, t0 (s) = k(s)n(s).
• The unit vector b(s) = t(s) ∧ n(s) normal to the osculating plane and will be called the
binormal vector at s. Since b(s) is a unit vector, the length |b0 (s)| measures the rate of
change of the neighboring osculating planes with the osculating plane at s; that is, |b0 (s)|
measures how rapidly the curve pulls away from the osculating plane at s, in a neighborhood
of s.

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Geometry Study Guide 1 (Continued)

To compute b0 (s) we observe that, on the one hand, b0 (s) is normal to b(s) and that, on the
other hand,
b0 (s) = t0 (s) ∧ n(s) + t(s) ∧ n0 (s) = t(s) ∧ n0 (s)
that is, b0 (s) is normal to t(s). It follows that b0 (s) is parallel to n(s), and we may write

b0 (s) = τ (s)n(s) for some function τ (s).

Definition Let α : I → R3 be a curve parametrized by arc length s such that α00 (s) 6= 0 for each
s ∈ I. The number τ (s) defined by b0 (s) = τ (s)n(s) is called the torsion of α at s.
Note that by changing orientation the binormal vector changes sign, since b(s) = t(s) ∧ n(s). It
follows that b0 (s), and, therefore, the torsion, remain invariant under a change of orientation.
Example If α is a plane curve (that is, α(I) is contained in a plane), then the plane of the curve
agrees with the osculating plane; hence, τ (s) = 0 for all s ∈ I.
Conversely, if τ (s) = 0 (and k(s) 6= 0) for each s ∈ I, we have b(s) = b0 = constant vector, and
therefore

(α(s) · b0 )0 = α0 (s) · b0 = 0 for all s ∈ I =⇒ α(s) · b0 = constant for all s ∈ I.

Hence, α(s) is contained in a plane normal to b0 . The condition that k(s) 6= 0 everywhere is
essential here. For example, consider the regular curve
2

2
(1, 0, 3 e−1/t ),
 2
(t, 0, e−1/t
), t > 0

 t>0

 
 t
t < 0 =⇒ α0 (t) = (1, 2 e−1/t2 , 0),
2
α(t) = (t, e−1/t , 0), t<0


(0, 0, 0), t=0


 t3
(1, 0, 0), t=0

Using the Sec. 1-5 Exercises 12, one can show that k(0) = 0 and the torsion τ ≡ 0 even though
α is not a plane curve.
Definition Let α : I → R3 be a curve parametrized by arc length s such that α00 (s) 6= 0 for
each s ∈ I. To each value of the parameter s, we have associated three orthogonal unit vectors
t(s), n(s), b(s), called the Frenet trihedron at s, determined by the Frenet formulas

t0 (s) = k(s) n(s),

n0 (s) = −k(s) t(s) − τ (s) b(s),
b0 (s) = τ (s) n(s).

Example If α : I → R3 is a curve parametrized by arc length s satisfying that α00 (s) 6= 0 for
α00 (s) α0 (s) ∧ α00 (s)
each s ∈ I, then t(s) = α0 (s), n(s) = 00 , b(s) =
|α (s)| |α00 (s)|
000 00 00 000
α (s) α (s)hα (s), α (s)i hα0 (s) ∧ α00 (s), α000 (s)i
and n0 (s) = 00 − =⇒ τ (s) = −hn 0
(s), b(s)i = − .
|α (s)| |α00 (s)|3 |α00 (s)|2
Example If α : I → R3 is a regular curve  parametrized by u and if s = s(u) is an arc length
d2 u hα0 (u), α00 (u)i

du 1 d du du
parameter, then = , = · =− , and
ds |α0 (u)| ds2 du ds  ds |α0 (u)|4
d2 α dα 00 du 2 0 d2 u 0 du |α0 (u) ∧ α00 (u)|
k(u) = ∧ = α (u) ( ) + α (u) 2 ∧ α (u) = ,
ds2 ds ds ds ds |α0 (u)|3

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Geometry Study Guide 1 (Continued)

du 3 0 00 000 du 3 00 du d2 u 0 d3 u
hα0 (s) ∧ α00 (s), α000 (s)i h( ) · α (u) ∧ α (u), α (u) ( ) + 3α (u) + α (u) 3 i
τ (s) = − = − ds ds ds ds2 ds
|α00 (s)|2 |α0 (u) ∧ α00 (u)|2 /|α0 (u)|6
hα0 (u) ∧ α00 (u), α000 (u)i
=− .
|α0 (u) ∧ α00 (u)|2
Remarks

• In this context, the points α(s) where α0 (s) = 0 are called a singular point of order 0 and
the points α(s) where α00 (s) = 0 are called singular points of order 1.
• If α : I → R3 is a curve parametrized by arc length s such that α00 (s) 6= 0 for each s ∈ I,
1 1
then R = = 00 is called the radius of curvature at s. Of course, one can easily
k(s) |α (s)|
show that a circle of radius r has radius of curvature equal to r.
• Physically, we can think of a curve in R3 as being obtained from a straight line by bending
(curvature) and twisting (torsion). After reflecting on this construction, we are led to
conjecture the following statement, which, roughly speaking, shows that k and τ describe
completely the local behavior of the curve.

Fundamental Theorem of The Local Theory of Curves Given differentiable functions

k(s) > 0 and τ (s), s ∈ I, there exists a regular parametrized curve α : I → R3 such that s is
the arc length, k(s) is the curvature, and τ (s) is the torsion of α. Moreover, any other curve ᾱ,
satisfying the same conditions, differs from α by a rigid motion; that is, there exists an orthogonal
linear map ρ of R3 , with positive determinant, and a vector c ∈ R3 such that ᾱ = ρ ◦ α + c.
Proof of Uniqueness Assume that two curves α = α(s) and ᾱ = ᾱ(s) satisfy the conditions
k(s) = k̄(s) and τ (s) = τ̄ (s), s ∈ I. Let t0 , n0 , b0 and t̄0 , n̄0 , b̄0 be the Frenet trihedrons at
s = s0 ∈ I of α and ᾱ, respectively. Clearly, there is a rigid motion which takes ᾱ(s0 ) into
α(s0 ) and t̄0 , n̄0 , b̄0 into t0 , n0 , b0 . Thus, after performing this rigid motion on ᾱ, we have that
ᾱ(s0 ) = α(s0 ).
By using the Frenet equations for both Frenet trihedrons t(s), n(s), b(s) and t̄(s), n̄(s), b̄(s) with
the conditions t(s0 ) = t̄(s0 ), n(s0 ) = n̄(s0 ), b(s0 ) = b̆(s0 ), we have

1 d
{|t(s) − t̄(s)|2 + |n(s) − n̄(s)|2 + |b(s) − b̄(s)|2 }
2 ds
= ht(s) − t̄(s), t0 (s) − t̄0 (s)i + hb(s) − b̄(s), b0 (s) − b̄0 (s)i + hn(s) − n̄(s), n0 (s) − n̄0 (s)i
= k(s)ht(s) − t̄(s), n(s) − n̄(s)i + τ (s)hb(s) − b̄(s), n(s) − n̄(s)i
−k(s)hn(s) − n̄(s), t(s) − t̄(s)i − τ (s)hn(s) − n̄(s), b(s) − b̄(s)i
= 0 for all s ∈ I

Thus, the above expression is constant, and, since it is zero for s = s0 , it is identically zero. It
follows that t(s) = t̄(s), n(s) = n̄(s), b(s) = b̄(s) for all s ∈ I. Since

dα dᾱ d(α − ᾱ)

(s) = t(s) = t̄(s) = (s) =⇒ (s) = 0 for all s ∈ I =⇒ α(s) = ᾱ(s) + a,
ds ds ds
where a is a constant vector. Since α(s0 ) = ᾱ(s0 ), we have a = 0; hence, α(s) = ᾱ(s) for all
s ∈ I.
The Local Canonical Form Let α : I → R3 be a curve parametrized by arc length without
singular points of order 1. We shall write the equations of the curve, in a neighborhood of s0 ,

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Geometry Study Guide 1 (Continued)

using the trihedron t(s0 ), n(s0 ), b(s0 ) as a basis for R3 . We may assume, without loss of generality,
that s0 = 0, and we shall consider the (finite) Taylor expansion
s2 00 s3 R(s)
α(s) = α(0) + sα0 (0) + α (0) + α000 (0) + R(s), where lim = 0.
2 6 s→0 s3

Since α0 (0) = t(0), α00 (0) = k(0) n(0) and

α000 (0) = (kn)0 (0) = k 0 (0) n(0) + k(0) n0 (0) = k 0 (0) n(0) − k 2 (0) t(0) − k(0)τ (0) b(0),

we obtain

s3 k 2 (0) s2 k(0) s3 k 0 (0) s3

   
α(s) − α(0) = s− t(0) + + n(0) − k(0)τ (0)b(0) + R(s).
3! 2 3! 3!

Let us now take the system Oxyz in such a way that the origin O agrees with α(0) and that
t(0) = (1, 0, 0), n(0) = (0, 1, 0), b(0) = (0, 0, 1). Under these conditions, the local canonical form
of α(s) = (x(s), y(s), z(s)), in a neighborhood of s = 0 is given by

s3 k 2 (0)
x(s) = s − + Rx ,
6
s2 k(0) s3 k 0 (0)
y(s) = + + Ry ,
2 6
s3 k(0)τ (0)
z(s) = − + Rz ,
6
where R(s) = (Rx , Ry , Rz ).

Example Using the local canonical form for ᾱ and α, we have

2ȳ(s) 2y(s)
k̄(0) = lim 2
≥ lim 2 = k(0).
s→0 s s→0 s

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Geometry Study Guide 1 (Continued)

y
ᾱ
α

(s, ȳ(s))
(s, y(s))
x
s

The Isoperimetric Inequality

This is perhaps the oldest global theorem in differential geometry and is related to the following
(isoperimetric) problem. Of all simple closed curves in the plane with a given length `, which
one bounds the largest area? In this form, the problem was known to the Greeks, who also knew
the solution, namely, the circle.
Definitions A closed plane curve is a regular parametrized plane curve α : [a, b] → R2 such that
α and all its derivatives agree at a and b; that is,

α(a) = α(b), α0 (a) = α0 (b), α00 (a) = α00 (b), . . .

The curve α is simple if it has no further self-intersections; that is, if t1 , t2 ∈ [a, b), t1 6= t2 , then
α(t1 ) 6= α(t2 ).
We usually consider the curve α : [0, `] → R2 parametrized by arc length s; hence, ` is the length
of α. Sometimes we refer to a simple closed curve C, meaning the trace of such an object.
We assume that a simple closed curve C in the plane bounds a region of this plane that is called
the interior of C. This is part of the so-called Jordan curve theorem, which does not hold, for
instance, for simple curves on a torus (the surface of a doughnut). Whenever we speak of the
area bounded by a simple closed curve C, we mean the area of the interior of C. We assume
further that the parameter of a simple closed curve can be so chosen that if one is going along
the curve in the direction of increasing parameters, then the interior of the curve remains to the
left. Such a curve will be called positively oriented.

The Isoperimetric Inequality Let C be a simple closed plane curve with length `, and let A
be the area of the region bounded by C. Then

`2 − 4πA ≥ 0, and equality holds if and only if C is a circle.

Proof Let E and E 0 be two parallel lines which do not meet the closed curve C, and move them
together until they first meet C. We thus obtain two parallel tangent lines to C, L and L0 , so that
the curve is entirely contained in the strip bounded by L and L0 . Consider a circle S 1 which is
tangent to both L and L0 and does not meet C. Let O be the center of S 1 and take a coordinate
system with origin at O and the x axis perpendicular to L and L0 . Parametrize C by arc length,
α(s) = (x(s), y(s)), so that it is positively oriented and the tangency points of L and L0 are s = 0
and s = s1 , respectively.

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Geometry Study Guide 1 (Continued)

We can assume that the equation of S 1 is

ᾱ(s) = (x̄(s), ȳ(s)) = (x(s), ȳ(s)), s ∈ [0, `].

Let 2r be the distance between L and L0 . By using the Green’s Theorem and denoting by Ā the
area bounded by S 1 , we have
Z ` Z `
0
A= 2
xy ds, Ā = πr = − ȳx0 ds.
0 0

Thus,
Z ` Z `p (∗)
2 0 0
A + πr = (xy − ȳx ) ds ≤ (xy 0 − ȳx0 )2 ds
0 0
(∗∗)
Z `p Z `p
≤ 2 2 0 2 0 2
(x + ȳ )((x ) + (y ) ) ds = (x̄2 + ȳ 2 ) ds
0 0
= `r,

where we used that the inner product of two vectors v1 and v2 satisfies

|(v1 · v2 )|2 ≤ |(v1 )|2 |(v2 )|2 .

We now notice the fact that the geometric mean of two positive numbers is smaller than or equal
to their arithmetic mean, and equality holds if and only if they are equal. lt follows that

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Geometry Study Guide 1 (Continued)

√ √ (†) 1 1
A πr2 ≤ (A + πr2 ) ≤ `r =⇒ 4πAr2 ≤ `2 r2 =⇒ 4πA ≤ `2 .
2 2
Suppose that the equality 4πA = `2 holds. Then equality must hold everywhere in (∗), (∗∗) and
(†).
From the equality in (†), we have A = πr2 , ` = 2πr and r does not depend on the choice of the
direction of L.
Furthermore, equality in (∗) and (∗∗) imply that

(x, ȳ) = λ(y 0 , −x0 )

that is, p
x ȳ ± x2 + ȳ 2
λ= 0 = =p = ±r.
y −x0 (y 0 )2 + (x0 )2

Thus, we obtain that x = ±ry 0 .

Since r does not depend on the choice of the direction of L, by using a counterclockwise rotation
of π/2 and a translation of xy coordinates (x̃, ỹ) = (y − y0 , −x − x0 ), we obtain

x̃ = ±rỹ 0 ⇐⇒ y − y0 = ∓rx0 .

Thus,
x2 + (y − y0 )2 = r2 ((x0 )2 + (y 0 )2 ) = r2
and C is a circle, as we wished.
Remarks

1. It is easily checked that the above proof can be applied to C 1 curves, that is, curves α(t) =
(x(t), y(t)), t ∈ [a, b], for which we require only that the functions x(t), y(t) have continuous
first derivatives (which, of course, agree at a and b if the curve is closed).
2. The isoperimetric inequality holds true for a wide class of curves. Direct proofs have been
found that work as long as we can define arc length and area for the curves under consider-
ation. For the applications, it is convenient to remark that the theorem holds for piecewise
C 1 curves, that is, continuous curves that are made up by a finite number of C 1 arcs. These
curves can have a finite number of corners, where the tangent is discontinuous.

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