Contents

How to use this book 4

1 Maths
Units and abbreviations  5
Arithmetic and numerical computation  6
Handling data  22
Algebra  42
Graphs  47
Geometry and trigonometry  56

2 Literacy
How to write extended responses  60

e
How to answer different command words 62

3 Working scientifically
Apparatus and techniques 73

plThe development of scientific thinking

Experimental skills and strategies 
Analysis and evaluation 
Scientific vocabulary, quantities, units and
symbols86
74
79
84
m
4 Revision skills
Planning ahead 87
Using the right tools 88
Creating the right environment  91
Useful revision techniques  92
Sa

Retrieval practice  92
Practise, practise, practise  97

5 Exam skills
General exam advice 99
Assessment objectives 101
Command words 103

6 Exam-style questions
Paper 1 113

Answers117
Key terms 130
Command words 132
Formulae134

9781510460027.indb 3 29/03/19 10:05 PM

 »» How to use this book
Welcome to Essential Skills for GCSE Physics. This book covers the major UK exam boards for Science: AQA,
Edexcel (including Edexcel International GCSE), OCR 21st Century and Gateway, WJEC /Eduqas and CCEA.
Where exam board requirements differ, these specifics are flagged. This book is designed to help you go
beyond the subject-specific knowledge and develop the underlying essential skills needed to do well in
GCSE Science. These skills include Maths, Literacy, and Working Scientifically, which now have an increased
focus.
● The Maths chapter covers the five key areas required by the government, with different Physics-specific
contexts. In your Physics exams, questions testing Maths Skills make up 30% of the marks available.
● The Literacy chapter will help you learn how to answer extended response questions. You will be
expected to answer at least one of these per paper, depending on your specification and they are usually
worth six marks.
● The Working Scientifically chapter covers the four key areas that are required in all GCSE sciences.
● The Revision chapter explains how to improve the efficiency of your revision using retrieval practice

e
techniques.
● The Exam Skills chapter explains way of improving your performance in the actual exam.
To help you practise your skills, there is an exam-style paper at the end of the book, with another available

pl
online at www.hoddereducation.co.uk/EssentialSkillsPhysics. While they are not designed to be accurate
representations of any particular specification or exam paper, they are made up of exam-style questions
and will require you to put your maths, literacy and practical skills into action.

Key features
In addition to Key term and Tip boxes throughout the book, there are several other features designed to
m
help you develop your skills.

A Worked examples A Expert commentary

These boxes contain questions where the working These sample extended responses are provided with
required to reach the correct answer has been expert commentary, a mark and an explanation of
Sa

shown. why it was awarded.

B Guided questions B Peer assessment

These boxes guide you in the right direction, so you These activities ask you to use a mark scheme to
can work towards solving the question yourself. assess the sample answer and justify your score.

C Practice questions C Improve the answer

These exam-style questions will test your These activities ask you to rewrite the sample
­understanding of the subject. ­answer to improve it and earn full marks.

Answers to all questions can be found at the back of H Flags like this one will inform you of any
the book. These are fully worked solutions with step- specific exam board requirements.
by-step calculations included. Answers for the second
online exam-style paper can also be found online at
www.hoddereducation.co.uk/EssentialSkillsPhysics.

9781510460027.indb 4 29/03/19 10:05 PM

 »» Handling data Key terms
1 MATHS

Significant figures (sf):

Using significant figures Approximations to a
number, determined by a
Significant figures (sf) are approximations of a long number to give it an set of mathematical rules.
approximate meaning. Leading zeros: Zeros
before the first significant
For example, the number 34 529 taken to: figure in small numbers;
for example, there are two
● 5 sf is 34 529 – it stays as it is because it already has only five numbers leading zeros (the zeros
● 4 sf it 34 530 – the decider is the 9, so we round up from 29 to 30 before the 2) in 0.002 034.
● 3 sf it 34 500 – the decider is the 2, so we round down from 529 to 500 Trailing zeros: Zeros after
● 2 sf is 35 000 – the decider is the 5, so we round up from 4500 to 5000 the first significant figure;
● 1 sf is 30 000 – the decider is the 4, so we round down from 4529 to 0000. for example, the zero to the
right of the 2 in 0.002 034
When deciding on the number of significant figures, leading zeros after the is a trailing zero and would
be significant if expressing
decimal point do not count but trailing zeros do count.
this number to 3 sf.
For example, if the number 0.034 529 001 taken to:

e
● 5 sf is 0.034 529
● 4 sf is 0.034 53 Tip
● 3 sf is 0.034 5 Some answers
● 2 sf is 0.035
● 1 sf is 0.03
pl
Giving the correct number of significant figures in calculations is important in
physics because it signifies the degree of precision.
Suppose a balance reads to the nearest 100 g:
may be recurring.
For example, the
calculator display
shows 9.652652652…
If this happens,
use the recurring
form of the number
m
● If the true mass on the balance was larger than 2450 g but less than 2500 g, when writing the
the balance would round up to the nearest 100 g and give a reading of number to so many
2500 g. significant figures. So,
● If the true mass was bigger than 2500 g but less than 2550 g, the balance 9.652952652… is 10
would round down to the nearest 100 g and also give a reading of 2500 g. (to 1 sf), 9.7 (to 2 sf),
● For all masses between 1000 g and 9900 g, this balance would give a figure 9.65 (to 3 sf), 9.653 (to
to 2 sf. 4 sf) and so on. You
Sa

● For this balance, the last two digits will always be zero. might find it useful
to look again at the
Suppose we look at a new balance capable of reading to the nearest 10 g and section on decimal
measure the same mass, and we get a reading of 2470 g. places on page 6
it is very similar to
● We would know for sure that the mass (M) can be estimated as
significant figures.
2465 g  M < 2475 g.
● For all masses between 1000 g and 9990 g, this balance would give a figure to
3 sf.
● For this balance, only the final digit would always be zero.
Tip
If you are doing CCEA,
Suppose this second balance gave a reading of 2500 g, like the first balance. you are specifically
Could we say that the two balances are giving the same information? The required to know
answer is no. how to express a
physical quantity to an
● The first balance can only tell us that 2450 g  M < 2550 g, although the
appropriate number
reading is 2500 g (2 sf). of significant figures,
● The second balance is telling us that 2495 g  M < 2505 g, although the and write them to 1, 2
reading is also 2500 g (3 sf). or 3 decimal places.

22

9781510460027_CH1.indd 22 30/03/19 1:06 PM

 Handling data

It is clear that the number of significant figures tells us something of the degree
of precision in the instrument being used to measure it. Tip
When answering
AA Worked examples mathematical
questions, look at
1 A rectangular piece of metal measures 21.4 cm by 15.3 cm. Calculate its the data (numbers)
area to an appropriate number of significant figures. in the question that
are given to the least
Step 1 area = 21.4 cm × 15.3 cm = 327.42 cm2 number of significant
Step 2 Each number in the question was to 3 sf, and as there is no other figures. Your final
guidance, the most appropriate answer is 327 cm2 answer should have
the same number of
2 An irregular solid of mass 320 g displaces 55 cm3 of water. Calculate the
significant figures,
density of the solid to an appropriate number of significant figures.
unless the question
Step 1 density = mass = 320 = 5.818181 g/cm3 tells you otherwise.
volume 55
Step 2 The number given in the question to the least number of significant
figures was 55 cm3 (2 sf)

e
Step 3 So, the most appropriate answer is 5.8 g/cm3 (2 sf)

BB Guided question
1
pl
A current of 1.4 A flows through a resistor of 6.8 Ω. Calculate the
voltage across the resistor, giving your answer to an appropriate
number of significant figures.
Step 1 Write equation for Ohm’s Law: V = I × R
Step 2 Substitute for I and R: V =
m
Step 3 Do the arithmetic: V = volts
Step 4 Number of sf in data in question is two.
Step 5 Give answer to appropriate number of sf: V = volts. Tip
The scientific
equations you might
Sa

C Practice questions need to answer

these questions are
2 How much heat energy is needed to raise the temperature of 2.55 kg of as follows, but see if
water by 12.2 °C if the specific heat capacity of water is 4200 J/kg°C? Give you can remember
your answer to an appropriate number of significant figures. them without looking,
3 Find, to an appropriate number of significant figures, the kinetic energy of a then check your
ball of mass 55 g moving at a speed of 19 m/s. knowledge:
∆E = mc∆θ
4 There are 6.02 × 1023 molecules in 18 g of water. Find, to an appropriate
number of significant figures, the number of molecules in 1 g of water. E k = 1 mv 2
2

Finding arithmetic means

There are three different types of average. But the one most commonly used by
GCSE Physics students is the arithmetic mean, or simply ‘the mean’.
To find the mean of a collection of numbers, we add them all up and divide the
sum by the number of numbers in the collection. This helps us to get a number
that is likely to be closer to the true measurement.

23

9781510460027_CH1.indd 23 30/03/19 1:06 PM

 Suppose we were trying to find the density of a wooden rod. To find the volume
Key terms
1 MATHS

we need to know the diameter of the rod. We could measure it once, but we
Arithmetic mean: The sum
have no assurance that the measured value is reliable. So, we might repeat of a set of values divided by
the measurement five more times. We would then have six values that are all the number of values in the
slightly different. Instead of choosing one, we take a mean (or average). set – it is sometimes called
the average.
We also need to be aware that some of our diameters may be a little too big or Outlier: A value that ‘lies
small. By taking the mean, we hope that the numbers that are too big cancel outside’ the other values in
out the numbers that are too small (sometimes known as outliers). a set of data observations,
either because it is much
higher or much lower.
AA Worked example
A student measures the time it takes for a pendulum to swing 10 times. Tip
The student uses a stopwatch capable of measuring time to two decimal If we see a figure
places. He takes the measurement five times. The results are: 8.07 s, 7.83 s, that is an outlier in a
8.14 s, 8.23 s, 8.10 s set of data, it is best
Find the mean time for one swing. to exclude it when

e
finding the mean.
Step 1 Add the values together: 8.07 + 7.83 + 8.14 + 8.23 + 8.10 = 40.37
Step 2 Divide by the number of values: mean = 40.37 ÷ 5 = 8.074 s
Although the mean value of the experimental results is 8.074 s, the best value to
Tip

pl
use is 8.07 s. This is because no matter how many measurements we make with
this stopwatch, we can never measure a time correctly to 3 dp.
So, the mean time for one swing = 8.07 ÷ 10 = 0.807 s ≅ 0.81 s.

BB Guided question
The symbol ≅ means
‘is roughly equal to’.
m
1 Five students independently measure the resistance of a length of wire.
They obtain these results: 2.1 Ω, 2.2 Ω, 0.5 Ω, 1.9 Ω, 1.8 Ω
a Identify the outlier.
Step 1 The outlier is: .
Sa

b Calculate the mean of the other four resistances.

Step 1 The sum of the other results is 2.1 + + + =
Step 2 The mean resistance is ÷4 = Ω

CC Practice questions
2 Five students each measure the diameter of a metal rod. Their results, in mm, are: 312, 317, 313, 314, 314
Calculate the mean diameter to 3 sf.
3 The generally accepted value for the specific heat capacity of water is 4.2 J/g°C. A group of 10 students
measure the specific heat capacity of water and their mean result is the generally accepted value.
Nine of the students’ results, in J/g°C, are: 4.1, 4.2, 4.2, 4.3, 4.3, 4.1, 4.2, 4.0, 4.1
Calculate the value for the specific heat capacity obtained by the tenth student.

24

9781510460027_CH1.indd 24 30/03/19 1:06 PM

 How to answer different command words

Extended responses: Design, Plan or Outline Tip

The word ‘Design’ wants you to use your knowledge and experience and be
The command words
creative in solving an experimental task, while ‘Plan’ means that you must give
‘design’, ‘plan’ and
detailed information about a procedure or task. ‘Outline’ means ‘summarise’, but
‘outline’ are not exactly
it is often used to ask students to set out how something should be done (such interchangeable, but
as ‘Outline a plan’, ‘Outline an experiment’, and so on). they are often used
in a similar fashion

A Expert commentary
in GCSE Physics.
Namely, they will be
asking you to set out
1 Design an experiment to show that the extension
an experiment to test
of a spring is directly proportional to the
a hypothesis.
applied force. [6]
Student answer
All the major details
1 Suspend a spiral spring and a metre ruler
are listed to enable the
experiment to be carried vertically using a retort stand, boss and clamp.

e
out. 2 Using the ruler measure the initial length of the
spring.
The candidate does not 3 Add a 100 gram (1 N) slotted mass and measure
make it clear in that the the extended length of the spring.
same initial length is 4 Repeat step 3 for loads up to 6 N in steps of 1 N.
subtracted from the new
length to obtain the
extension.

The student omits to

pl
say that the line passes
through the (0, 0)
5 Record results in a pre-prepared table.
6 Calculate the extension for each load, by
subtracting the previous extended length from
the new extended length
7 Plot a graph of extension against load.
8 The line of best fit is strait indicating direct
There is only one spelling
mistake; strait should be
straight, but this would not
m
origin. This is essential proportion. be penalised.
to establish direct
proportion. Apparatus
Tip
Typical experimental results: Apparatus:
A blank table quickly
Load (N) 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
shows an examiner
Extended what measurements
Sa

length
of spring steel you intend to make in
(cm) spring an experiment.
Extension
of spring
Tip
(cm) 3N

The student provides a Remember a diagram

drawing of the apparatus can say a thousand
retort
and a table for results, metre ruler stand words. Diagrams are
which makes it clear what often a good way
is described in the written to get information
answer. This is good across. But remember
practice. to refer to it in your
written response to
This piece of work would probably score 5 marks. the question.

67

9781510460027.indb 67 29/03/19 10:06 PM

 B Peer assessment
2 LITERACY

2 Outline an experiment to measure the angle of refraction in a rectangular glass block when the
angle of incidence in air is 30°. In your answer you must state the apparatus and method you
will use. You should also draw a ray diagram to illustrate your plan and indicate the angles of
incidence and refraction. [6]
Student answer
Place a rectangular glass block on a drawing board and draw around its points used to mark
outline with a pencil the position of the
light ray
Remove the block and draw the normal to one of the long sides
Draw a line, L1, at 30º to this normal at the point, P, were it meets the glass
Replace the block and direct a ray of light along the line L1 and observe the glass
light exit the glass on the opposite side along line L3
r
Draw two small crosses on line L3 and rule a line joining them back to the
point Q were the light left the glass air

e
i
Remove the glass and rule a straight line L2 between points P and Q
normal
Mesure the angel between line L2 and the glass. This is the angel of refraction

Mark scheme
pl
Use the mark scheme and indicative content to award this answer a level and a mark.

Level descriptors
Level 3: Detailed, well-structured plan that would work. At least 6 of the points in the indicative
content are covered and the spelling, punctuation and grammar are largely accurate.
Level 2: The method may lack detail and structure, but with only minor changes it would work. At least
Mark
5–6

3–4
m
4 of the points in the indicative content are covered and the spelling, punctuation and grammar are
usually accurate.
Level 1: The plan requires significant modification if it is to work. There may be significant irrelevant 1–2
or incorrect information. At least 2 of the points in the indicative content are covered. There may be
inaccuracies in spelling, punctuation and grammar.
No relevant content 0
Indicative Content:
Sa

• set rectangular glass block on paper, outline with pencil

• use protractor to draw normal on one side
• draw line at 30° to normal at point of incidence
• direct ray of light from the ray box along this line
• method to trace emergent ray to point where light leaves the glass
• draw refracted ray in glass and measure angle between refracted ray in glass and normal
• diagram to show normal and angles of incidence in air and refraction in glass

I would give this a level of     and a mark of    

This is because …

68

9781510460027.indb 68 29/03/19 10:06 PM

 How to answer different command words

C Improve the answer

3 The diagram shows a soft iron plate of weight 5.0 N at rest on a newton balance. Above it is an
electromagnet. When the electromagnet is energised, there is an attractive force between the
plate and the magnet causing the reading on the balance to change.
Using this apparatus, plan an experiment to show that the strength of an electromagnet is
directly proportional to the current in the coil. In your answer you must:
l identify the dependent, independent and controlled variables
l state what measurements you would take
l state what happens to the balance reading when the current is increased
l describe how you would process your results to establish direct proportion. [6]
Student answer

1 The dependent variable is the current in the

electromagnet. The independent variable is
the upward force on the soft iron plate and the

e
controlled variable is the distance between A

the electromagnet and the soft iron plate.

2 Note the balance reading (5.0 N) when the electro-
current is zero. magnet
soft iron
3 Switch on the current and adjust the rheostat

pl
until the ammeter reading is 0.5 A.
4 Adjust the rheostat again to increase the
current by 0.5 A and record current and
balance reading.
5 Repeat step 4 again until a set of balance
readings and currents, up to 3.0 A have been recorded.
5.0 N
plate
m
6 To establish direct proportion, plot a graph of balance reading against current. If the force
produced by the magnet is directly proportional to the current, the graph will be a straight line.

Current /A 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

Balance reading / N 5.0

Rewrite this answer to improve it and obtain the full six marks.
Sa

69

9781510460027.indb 69 29/03/19 10:06 PM

 »» Experimental skills and
Experimental skills and strategies

strategies
Being a scientist and carrying out practical experiments means that you need
to use appropriate experimental skills and strategies to ensure that your
results are meaningful. This means developing a hypothesis, then working
out an experiment on how best to test this hypothesis. You may be familiar
with the sorts of questions you will be asked in the exam around planning or
outlining an experiment. In this section, you will be shown best practice for any
experiment.

Developing hypotheses
Science is all about observations and asking questions. For example, imagine
you notice that a pendulum clock is losing time. You might first ask ‘Why is this
happening?’. You guess that the time for the pendulum to make an oscillation

e
(its period) depends on the weight at the end of the pendulum. This is your first
hypothesis. To test this hypothesis, you carry out an experiment.
It turns out that your first idea is wrong. So, you put forward another idea – that
the period depends on the pendulum’s length. This is your second hypothesis. Key terms

pl
You carry out another experiment and find that you are right.
The important thing about a good hypothesis is that an experiment can be
designed to test it – not whether it is correct.

Planning experiments to test hypotheses

Dependent variable: The
variable that changes
because of the change in
the independent variable.
Independent variable: The
variable that the physicist
decides to change.
m
As discussed, we test a hypothesis by planning and carrying out an experiment. Controlled variables: The
The first thing to ask is ‘What do we want to find out?’. variables that are kept
constant throughout an
In the pendulum example on the previous page, the second hypothesis experiment.
suggested that changing the length of the pendulum would change its Fair test: A test in which
period. We call the period the dependent variable, because it depends on there is one independent
variable, one dependent
something. We think it depends on the length of the pendulum – so the length
Sa

variable and all other

of the pendulum is the independent variable. This is because this variable is variables are controlled.
independent of the experiment – it is changed by the scientist.
Continuous variables: The
It is important that scientists are specific about what they are testing. Changing variables that can have any
numerical value (such as
more than one thing each time might give misleading results. For example, if we mass, length).
think that the period might also depend on the mass of the pendulum, the mass
Categoric variables:
must not change (it must remain constant) when we are testing the length. Variables that are not
The mass is, therefore, a controlled variable. Keeping the controlled variables numeric (such as colour,
constant makes it a fair test. shape).

In any science experiment there should only be one dependent variable and one
independent variable. All the other variables must be controlled.
Tip
There are two other types of variable you need to know about. A continuous For more information
variable has values that are numbers. Mass, temperature and volume are on the types of
examples of continuous variables. The variables used in physics experiments are apparatus and
almost always continuous variables. techniques you’ll
need to know see
A categoric variable is one that is best described by words. Variables such
page 74.
colour, shape and type of car are categoric.

79

9781510460027.indb 79 29/03/19 10:06 PM

 Choosing appropriate apparatus and
3 WORKING SCIENTIFICALLY

techniques
Whatever experiment you are carrying out, the results will only be useful if you
have selected the appropriate tools.
For example, when testing the length of a pendulum and its period, you will Tip
need to measure length, time and weight. So, you need to choose the most
appropriate equipment to measure these quantities, as well as decide how best You should be
able to identify
to use the equipment.
the independent,
For example, a metre stick is appropriate to measure the length as it is unlikely dependent and
to be longer than this and you can see the length to approximately 1 mm. To controlled variables
use this metre stick correctly and ensure the test is fair, you have to measure in every investigation
the length in the same way each time. To do this you should ensure the object you carry out. This is
you are measuring the length of is placed exactly alongside the metre stick and important because
variable identification
that both the object and metre stick are straight.
is a question that

e
You need to consider whether there are any other obstacles to a fair frequently appears in
measurement. For example, making sure there are no knots in the pendulum. GCSE exam papers.

You must also make decisions about different techniques, such as what is the best
length to measure. You could measure from the point of suspension to the bottom

pl
of the object, or from the point of suspension to the middle of the object. Again,
you need to think scientifically. Weight acts from the centre of gravity, which is in
the middle, so the best technique is to measure to the middle of the object.
Measuring time is less accurate because there will always be an element
of reaction time. To ensure that this effect is minimised, you need to think
m
scientifically once more. You could pick a more accurate stopwatch (one capable
of measuring to at least 0.1 s is probably suitable), or you could time the period
after allowing the pendulum to make a few swings first – starting the stopwatch
when it reaches the end of a swing. It is also good practice to repeat the timing
a few times and find the average period.
Table 3.4 lists a few common pieces of measuring apparatus found in a physics
Sa

laboratory and what they are used to measure. Part of your training is to
develop the technique to use them properly.
Table 3.4 Common apparatus in a physics laboratory
Key terms
Instrument measuring newtonmeter protractor thermometer ammeter voltmeter
Accuracy: Accuracy is
cylinder how close we get to the
Measures liquid force angles temperature current voltage true value of any physical
volume measurement.
Reliability: A test is defined

Carrying out experiments accurately as reliable if different

scientists repeating the
The accuracy of any experiment you do depends on two factors: the equipment same experiment or
measurement consistently
used and your technique. When thinking about how to carry out an experiment get the same results.
accurately, you need to know the difference between accuracy, reliability,
Precision: Precision
precision and resolution. measures the extent to
which measurements are
Accuracy is how close we get to the true value of a physical measurement. the same.
For example, suppose five students measure the length of the same metal rod.
Resolution: Resolution is
They all use a metre rule with a centimetre scale. They get the following results: the fineness to which an
instrument can be read.
91 cm, 93 cm, 90 cm, 92 cm, 89 cm

80

9781510460027.indb 80 29/03/19 10:06 PM

 Experimental skills and strategies

The range of these results is calculated as:

highest value − lowest value = 93 − 99 = 4 cm
The mean of these results is 91 cm.
It is likely that some of the students obtained a figure higher than the true
value, while some obtained a figure that was lower. By taking the mean we
effectively cancel out the too-high values with the too-low values. Our best
(most accurate) value for the length of the rod is, therefore, 91 cm. Remember
that to improve accuracy you should repeat and then average.
Another way to improve accuracy is to use a better measuring instrument.
A digital voltmeter, for example, is likely to be more accurate than an analogue
meter.
Resolution is the fineness to which an instrument can be read. For example,
a stopwatch with a sweeping hand might have a resolution of 10 1 of a second,
accurate
1 and precise
while a digital stopwatch might have a resolution of 100 of a second. However,

e
both stopwatches have the same precision because this factor will be determined
by the reaction time of the person using it.
Precise measurements are those where the range is small. For example, suppose

and the mean is 42 g.pl

three students measure the mass of a beaker using balance A. They get the
results 45 g, 39 g and 42 g. The range of these measurements is 45 − 39 = 6 g,

Suppose they repeat the measurements using the same beaker, but a different
balance, balance B. They get the results 42 g, 41 g and 43 g. The range of these
measurements is 43 − 41 = 2 g, and the mean is 42 g. The readings on both
precise, but
not accurate
m
balances have the same accuracy, but those using balance B have greater precision.
not accurate,
A test is defined as reliable if different scientists repeating the same experiment not precise
or measurement consistently get the same results. The technique to improve ▲ Figure 3.3 Accuracy and
reliability is to repeat the same test several times. precision

Making and recording observations

Sa

You need to know how to record the results of an investigation. In almost all
practical work in physics you record results in a table. Tip
When drawing tables and recording data ensure that: Remember that
recording results
● the lines in your table are drawn with a ruler and pencil clearly is the mark
● there are headings for each column and/or row of a competent
● there are units for each column and/or row –usually placed after a solidus or scientist. Examiners
within brackets after the heading; for example ‘mass / g’ or ‘ current (A)’ will test that you
● units are not written beside the numbers in the table have acquired these
● there is enough space for repeat measurements and averages – remember skills. You will also
be expected to
the more repeats you do, the more reliable the data
demonstrate these
● data items are recorded to the same number of decimal places or significant
skills when carrying
figures. out required (core)
For examples on how this is done in practice refer to the Maths skills section of practicals.
this book.

81

9781510460027.indb 81 29/03/19 10:06 PM