ALYEGBA IORHUMBA ALEX

SPGS/EES/2023/2323
PAPER PRESENTATED WITH DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND REGIONAL PLANNING
FEDERAL UNIVERSITY DUSTIN-MA
GEO 815 APPLIED BIOGEOGRAPHY.
Topic: ISSUES AND DEVELOPMENT OF APPLIED BIOGEOGRAPHY
Abstract
The main aim of the paper is to provide issues and development in applied biogeography which is being
used widely in today world. The paper highlights the challenges such as Data limitations, agriculture,
spatial scales issues, integrated multidisciplinary knowledge, climate change, Bush burning,
ecology/ecosystem, conservation, predicting modelling uncertainty. The paper also stated the
advancements of applied biogeography as remote sensing and geospatial Techniques,big data and citizens
science, climate change adaptation strategies, biogeography modelling, spatial pirioritzation techniques,
ecosystems stability, noise pollution reduction, climate change mitigation.Recommendatio were made that
ecological approaches to biogeography and global spatial scales and pattern including techniques and
computer technology.
Keywords: Issues, ecology, techniques, agriculture, climate change, development, applied biogeography.

INTRODUCTION
Applied biogeography, the intersection of biology and geography, plays a pivotal role in

understanding and addressing complex ecological challenges in today’s world. From

conservation planning to ecosystem management and from climate change impacts to

biodiversity preservation, applied biogeography offers valuable insights and solutions.

However, this field is not without its share of challenges and areas for development. In

this article, we delve into the current issues and advancements in applied biogeography,

exploring both the obstacles faced and the promising pathways forward.

In addition biogeography has strong ties to biology, ecology, evolution studies, climatology and also soil

sciences.Biological invasions remain of the greatest threats to biodiversity and livelihoods, and are

predicted to increase to utimate change, globalization, agriculture, ecology (ecosystem stability),

conservation planning, modeling noise pollution toxicity, data limitation, spatial scales issues, integrated

multidisciplinary knowledge, predicting modelling uncertainty.

DISCUSSION

1.0 MEANING OF BIOGEOGRAPHY/ APPLIED BIOGEOGRAPHY

Biogeography is the distribution of species (biology) spatially (geography) and temporary (history).
Biogeography aims to revealed where organisms lives,at what abundance, and why they're (or are no)
found in a geographical area.Biogeography is a branch of geography that studies the present distribution
of the world's many species,it is usually considered to be a part of physical geography as it often relates to
the examination of the physical environment and how it affects species and shapes their distribution
across space,As such it studies the world's biomes and taxonomy_ the meaning of species.
Biogeography is also the study of the geographical distribution of living and fossil, plants and animals as a
ecological and evolutionary process.
Meaning of applied biogeography is management and conservation of biota, communities and
ecosystems.
1.0.0 ISSUES FACING APPLIED BIOGEOGRAPHY IN NIGERIA
We find it ironic that so much effort and so many resources are put into the exploration of outer space,at a
time when humans are progressively using resources to depletion and when so little is known about the
biological diversity of the earth. Why is there all this publicity about ancient life discovered on the planet
Mars when these are regions of the Earth where life has yet to be explored? Life at the extremes of
environmental conditions are to be found on the Earth. For example, studies of life at great depths in the
oceans has hardly begun.
Recently, an entire new kingdom of deep sea organisms, the Achaea,has been recognized.although
discovered some decades ago, genetic analysis has shown them to be quite unlike any other kind of life
(Earle, 199).
Plants and animals and other organisms are collectively known as biota or organisms. Aggregations of the
same kind of organisms are known as populatios, for example trout population,or oak tree population. A
population of a trout lives in a habitat; disturbing a high level of ecological succession/organisation in the
ecosystems.
1.1 Data Limitations
One of the fundamental challenges confronting applied biogeography is the scarcity and inconsistency of
data. Comprehensive and accurate data are essential for informing evidence-based decision-making in
conservation and land management efforts (Gaston, 2003). However, data collection can be resource-
intensive and logistically challenging, particularly in remote or inaccessible areas. Furthermore, existing
datasets often suffer from gaps in spatial and temporal coverage, hindering the ability to understand
ecological patterns and processes comprehensively.
Addressing these data limitations requires innovative approaches such as integrating data from multiple
sources, including remote sensing, citizen science, and ecological monitoring networks (Dickinson et al.,
2010; Pettorelli et al., 2014). Leveraging advances in technology and collaboration among researchers,
practitioners, and policymakers can facilitate the generation of robust datasets to support informed
decision-making in applied biogeography.

1.2 Agriculture: In order to grow and reproduce, all living things require matter and energy that they draw
from their environment. Like animals and fungi, many species feed on living matter (from prey, leaves, …)
or organic compounds synthesized by other organisms (e.g. nectar from flowers, for bees), which share its
habitat. But the activity of these so-called “heterotrophic” species would be impossible without the
presence at the base of the food web of so-called “autotrophic” organisms which, such as plants, algae,
cyanobacteria (photosynthetic) and chemobacteria, are able to synthesize organic molecules from mineral
compounds and energy, either light or chemicals.
Aggriculture cause as the challenge of increasing food production to keep pace with demand, while
retaining the essential ecological integrity of production systems, requires coordinated action among
science disciplines.
1.3 The annual primary production of an ecosystem is the biomass of autotrophic organisms produced
each year by that ecosystem. Its productivity is equal to the rate of biomass production, per unit area and
time. Located at the base of food webs, or ‘food chains’, this primary production conditions the global
production and functioning of ecosystems.

With the exception of the Nile Valley and a few other small desert regions, the conversion of “natural” or
“semi-natural” terrestrial habitats such as forests and marshes into pastures and cultivated fields results in
a net reduction in the biomass and plant productivity of the ecosystems concerned.
1.4 Spatial Scale Issues
Biogeographical processes operate at various spatial scales, from local ecosystems to global biomes.
Matching the scale of analysis with the scale of ecological phenomena presents a significant challenge in
applied biogeography (Levin, 1992). For instance, conservation strategies formulated at a regional scale
may not adequately address the needs of species or habitats at finer scales. Conversely, global-scale
initiatives may overlook the nuanced dynamics occurring within specific ecosystems.
Addressing spatial scale issues requires a hierarchical approach that considers ecological processes at
multiple scales (Margules & Pressey, 2000). Incorporating fine-scale data into broader spatial frameworks
and vice versa can enhance the effectiveness of conservation and management strategies. Additionally,
employing spatial prioritization techniques, such as reserve selection algorithms, can help identify areas of
high conservation value across different scales.
1.5 Integration of Multidisciplinary Knowledge
Applied biogeography draws upon diverse fields such as ecology, climatology, anthropology, and
economics. Integrating knowledge from these disciplines is essential for developing holistic approaches to
environmental challenges (Peterson et al., 2011). However, achieving interdisciplinary collaboration can be
challenging due to differences in terminologies, methodologies, and priorities among disciplines.
To foster interdisciplinary collaboration, initiatives such as interdisciplinary training programs, workshops,
and collaborative research projects are needed (Peterson et al., 2011). Creating platforms for knowledge
exchange and establishing common frameworks for interdisciplinary research can facilitate the integration
of diverse perspectives and expertise in applied biogeography.
1.6 An ecosystem stability:An ecosystem has no boundaries and characteristiced by cycles and flow's of
water, energy, minerals and physical components of the ecosystem. Ecosystems subdivide in three
categories; individual organisms, species etc; processes such as energy flow or ecological succession; and
properties such as fragility and condition.
Noise pollution is contaminated at the atmosphere,or of water,or of soil, to the material injury of the night
of individual. Environment noise pollution has been not an entirely new phenomenon, but rather has been
a problem that has grown steadily worse with time. This affect quality of life and so can be thought of as a
social cost such as physiological effects leading to deafness. In applied biogeography projection of
satellites in space is very important,is a new source of noise pollution. Satellites have been thrown into
space with the aid of high explosive rockets. Application and use of this rockets produce deafening noise at
the time of lifting off a satellite.
4.7 Climate change: climate change is the variation in global or regional climates over time. These
changes can be caused by processes internal to the earth, external forces. For example variations in
sunlight intensity or, more recently human activities. This change also affect plant succession because it
involves processes of colonization, establishment and extinction which act on the participating plant
species.
4.8 Bush burning enhanced desert encroachment and contribute to global warming through emissions of
pollutant gases, land degradation, loss of biodiversity and climate change. The ecosystem has the
tendency to support lives. As such any activities that could directly or indirectly affect the distribution and
composition of biodiversity is such environment. Varying environmental conditions are known to affect
biodiversity. For example, high atmospheric carbon dioxide and temperature, flooding, changes in
hydrological regimes, Sea rise could cause a shift in phenology of species and population structure and
composition, mortality, damage of behavioral response and loss of habitats. Hence, climate change could
be indirectly affecting population composition of wildlife.
4.9 Conservation: The anthropogenic activities has caused harm to the environment and to the
biographers in application method. Man has affected the dispersal, distribution, and redistribution of
plants and animals and vegetative propagation through the following methods;
a. Through his destructive activities (e.g deforestation for domestic agricultural and industrial purpose
forest force).
b.Through the discovery and development of new types of vegetation, and their establishment in suitable
habitat.
c. Through agricultural practices.
d. Through changes in the habitats, Man has created new habitat for his own benefits by changing and
modifying the local physical environment called hybrid habitats. For example, newly construction of
raods,dam and cultivation.
e. Through the removal of plants from their native places and their transportation in other areas.
f. Through fisheries,oil pilling etc. In conserving this is a case study for Applied biogeography.

1. 10 Predictive Modeling Uncertainties

Predictive modeling is a key tool in applied biogeography, enabling researchers to forecast ecological
patterns and processes. However, these models are subject to uncertainties arising from factors such as
incomplete data, simplifying assumptions, and unpredictable ecological dynamics (Araújo & Pearson,
2005). Addressing and quantifying these uncertainties is crucial for improving the reliability and
applicability of predictive models in decision-making contexts.
To enhance the robustness of predictive models, researchers can employ ensemble modeling approaches
that integrate multiple modeling techniques and account for uncertainties (Guisan & Zimmermann, 2000).
Additionally, conducting sensitivity analyses and validation exercises can help assess the reliability of
model predictions and identify areas for improvement.
2.0 DEVELOPMENT OF APPLIED BIOGEOGRAPHY IN NIGERIA
2.1 Biogeographic modelling
Applied Biogeography has had a very important role to play in the development of our
understanding of biology, for instance,it was biogeography that was the key to developing the
theory of the evolution of life.Today, not only does biogeographcal research have important
application in Nigeria and as well as on whole world of rapidly increasing in human population
densities and domination resources,it has crusial application's for conservation and
sustainable use of many levels of biological diversity.If we are to make the best use of limited
resources for consumer actions we must know much more about the geography and ecological
of the many kinds of biological diversity, some questions in biogeography may seem rather
academic.For example why are certain species and certain groups of organisms found in
certain localities no where else? What has caused these patterns on a world scale?,why is it
that for many groups of organisms there are fewer and fewer species in the north and in the
south compared to the tropical regions?Why is it that in some of regions there are few species
but the abundance of some individual species is very high?, Answer to those questions help us
to understand the processes and interactions that have resulted in present distribution
patterns and the mechanism by which they are currently maintained.In turn, that information
can be use to help to reduce human impact on the environment in a sustainable manner.
2.2 Conservation planning
We cannot make good decisions about the conversation of nature if we don't knows what is
the there and where it is.Therefore many questions in the applied Biogeography are crusial for
conservation.For examples, what is the location and distribution of species throughout the
world on land,in the water and in the sea? where are the highest levels of species richness?
where are the different level of biological diversity to be found? where important application,
particularly because of the huge gaps in our knowledge and because of the increasing races at
which so many levels biological diversity are being damaged and lost conservation wild life
and habitants is achieved inp part by the establishment of various kinds of protected areas
such as nature resources on land,in rivers and lakes and in the sea.where should natural
resources be located and why? how large should they be?how they should be managed?
should protected areas be bulfered from perturbation arising from land use activities around
and protected areas? Applied Biogeography has played a major role in answering these
questions.
Applied Biogeography provide essential information for the conservation of species ( and
other taxonomic group) and for restoration of biological commities.
Human actions have'shaken' and' stirred' the world's biota (as well as having caused many
taxa to become extinct) . Consequently there are many parts of the world where the group of
taxa does not constitute a natural biological community. In many Parks and gardens there are
plant species they would not normally occur in those biogeographic areas. The implications of
moving species around the Nigeria are many.some introduced species may supplent native
species, they may become invasive and they may act as hosts for pests. Human- assembled
collections of exotic plant (not native to that area) such as trees and shrubs in a city park or in
an urban garden may be attractive visually and maybe a living museum of Flora. Such
collections, however, fail to recognize the rich dynamics and variety of interactions that occur
in natural biological communities plant assemblages. A single exotic (non-native) specimen
tree in a park or botanic garden will interact which other organisms that occur in that area, but
in the sense of natural biological communities such as specimen tree are like a single member
of an orchestra playing only their part in a Beethoven symphony without the existence of
other players and audience. That single specimen tree is of little significance in terms of
applied biogeography, biological diversity and biological communities. Such a tree may as well
be made of plastic for it's visual appearance is it's only importance.
Spatial scales

2.3 Big Data and Citizen Science

The proliferation of big data and citizen science initiatives has democratized data collection
and analysis in applied biogeography (Dickinson et al., 2010). Crowdsourced biodiversity
observations, coupled with advances in machine learning and data mining, offer new
opportunities for monitoring species distributions, detecting environmental changes, and
engaging communities in conservation efforts.
2.4 Climate Change Adaptation Strategies
Climate change poses unprecedented challenges to biodiversity and ecosystem functioning,
necessitating adaptive management strategies in applied ed Biogeography also has a part to
play in assessing possible impacts on the environment that might be caused by new
development in land use . Determining the likely effects of major project on the natural
environment (land, water or Sea)by way of the formalized procedure of an environmental
impact assessment has become a statutory requirements in many areas throughout the
Nigeria probable effects of construction of dams and tidal barrages ,for example,have been at
the center of many large investigations some yeare ago there was a proposal to construct a
tibal barrage ( for electricity generation in the estuary of the River Niger/River Benue,
between Benue and Niger in the Nigeria.The distribution of estuarines invertebrates is
determined largely by salinity levels.A tidal barrages would affect the distribution of estuarine
birds that feed on the invertebrates. The biological and ecological studies of the distributions
of organisms and factors determining their distribution in the estuary is an example of the
ecological aspect of biogeography and it's value in determining impacts arising from habitat
modification.
2.5 Agricultural practices
Applied Biogeography is important in developing strategies for biological control of pests.
Rachael Carson (1962) stated that, her concern is about the extensive use of herbicides and
insecticides could affect organisms other than pest species . Since that time the study of pests
control has become more and more integrated endeavouring to combine minimum use of
chemicals with maximum use of biological control. Encouraging the presence of predators
insects, pests in horticulture and in agriculture is not new. However, manipulating agricultural
landscapes to facilitate movement aspect of integrated pest control. This could not have Come
about without an understanding of the patterns of movements and distribution of the
predators.
2.6 Climate change mitigation
We live at time when there are many environmental issues and concerns. One well-known
environmental issues is climate change and the implications of any change on agriculture,
horticulture and the distribution and abundance of living organisms. Determining the rate of
climate change and extent of change could be becoming more variable, warmer or cooler.
Environmental change occurs not only over different time scales but at different spatial scales
would could consider global changes or regional environmental changes. For example, in
benue state river temperatures have been getting slightly lower; at least that is the condition
after monitoring river temperate in few time.
Environmental change has come to dominate much research and even public concern. The
implications of climate change on biota are being modelled and researched at many centers by
biogeographers and there seems to be no doubt that in the future some aspects of climate
change could have severe implications for the way of life of people throughout the world.
Climate change could have major impacts on agriculture practices, forestry and fisheries,as
well as on the availability of water. These changes could also affect the distributions of wild
plants and animals and have implications for the role of protected areas such as nature
resources.
2.7 Noise pollution reduction
Applied biogeography, development work on aspect of space exhaust muffling systems into
the design of new- production of locomotives. This is important as the full power noise
existing fleet has been controlled by the exhaust- noise level, when measured at 100 ft
(30.4m). The significant point here has been that, at full power exhaust noise muffling can
significantly reduce noise effects on atmosphere.
Applied biogeography is helping ecological restoration projects throughout the Nigeria (world)
at many different scales.
There are large scales, country- wide forest restoration projects and there are local initiatives.
There seems to be a growing interest in trying to turn around our practice of mixing species
around the world. But restoring the biological communities with both the species and the
interactions between species is a challenge being helped by applied biogeography and ecology.
2.8 Ecosystems stability
Applied biogeography in ecological studies described as one of the life sciences which deal
with the study of distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic area and through
geological time. Organisms and biological groups regularly differ in common fashion along
geographic gradients of latitude, elevation, isolation and habitats region. The Short- period
interactions with a habitat and species of organisms describe the ecological application of
biogeography. The patterns of species distribution throughout geographical regions can
generally be defined through a mixture of historical elements like: speciation, extinction,
continental drift, and glaciation. Through observing the geographic distribution of species,we
can see related versions in sea level, river routes, habitat, and river capture. In addition,
applied biogeography considers the geographic constraints of landmass regions and
isolation,as well as available ecosystems energy supplies.
2.9 Remote Sensing and Geospatial Technologies
The advent of remote sensing technologies has revolutionized the field of applied
biogeography by enabling the acquisition of large-scale, high-resolution spatial data (Pettorelli
et al., 2014). Satellite imagery, LiDAR (Light Detection and Ranging), and unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) provide valuable information on land cover, habitat fragmentation, and
ecosystem dynamics. Integration of these geospatial datasets with ecological models enhances
our ability to monitor and manage landscapes effectively.
Development of computers, computing and information technology has enabled new
applications to occur in biogeography.one of these application has been in connection with
researching the role of tropical forests, deforestation and regeneration forests in the carbon
cycle. Every year, about 8.5 gigatonnes of carbon move between the land, the air and the
oceans. There has much recent concern about increase in the levels of atmosphere carbon
brought about by the release of carbon'sinks' or the processes which takes up atmospheric
carbon.mature tropical forests absorb carbon (photosynthesis) and release it (respiration),
resulting in a carbon balance. However, regenerating forests are major sinks of carbon dioxide.
Knowing where these sinks are, their area and their stage or condition in ecological terms is of
great importance in helping to mitigate human impact on the carbon cycle. A highly advanced
tool with which to estimate areas of forest at regional and global scales which may be acting
as carbon sinks is remote sensing from satellites. One example of this kind of detection has
been undertaken by a group of researchers based in the some part of Nigeria but working on
tropical forests in Nigeria. Data gathered by satellite have been used to characteristise tropical
forest regeneration and in turn to help to analyse the nature and role of forest regeneration on
the carbon cycle.

2.10 Spatial Prioritization Techniques

Spatial prioritization techniques, such as systematic conservation planning and reserve
selection algorithms, aid decision-makers in identifying areas of high conservation value and
allocating limited resources efficiently (Margules & Pressey, 2000). These methods incorporate
ecological, social, and economic criteria to optimize conservation outcomes while considering
competing land uses and stakeholder interests.
biogeography (Hannah et al., 2007). Integrating climate change projections into conservation
planning allows for anticipatory measures such as assisted migration, habitat restoration, and
establishment of climate-resilient protected areas.

Above all, applied biogeography studies combine ideas and information from many fields,
from physiological and geological and climatological phenomena running at worldwide spatial
scales and evolutionary time frame. Applied biogeography regularly employs the usage of
Geographic Information System (GIS), to recognize the elements affecting organisms
distribution, and to predict future trends in organisms distribution. Often mathematical
models and GIS are employed to clear ecological troubles which have a spatial aspect to them.
Applied biogeography also keenly observed on the world's island's. It's also implementated in
biodiversity conservation, and planning, projecting global environmental modifications on
species and biomes, projecting the spread of infectious diseases, invasive species, crops.
Technological evolving and advances have allowed for producing and entire suit of predictor
variables for biogeographic analysis, methods and applications.
CONCLUSION
Of all the environmental issues facing us today, what is the most serious in terms of the costs
and damage incurred? Climate change, pollution,loss of ideigenous forests,or fragmentation of
habitats? There is a widely held view amongst many ecologists that the most important and
most threatening aspect of environmental change is that caused by introduced and invasive
organisms. The most damaging of all pests are introduced organisms. The problems of invasive
species are likely to become even more severe in the future, with increasing global trade and
reduction in trade barriers. There are many examples of introduced, species which have had
dramatic consequences on both ecology and economic.
Humans have certainly mixed, stirred and changed the distribution of many plant and animals
species throughout the world (Nigeria), either deliberately via introductions or by acting as
vectors for the transport of organisms. Many species have been introduced to new
biogeographical areas and many of those species have become pests. The damage caused by
these pests has had very serious economic implications. The costs of control may be extremely
high each year. For example, the distribution of the cows from Guma to Buruku has been
extended after being transported. The spread of this species in great Guma to Buruku cost of
subsequent damage now runs into severe billions of naira for farmers.
Applied biogeography will have an increasingly important role in identifying possible future
invasive species and mitigation of the effects of current invasive species and other
anthropogenic activities in the environment.
Applied biogeography occupies a crucial role in addressing contemporary environmental
challenges, from habitat loss and species extinction to climate change impacts. While facing
obstacles such as data limitations, scale issues, and interdisciplinary barriers, the field
continues to advance through innovations in technology, modeling techniques, and
conservation strategies. By harnessing the power of remote sensing, spatial prioritization,
citizen science, and climate change adaptation, applied biogeographers can contribute to the
sustainable management and preservation of Earth’s biodiversity. Moving forward,
interdisciplinary collaboration and continued investment in research and monitoring will be
essential for navigating the complex terrain of applied biogeography and safeguarding the
ecological integrity of our planet.

SUGGESTIONS
While recognizing recent and valuable new developments in applied biogeography, our main
concerned mostly with the ecological approach to biogeography. In so doiy we look at
biogeography at different spatial scales, from global patterns to patterns within biological
communities and future opportunities to model and predict in the light of environmental
change . Conservation method should also applied by construction of dams, water reservoir
(water), afforestation and regeneration (plants/vegetaty), Bush burning, Green House gases
should stop for solar radiation and natural resources management including Field techniques
and computer technology in applied biogeography.