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Unit 1: Introduction To RDBMS

A Relational database management system (RDBMS) is a collection of programs

and capabilities that enable IT teams and others to create, update, administer and
otherwise interact with a relational database.

RDBMSes store data in the form of tables, with most commercial relational
database management systems using Structured Query Language (SQL) to access
the database. However, since SQL was invented after the initial development of the
relational model, it is not necessary for RDBMS use.

The RDBMS is the most popular database system among organizations across the
world. It provides a dependable method of storing and retrieving large amounts of
data while offering a combination of system performance and ease of
implementation.

RDBMS vs. DBMS

In general, databases store sets of data that can be queried for use in other
applications. A database management system supports the development,
administration and use of database platforms.

An RDBMS is a type of database management system (DBMS) that stores data in

a row-based table structure which connects related data elements. An RDBMS
includes functions that maintain the security, accuracy, integrity and consistency of
the data. This is different than the file storage used in a DBMS.

Other differences between database management systems and relational database

management systems include:

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 Number of allowed users. While a DBMS can only accept one user at a time,
an RDBMS can operate with multiple users.

 Hardware and software requirements. A DBMS needs less software and

hardware than an RDBMS.

 Amount of data. RDBMSes can handle any amount of data, from small to
large, while a DBMS can only manage small amounts.

 Database structure. In a DBMS, data is kept in a hierarchical form, whereas

an RDBMS utilizes a table where the headers are used as column names and
the rows contain the corresponding values.

 ACID implementation. DBMSes do not use the atomicity, consistency,

isolation and durability (ACID) model for storing data. On the other hand,
RDBMSes base the structure of their data on the ACID model to ensure
consistency.

 Distributed databases. While an RDBMS offers complete support

for distributed databases, a DBMS will not provide support.

 Types of programs managed. While an RDBMS helps manage the

relationships between its incorporated tables of data, a DBMS focuses on
maintaining databases that are present within the computer network and
system hard disks.

 Support of database normalization. An RDBMS can be normalized, but a

DBMS cannot.

What is a field?

Every table is broken up into smaller entities called fields. The fields in the
CUSTOMERS table consist of ID, NAME, AGE, ADDRESS and SALARY.

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A field is a column in a table that is designed to maintain specific information

about every record in the table.

What is a Record or a Row?

A record is also called as a row of data is each individual entry that exists in a
table. For example, there are 7 records in the above CUSTOMERS table.
Following is a single row of data or record in the CUSTOMERS table −

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

A record is a horizontal entity in a table.

What is a column?

A column is a vertical entity in a table that contains all information associated with
a specific field in a table.

For example, a column in the CUSTOMERS table is ADDRESS, which represents

location description and would be as shown below −

+-----------+

| ADDRESS |

+-----------+

| Ahmedabad |

| Delhi |

| Kota |

| Mumbai |

| Bhopal |

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| MP |

| Indore |

+----+------+

What is a NULL value?

A NULL value in a table is a value in a field that appears to be blank, which means
a field with a NULL value is a field with no value.

It is very important to understand that a NULL value is different than a zero value
or a field that contains spaces. A field with a NULL value is the one that has been
left blank during a record creation.

SQL Constraints

Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on a table. These are used to
limit the type of data that can go into a table. This ensures the accuracy and
reliability of the data in the database.

Constraints can either be column level or table level. Column level constraints are
applied only to one column whereas, table level constraints are applied to the entire
table.

Following are some of the most commonly used constraints available in SQL −

 NOT NULL Constraint − Ensures that a column cannot have a NULL value.

 DEFAULT Constraint − Provides a default value for a column when none is

specified.

 UNIQUE Constraint − Ensures that all the values in a column are different.

 PRIMARY Key − Uniquely identifies each row/record in a database table.

 FOREIGN Key − Uniquely identifies a row/record in any another database

table.

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 CHECK Constraint − The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a

column satisfy certain conditions.

 INDEX − Used to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

Data Integrity

The following categories of data integrity exist with each RDBMS −

 Entity Integrity − There are no duplicate rows in a table.

 Domain Integrity − Enforces valid entries for a given column by restricting

the type, the format, or the range of values.

 Referential integrity − Rows cannot be deleted, which are used by other

records.

 User-Defined Integrity − Enforces some specific business rules that do not

fall into entity, domain or referential integrity.

Database Normalization

Database normalization is the process of efficiently organizing data in a database.

There are two reasons of this normalization process −

 Eliminating redundant data, for example, storing the same data in more than
one table.

 Ensuring data dependencies make sense.

Both these reasons are worthy goals as they reduce the amount of space a database
consumes and ensures that data is logically stored. Normalization consists of a
series of guidelines that help guide you in creating a good database structure.

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Normalization guidelines are divided into normal forms; think of a form as the
format or the way a database structure is laid out. The aim of normal forms is to
organize the database structure, so that it complies with the rules of first normal
form, then second normal form and finally the third normal form.

It is your choice to take it further and go to the fourth normal form, fifth normal
form and so on, but in general, the third normal form is more than enough.

 First Normal Form (1NF)

 Second Normal Form (2NF)

 Third Normal Form (3NF)

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Unit 2 : PL/SQL
The PL/SQL programming language was developed by Oracle Corporation in the
late 1980s as procedural extension language for SQL and the Oracle relational
database. Following are certain notable facts about PL/SQL −

 PL/SQL is a completely portable, high-performance transaction-processing

language.

 PL/SQL provides a built-in, interpreted and OS independent programming

environment.

 PL/SQL can also directly be called from the command-line SQL*Plus

interface.

 Direct call can also be made from external programming language calls to
database.

 PL/SQL's general syntax is based on that of ADA and Pascal programming

language.

 Apart from Oracle, PL/SQL is available in TimesTen in-memory

database and IBM DB2.

Features of PL/SQL

PL/SQL has the following features −

 PL/SQL is tightly integrated with SQL.

 It offers extensive error checking.

 It offers numerous data types.

 It offers a variety of programming structures.

 It supports structured programming through functions and procedures.

 It supports object-oriented programming.

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 It supports the development of web applications and server pages.

Advantages of PL/SQL

PL/SQL has the following advantages −

 SQL is the standard database language and PL/SQL is strongly integrated

with SQL. PL/SQL supports both static and dynamic SQL. Static SQL
supports DML operations and transaction control from PL/SQL block. In
Dynamic SQL, SQL allows embedding DDL statements in PL/SQL blocks.

 PL/SQL allows sending an entire block of statements to the database at one

time. This reduces network traffic and provides high performance for the
applications.

 PL/SQL gives high productivity to programmers as it can query, transform,

and update data in a database.

 PL/SQL saves time on design and debugging by strong features, such as

exception handling, encapsulation, data hiding, and object-oriented data
types.

 Applications written in PL/SQL are fully portable.

 PL/SQL provides high security level.

 PL/SQL provides access to predefined SQL packages.

 PL/SQL provides support for Object-Oriented Programming.

 PL/SQL provides support for developing Web Applications and Server

Pages.

In this chapter, we will discuss the Basic Syntax of PL/SQL which is a block-
structured language; this means that the PL/SQL programs are divided and written
in logical blocks of code. Each block consists of three sub-parts −

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S.No Sections & Description

Declarations

1 This section starts with the keyword DECLARE. It is an optional section and
defines all variables, cursors, subprograms, and other elements to be used in
the program.

Executable Commands

This section is enclosed between the keywords BEGIN and END and it is a
2 mandatory section. It consists of the executable PL/SQL statements of the
program. It should have at least one executable line of code, which may be
just a NULL command to indicate that nothing should be executed.

Exception Handling
3 This section starts with the keyword EXCEPTION. This optional section
contains exception(s) that handle errors in the program.

Every PL/SQL statement ends with a semicolon (;). PL/SQL blocks can be nested
within other PL/SQL blocks using BEGIN and END. Following is the basic
structure of a PL/SQL block −

DECLARE

<declarations section>

BEGIN

<executable command(s)>

EXCEPTION

<exception handling>

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END;

The 'Hello World' Example

DECLARE

message varchar2(20):= 'Hello, World!';

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line(message);

END;

The end; line signals the end of the PL/SQL block. To run the code from the SQL
command line, you may need to type / at the beginning of the first blank line after
the last line of the code. When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it
produces the following result −

Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The PL/SQL Identifiers

PL/SQL identifiers are constants, variables, exceptions, procedures, cursors, and

reserved words. The identifiers consist of a letter optionally followed by more
letters, numerals, dollar signs, underscores, and number signs and should not
exceed 30 characters.

By default, identifiers are not case-sensitive. So you can

use integer or INTEGER to represent a numeric value. You cannot use a reserved
keyword as an identifier.

The PL/SQL Delimiters

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A delimiter is a symbol with a special meaning. Following is the list of delimiters

in PL/SQL −

Delimiter Description

+, -, *, / Addition, subtraction/negation, multiplication, division

% Attribute indicator

' Character string delimiter

. Component selector

(,) Expression or list delimiter

: Host variable indicator

, Item separator

" Quoted identifier delimiter

= Relational operator

@ Remote access indicator

; Statement terminator

:= Assignment operator

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=> Association operator

|| Concatenation operator

** Exponentiation operator

<<, >> Label delimiter (begin and end)

/*, */ Multi-line comment delimiter (begin and end)

-- Single-line comment indicator

.. Range operator

<, >, <=, >= Relational operators

<>, '=, ~=, ^= Different versions of NOT EQUAL

The PL/SQL Comments

Program comments are explanatory statements that can be included in the PL/SQL
code that you write and helps anyone reading its source code. All programming
languages allow some form of comments.

The PL/SQL supports single-line and multi-line comments. All characters

available inside any comment are ignored by the PL/SQL compiler. The PL/SQL
single-line comments start with the delimiter -- (double hyphen) and multi-line
comments are enclosed by /* and */.

DECLARE

-- variable declaration

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message varchar2(20):= 'Hello, World!';

BEGIN

/*

* PL/SQL executable statement(s)

*/

dbms_output.put_line(message);

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Program Units

A PL/SQL unit is any one of the following −

 PL/SQL block

 Function

 Package

 Package body

 Procedure

 Trigger

 Type

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 Type body

Each of these units will be discussed in the following chapters.

Data Types

he PL/SQL variables, constants and parameters must have a valid data type, which
specifies a storage format, constraints, and a valid range of values. We will focus
on the SCALAR and the LOB data types in this chapter. The other two data types
will be covered in other chapters.

S.No Category & Description

Scalar
1 Single values with no internal components, such as a NUMBER,
DATE, or BOOLEAN.

Large Object (LOB)

2 Pointers to large objects that are stored separately from other data
items, such as text, graphic images, video clips, and sound
waveforms.

Composite
3 Data items that have internal components that can be accessed
individually. For example, collections and records.

Reference
4
Pointers to other data items.

PL/SQL Scalar Data Types and Subtypes

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PL/SQL Scalar Data Types and Subtypes come under the following categories −

S.No Date Type & Description

Numeric
1
Numeric values on which arithmetic operations are performed.

Character
2 Alphanumeric values that represent single characters or strings of
characters.

Boolean
3
Logical values on which logical operations are performed.

Datetime
4
Dates and times.

PL/SQL provides subtypes of data types. For example, the data type NUMBER has
a subtype called INTEGER. You can use the subtypes in your PL/SQL program to
make the data types compatible with data types in other programs while
embedding the PL/SQL code in another program, such as a Java program.

PL/SQL Numeric Data Types and Subtypes

Following table lists out the PL/SQL pre-defined numeric data types and their sub-
types −

S.No Data Type & Description

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PLS_INTEGER
1 Signed integer in range -2,147,483,648 through 2,147,483,647, represented
in 32 bits

BINARY_INTEGER
2 Signed integer in range -2,147,483,648 through 2,147,483,647, represented
in 32 bits

BINARY_FLOAT
3
Single-precision IEEE 754-format floating-point number

BINARY_DOUBLE
4
Double-precision IEEE 754-format floating-point number

NUMBER(prec, scale)
5 Fixed-point or floating-point number with absolute value in range 1E-130 to
(but not including) 1.0E126. A NUMBER variable can also represent 0

DEC(prec, scale)
6
ANSI specific fixed-point type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits

DECIMAL(prec, scale)
7
IBM specific fixed-point type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits

8 NUMERIC(pre, secale)

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Floating type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits

DOUBLE PRECISION
9 ANSI specific floating-point type with maximum precision of 126 binary
digits (approximately 38 decimal digits)

FLOAT
10 ANSI and IBM specific floating-point type with maximum precision of 126
binary digits (approximately 38 decimal digits)

INT
11
ANSI specific integer type with maximum precision of 38 decimal digits

INTEGER
12 ANSI and IBM specific integer type with maximum precision of 38 decimal
digits

SMALLINT
13 ANSI and IBM specific integer type with maximum precision of 38 decimal
digits

REAL
14 Floating-point type with maximum precision of 63 binary digits
(approximately 18 decimal digits)

Following is a valid declaration −

DECLARE

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num1 INTEGER;

num2 REAL;

num3 DOUBLE PRECISION;

BEGIN

null;

END;

When the above code is compiled and executed, it produces the following result −

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

PL/SQL Character Data Types and Subtypes

Following is the detail of PL/SQL pre-defined character data types and their sub-
types −

S.No Data Type & Description

CHAR
1
Fixed-length character string with maximum size of 32,767 bytes

VARCHAR2
2
Variable-length character string with maximum size of 32,767 bytes

RAW
3 Variable-length binary or byte string with maximum size of 32,767
bytes, not interpreted by PL/SQL

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NCHAR
4 Fixed-length national character string with maximum size of 32,767
bytes

NVARCHAR2
5 Variable-length national character string with maximum size of
32,767 bytes

LONG
6
Variable-length character string with maximum size of 32,760 bytes

LONG RAW
7 Variable-length binary or byte string with maximum size of 32,760
bytes, not interpreted by PL/SQL

ROWID
8
Physical row identifier, the address of a row in an ordinary table

UROWID
9
Universal row identifier (physical, logical, or foreign row identifier)

PL/SQL Boolean Data Types

The BOOLEAN data type stores logical values that are used in logical operations.
The logical values are the Boolean values TRUE and FALSE and the value NULL.

However, SQL has no data type equivalent to BOOLEAN. Therefore, Boolean

values cannot be used in −

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 SQL statements

 Built-in SQL functions (such as TO_CHAR)

 PL/SQL functions invoked from SQL statements

PL/SQL Datetime and Interval Types

The DATE datatype is used to store fixed-length datetimes, which include the time
of day in seconds since midnight. Valid dates range from January 1, 4712 BC to
December 31, 9999 AD.

The default date format is set by the Oracle initialization parameter

NLS_DATE_FORMAT. For example, the default might be 'DD-MON-YY', which
includes a two-digit number for the day of the month, an abbreviation of the month
name, and the last two digits of the year. For example, 01-OCT-12.

Each DATE includes the century, year, month, day, hour, minute, and second. The
following table shows the valid values for each field −

Field Name Valid Datetime Values Valid Interval

Values

-4712 to 9999 (excluding year 0) Any nonzero

YEAR
integer

MONTH 01 to 12 0 to 11

01 to 31 (limited by the values of

MONTH and YEAR, according to Any nonzero
DAY
the rules of the calendar for the integer
locale)

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HOUR 00 to 23 0 to 23

MINUTE 00 to 59 0 to 59

00 to 59.9(n), where 9(n) is the 0 to 59.9(n),

precision of time fractional seconds where 9(n) is the
precision of
SECOND
interval
fractional
seconds

-12 to 14 (range accommodates

TIMEZONE_HOUR Not applicable
daylight savings time changes)

TIMEZONE_MINUTE 00 to 59 Not applicable

Found in the dynamic performance

TIMEZONE_REGION Not applicable
view V$TIMEZONE_NAMES

Found in the dynamic performance

TIMEZONE_ABBR Not applicable
view V$TIMEZONE_NAMES

PL/SQL Large Object (LOB) Data Types

Large Object (LOB) data types refer to large data items such as text, graphic
images, video clips, and sound waveforms. LOB data types allow efficient,
random, piecewise access to this data. Following are the predefined PL/SQL LOB
data types –

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Data Type Description Size

Used to store large binary objects System-dependent.

BFILE in operating system files outside Cannot exceed 4
the database. gigabytes (GB).

Used to store large binary objects 8 to 128 terabytes (TB)

BLOB
in the database.

Used to store large blocks of 8 to 128 TB

CLOB
character data in the database.

Used to store large blocks of 8 to 128 TB

NCLOB
NCHAR data in the database.

PL/SQL User-Defined Subtypes

A subtype is a subset of another data type, which is called its base type. A subtype
has the same valid operations as its base type, but only a subset of its valid values.

PL/SQL predefines several subtypes in package STANDARD. For example,

PL/SQL predefines the subtypes CHARACTER and INTEGER as follows −

SUBTYPE CHARACTER IS CHAR;

SUBTYPE INTEGER IS NUMBER(38,0);

You can define and use your own subtypes. The following program illustrates
defining and using a user-defined subtype −

DECLARE

SUBTYPE name IS char(20);

SUBTYPE message IS varchar2(100);

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salutation name;

greetings message;

BEGIN

salutation := 'Reader ';

greetings := 'Welcome to the World of PL/SQL';

dbms_output.put_line('Hello ' || salutation || greetings);

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Hello Reader Welcome to the World of PL/SQL

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

NULLs in PL/SQL

PL/SQL NULL values represent missing or unknown data and they are not an
integer, a character, or any other specific data type. Note that NULL is not the
same as an empty data string or the null character value '\0'. A null can be assigned
but it cannot be equated with anything, including itself.

variable

A variable is nothing but a name given to a storage area that our programs can
manipulate. Each variable in PL/SQL has a specific data type, which determines
the size and the layout of the variable's memory; the range of values that can be
stored within that memory and the set of operations that can be applied to the
variable.

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The name of a PL/SQL variable consists of a letter optionally followed by more

letters, numerals, dollar signs, underscores, and number signs and should not
exceed 30 characters. By default, variable names are not case-sensitive. You
cannot use a reserved PL/SQL keyword as a variable name.

PL/SQL programming language allows to define various types of variables, such

as date time data types, records, collections, etc. which we will cover in subsequent
chapters. For this chapter, let us study only basic variable types.

Variable Declaration in PL/SQL

PL/SQL variables must be declared in the declaration section or in a package as a

global variable. When you declare a variable, PL/SQL allocates memory for the
variable's value and the storage location is identified by the variable name.

The syntax for declaring a variable is −

variable_name [CONSTANT] datatype [NOT NULL] [:= | DEFAULT

initial_value]

Where, variable_name is a valid identifier in PL/SQL, datatype must be a valid

PL/SQL data type or any user defined data type which we already have discussed
in the last chapter. Some valid variable declarations along with their definition are
shown below −

sales number(10, 2);

pi CONSTANT double precision := 3.1415;

name varchar2(25);

address varchar2(100);

When you provide a size, scale or precision limit with the data type, it is called
a constrained declaration. Constrained declarations require less memory than
unconstrained declarations. For example −

sales number(10, 2);

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name varchar2(25);

address varchar2(100);

Initializing Variables in PL/SQL

Whenever you declare a variable, PL/SQL assigns it a default value of NULL. If

you want to initialize a variable with a value other than the NULL value, you can
do so during the declaration, using either of the following −

 The DEFAULT keyword

 The assignment operator

For example −

counter binary_integer := 0;

greetings varchar2(20) DEFAULT 'Have a Good Day';

You can also specify that a variable should not have a NULL value using the NOT
NULL constraint. If you use the NOT NULL constraint, you must explicitly assign
an initial value for that variable.

It is a good programming practice to initialize variables properly otherwise,

sometimes programs would produce unexpected results. Try the following example
which makes use of various types of variables −

DECLARE

a integer := 10;

b integer := 20;

c integer;

f real;

BEGIN

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c := a + b;

dbms_output.put_line('Value of c: ' || c);

f := 70.0/3.0;

dbms_output.put_line('Value of f: ' || f);

END;

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Value of c: 30

Value of f: 23.333333333333333333

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Variable Scope in PL/SQL

PL/SQL allows the nesting of blocks, i.e., each program block may contain another
inner block. If a variable is declared within an inner block, it is not accessible to
the outer block. However, if a variable is declared and accessible to an outer block,
it is also accessible to all nested inner blocks. There are two types of variable scope
−

 Local variables − Variables declared in an inner block and not accessible to

outer blocks.

 Global variables − Variables declared in the outermost block or a package.

Following example shows the usage of Local and Global variables in its simple
form −

DECLARE

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-- Global variables

num1 number := 95;

num2 number := 85;

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num1: ' || num1);

dbms_output.put_line('Outer Variable num2: ' || num2);

DECLARE

-- Local variables

num1 number := 195;

num2 number := 185;

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num1: ' || num1);

dbms_output.put_line('Inner Variable num2: ' || num2);

END;

END;

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Outer Variable num1: 95

Outer Variable num2: 85

Inner Variable num1: 195

Inner Variable num2: 185

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PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Assigning SQL Query Results to PL/SQL Variables

You can use the SELECT INTO statement of SQL to assign values to PL/SQL
variables. For each item in the SELECT list, there must be a corresponding, type-
compatible variable in the INTO list. The following example illustrates the
concept. Let us create a table named CUSTOMERS −

CREATE TABLE CUSTOMERS(

ID INT NOT NULL,

NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT NULL,

AGE INT NOT NULL,

ADDRESS CHAR (25),

SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),

PRIMARY KEY (ID)

);

Table Created

Let us now insert some values in the table −

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00 );

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INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (3, 'kaushik', 23, 'Kota', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (4, 'Chaitali', 25, 'Mumbai', 6500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (5, 'Hardik', 27, 'Bhopal', 8500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (6, 'Komal', 22, 'MP', 4500.00 );

The following program assigns values from the above table to PL/SQL variables
using the SELECT INTO clause of SQL −

DECLARE

c_id customers.id%type := 1;

c_name customers.name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;

c_sal customers.salary%type;

BEGIN

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SELECT name, address, salary INTO c_name, c_addr, c_sal

FROM customers

WHERE id = c_id;

dbms_output.put_line

('Customer ' ||c_name || ' from ' || c_addr || ' earns ' || c_sal);

END;

When the above code is executed, it produces the following result −

Customer Ramesh from Ahmedabad earns 2000

PL/SQL procedure completed successfully

constants and literals in PL/SQL

A constant holds a value that once declared, does not change in the program. A
constant declaration specifies its name, data type, and value, and allocates storage
for it. The declaration can also impose the NOT NULL constraint.

Declaring a Constant

A constant is declared using the CONSTANT keyword. It requires an initial value

and does not allow that value to be changed. For example −

PI CONSTANT NUMBER := 3.141592654;

DECLARE

-- constant declaration

pi constant number := 3.141592654;

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-- other declarations

radius number(5,2);

dia number(5,2);

circumference number(7, 2);

area number (10, 2);

BEGIN

-- processing

radius := 9.5;

dia := radius * 2;

circumference := 2.0 * pi * radius;

area := pi * radius * radius;

-- output

dbms_output.put_line('Radius: ' || radius);

dbms_output.put_line('Diameter: ' || dia);

dbms_output.put_line('Circumference: ' || circumference);

dbms_output.put_line('Area: ' || area);

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Radius: 9.5

Diameter: 19

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Circumference: 59.69

Area: 283.53

Pl/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The PL/SQL Literals

A literal is an explicit numeric, character, string, or Boolean value not represented

by an identifier. For example, TRUE, 786, NULL, 'tutorialspoint' are all literals of
type Boolean, number, or string. PL/SQL, literals are case-sensitive. PL/SQL
supports the following kinds of literals −

 Numeric Literals

 Character Literals

 String Literals

 BOOLEAN Literals

 Date and Time Literals

The following table provides examples from all these categories of literal values.

S.No Literal Type & Example

Numeric Literals

050 78 -14 0 +32767

1
6.6667 0.0 -12.0 3.14159 +7800.00

6E5 1.0E-8 3.14159e0 -1E38 -9.5e-3

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Character Literals
2
'A' '%' '9' ' ' 'z' '('

String Literals

'Hello, world!'
3
'Tutorials Point'

'19-NOV-12'

BOOLEAN Literals
4
TRUE, FALSE, and NULL.

Date and Time Literals

5 DATE '1978-12-25';

TIMESTAMP '2012-10-29 12:01:01';

To embed single quotes within a string literal, place two single quotes next to each
other as shown in the following program −

DECLARE

message varchar2(30):= 'That''s tutorialspoint.com!';

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line(message);

END;

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When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

That's tutorialspoint.com!

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

operators in PL/SQL

An operator is a symbol that tells the compiler to perform specific mathematical or

logical manipulation. PL/SQL language is rich in built-in operators and provides
the following types of operators −

 Arithmetic operators

 Relational operators

 Comparison operators

 Logical operators

 String operators

Here, we will understand the arithmetic, relational, comparison and logical

operators one by one. The String operators will be discussed in a later chapter
− PL/SQL - Strings.

Arithmetic Operators

Following table shows all the arithmetic operators supported by PL/SQL. Let us
assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 5, then −

Show Examples

Operator Description Example

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+ Adds two operands A + B will give 15

- Subtracts second operand from the first A - B will give 5

* Multiplies both operands A * B will give 50

/ Divides numerator by de-numerator A / B will give 2

** Exponentiation operator, raises one operand to A ** B will give

the power of other 100000

Relational Operators

Relational operators compare two expressions or values and return a Boolean

result. Following table shows all the relational operators supported by PL/SQL. Let
us assume variable A holds 10 and variable B holds 20, then −

Show Examples

Operator Description Example

Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, (A = B) is

=
if yes then condition becomes true. not true.

!=
Checks if the values of two operands are equal or not, (A != B) is
<>
if values are not equal then condition becomes true. true.
~=

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than the (A > B) is

>
value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes

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true. not true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than the value (A < B) is
<
of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater than or (A >= B) is

>= equal to the value of right operand, if yes then not true.
condition becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than or equal (A <= B) is

<= to the value of right operand, if yes then condition true
becomes true.

Comparison Operators

Comparison operators are used for comparing one expression to another. The result
is always either TRUE, FALSE or NULL.

Show Examples

Operator Description Example

The LIKE operator compares a If 'Zara Ali' like 'Z%

character, string, or CLOB value A_i' returns a Boolean
LIKE to a pattern and returns TRUE if true, whereas, 'Nuha
the value matches the pattern and Ali' like 'Z% A_i'
FALSE if it does not. returns a Boolean false.

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If x = 10 then, x
The BETWEEN operator tests between 5 and 20
whether a value lies in a specified returns true, x between
BETWEEN
range. x BETWEEN a AND b 5 and 10 returns true,
means that x >= a and x <= b. but x between 11 and
20 returns false.

If x = 'm' then, x in ('a',

The IN operator tests set 'b', 'c') returns Boolean
IN membership. x IN (set) means that false but x in ('m', 'n',
x is equal to any member of set. 'o') returns Boolean
true.

The IS NULL operator returns the

BOOLEAN value TRUE if its
If x = 'm', then 'x is
operand is NULL or FALSE if it
IS NULL null' returns Boolean
is not NULL. Comparisons
false.
involving NULL values always
yield NULL.

Logical Operators

Following table shows the Logical operators supported by PL/SQL. All these
operators work on Boolean operands and produce Boolean results. Let us
assume variable A holds true and variable B holds false, then −

Show Examples

Operator Description Examples

(A and B) is
and Called the logical AND operator. If both the operands

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are true then condition becomes true. false.

Called the logical OR Operator. If any of the two (A or B) is

or
operands is true then condition becomes true. true.

Called the logical NOT Operator. Used to reverse the not (A and
not logical state of its operand. If a condition is true then B) is true.
Logical NOT operator will make it false.

PL/SQL Operator Precedence

Operator precedence determines the grouping of terms in an expression. This

affects how an expression is evaluated. Certain operators have higher precedence
than others; for example, the multiplication operator has higher precedence than
the addition operator.

For example, x = 7 + 3 * 2; here, x is assigned 13, not 20 because operator * has

higher precedence than +, so it first gets multiplied with 3*2 and then adds into 7.

Here, operators with the highest precedence appear at the top of the table, those
with the lowest appear at the bottom. Within an expression, higher precedence
operators will be evaluated first.

The precedence of operators goes as follows: =, <, >, <=, >=, <>, !=, ~=, ^=, IS
NULL, LIKE, BETWEEN, IN.

Show Examples

Operator Operation

** exponentiation

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+, - identity, negation

*, / multiplication, division

+, -, || addition, subtraction, concatenation

comparison

NOT logical negation

AND conjunction

OR inclusion

Creating a Function

A standalone function is created using the CREATE FUNCTION statement. The

simplified syntax for the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE statement is as
follows −

CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]

RETURN return_datatype

{IS | AS}

BEGIN

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< function_body >

END [function_name];

Where,

 function-name specifies the name of the function.

 [OR REPLACE] option allows the modification of an existing function.

 The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the
parameters. IN represents the value that will be passed from outside and
OUT represents the parameter that will be used to return a value outside of
the procedure.

 The function must contain a return statement.

 The RETURN clause specifies the data type you are going to return from the
function.

 function-body contains the executable part.

 The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone

function.

Example

The following example illustrates how to create and call a standalone function.
This function returns the total number of CUSTOMERS in the customers table.

We will use the CUSTOMERS table, which we had created in the PL/SQL
Variables chapter −

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

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+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

CREATE OR REPLACE FUNCTION totalCustomers

RETURN number IS

total number(2) := 0;

BEGIN

SELECT count(*) into total

FROM customers;

RETURN total;

END;

When the above code is executed using the SQL prompt, it will produce the
following result −

Function created.

Calling a Function

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While creating a function, you give a definition of what the function has to do. To
use a function, you will have to call that function to perform the defined task.
When a program calls a function, the program control is transferred to the called
function.

A called function performs the defined task and when its return statement is
executed or when the last end statement is reached, it returns the program control
back to the main program.

To call a function, you simply need to pass the required parameters along with the
function name and if the function returns a value, then you can store the returned
value. Following program calls the function totalCustomers from an anonymous
block −

DECLARE

c number(2);

BEGIN

c := totalCustomers();

dbms_output.put_line('Total no. of Customers: ' || c);

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Total no. of Customers: 6

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Example

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The following example demonstrates Declaring, Defining, and Invoking a Simple

PL/SQL Function that computes and returns the maximum of two values.

DECLARE

a number;

b number;

c number;

FUNCTION findMax(x IN number, y IN number)

RETURN number

IS

z number;

BEGIN

IF x > y THEN

z:= x;

ELSE

Z:= y;

END IF;

RETURN z;

END;

BEGIN

a:= 23;

b:= 45;

c := findMax(a, b);

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dbms_output.put_line(' Maximum of (23,45): ' || c);

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Maximum of (23,45): 45

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

PL/SQL Recursive Functions

We have seen that a program or subprogram may call another subprogram. When a
subprogram calls itself, it is referred to as a recursive call and the process is known
as recursion.

To illustrate the concept, let us calculate the factorial of a number. Factorial of a

number n is defined as −

n! = n*(n-1)!

= n*(n-1)*(n-2)!

...

= n*(n-1)*(n-2)*(n-3)... 1

The following program calculates the factorial of a given number by calling itself
recursively −

DECLARE

num number;

factorial number;

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FUNCTION fact(x number)

RETURN number

IS

f number;

BEGIN

IF x=0 THEN

f := 1;

ELSE

f := x * fact(x-1);

END IF;

RETURN f;

END;

BEGIN

num:= 6;

factorial := fact(num);

dbms_output.put_line(' Factorial '|| num || ' is ' || factorial);

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

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Factorial 6 is 720

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

. A subprogram is a program unit/module that performs a particular task. These

subprograms are combined to form larger programs. This is basically called the
'Modular design'. A subprogram can be invoked by another subprogram or
program which is called the calling program.

A subprogram can be created −

 At the schema level

 Inside a package

 Inside a PL/SQL block

At the schema level, subprogram is a standalone subprogram. It is created with the

CREATE PROCEDURE or the CREATE FUNCTION statement. It is stored in the
database and can be deleted with the DROP PROCEDURE or DROP FUNCTION
statement.

A subprogram created inside a package is a packaged subprogram. It is stored in

the database and can be deleted only when the package is deleted with the DROP
PACKAGE statement. We will discuss packages in the chapter 'PL/SQL -
Packages'.

PL/SQL subprograms are named PL/SQL blocks that can be invoked with a set of
parameters. PL/SQL provides two kinds of subprograms −

 Functions − These subprograms return a single value; mainly used to

compute and return a value.

 Procedures − These subprograms do not return a value directly; mainly used

to perform an action.

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This chapter is going to cover important aspects of a PL/SQL procedure. We will

discuss PL/SQL function in the next chapter.

Parts of a PL/SQL Subprogram

Each PL/SQL subprogram has a name, and may also have a parameter list. Like
anonymous PL/SQL blocks, the named blocks will also have the following three
parts −

S.No Parts & Description

Declarative Part

It is an optional part. However, the declarative part for a

subprogram does not start with the DECLARE keyword. It
1 contains declarations of types, cursors, constants, variables,
exceptions, and nested subprograms. These items are local to
the subprogram and cease to exist when the subprogram
completes execution.

Executable Part
2 This is a mandatory part and contains statements that perform
the designated action.

Exception-handling
3 This is again an optional part. It contains the code that handles
run-time errors.

Creating a Procedure

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A procedure is created with the CREATE OR REPLACE

PROCEDURE statement. The simplified syntax for the CREATE OR REPLACE
PROCEDURE statement is as follows −

CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name

[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]

{IS | AS}

BEGIN

< procedure_body >

END procedure_name;

Where,

 procedure-name specifies the name of the procedure.

 [OR REPLACE] option allows the modification of an existing procedure.

 The optional parameter list contains name, mode and types of the
parameters. IN represents the value that will be passed from outside and
OUT represents the parameter that will be used to return a value outside of
the procedure.

 procedure-body contains the executable part.

 The AS keyword is used instead of the IS keyword for creating a standalone

procedure.

Example

The following example creates a simple procedure that displays the string 'Hello
World!' on the screen when executed.

CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE greetings

AS

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BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line('Hello World!');

END;

When the above code is executed using the SQL prompt, it will produce the
following result −

Procedure created.

Executing a Standalone Procedure

A standalone procedure can be called in two ways −

 Using the EXECUTE keyword

 Calling the name of the procedure from a PL/SQL block

The above procedure named 'greetings' can be called with the EXECUTE keyword
as −

EXECUTE greetings;

The above call will display −

Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The procedure can also be called from another PL/SQL block −

BEGIN

greetings;

END;

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The above call will display −

Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Deleting a Standalone Procedure

A standalone procedure is deleted with the DROP PROCEDURE statement.

Syntax for deleting a procedure is −

DROP PROCEDURE procedure-name;

You can drop the greetings procedure by using the following statement −

DROP PROCEDURE greetings;

Parameter Modes in PL/SQL Subprograms

The following table lists out the parameter modes in PL/SQL subprograms −

S.No Parameter Mode & Description

IN

An IN parameter lets you pass a value to the subprogram. It is a read-only

parameter. Inside the subprogram, an IN parameter acts like a constant. It
1 cannot be assigned a value. You can pass a constant, literal, initialized
variable, or expression as an IN parameter. You can also initialize it to a
default value; however, in that case, it is omitted from the subprogram
call. It is the default mode of parameter passing. Parameters are passed by
reference.

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OUT

An OUT parameter returns a value to the calling program. Inside the

2 subprogram, an OUT parameter acts like a variable. You can change its
value and reference the value after assigning it. The actual parameter must
be variable and it is passed by value.

IN OUT

An IN OUT parameter passes an initial value to a subprogram and returns

an updated value to the caller. It can be assigned a value and the value can
3 be read.

The actual parameter corresponding to an IN OUT formal parameter must

be a variable, not a constant or an expression. Formal parameter must be
assigned a value. Actual parameter is passed by value.

IN & OUT Mode Example 1

This program finds the minimum of two values. Here, the procedure takes two
numbers using the IN mode and returns their minimum using the OUT parameters.

DECLARE

a number;

b number;

c number;

PROCEDURE findMin(x IN number, y IN number, z OUT number) IS

BEGIN

IF x < y THEN

z:= x;

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ELSE

z:= y;

END IF;

END;

BEGIN

a:= 23;

b:= 45;

findMin(a, b, c);

dbms_output.put_line(' Minimum of (23, 45) : ' || c);

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Minimum of (23, 45) : 23

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

IN & OUT Mode Example 2

This procedure computes the square of value of a passed value. This example
shows how we can use the same parameter to accept a value and then return
another result.

DECLARE

a number;

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PROCEDURE squareNum(x IN OUT number) IS

BEGIN

x := x * x;

END;

BEGIN

a:= 23;

squareNum(a);

dbms_output.put_line(' Square of (23): ' || a);

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Square of (23): 529

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Methods for Passing Parameters

Actual parameters can be passed in three ways −

 Positional notation

 Named notation

 Mixed notation

Positional Notation

In positional notation, you can call the procedure as −

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findMin(a, b, c, d);

In positional notation, the first actual parameter is substituted for the first formal
parameter; the second actual parameter is substituted for the second formal
parameter, and so on. So, a is substituted for x, b is substituted for y, c is
substituted for z and d is substituted for m.

Named Notation

In named notation, the actual parameter is associated with the formal parameter
using the arrow symbol ( => ). The procedure call will be like the following −

findMin(x => a, y => b, z => c, m => d);

Mixed Notation

In mixed notation, you can mix both notations in procedure call; however, the
positional notation should precede the named notation.

The following call is legal −

findMin(a, b, c, m => d);

However, this is not legal:

findMin(x => a, b, c, d);

In this chapter, we will discuss arrays in PL/SQL. The PL/SQL programming

language provides a data structure called the VARRAY, which can store a fixed-
size sequential collection of elements of the same type. A varray is used to store an
ordered collection of data, however it is often better to think of an array as a
collection of variables of the same type.

All varrays consist of contiguous memory locations. The lowest address

corresponds to the first element and the highest address to the last element.

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An array is a part of collection type data and it stands for variable-size arrays. We
will study other collection types in a later chapter 'PL/SQL Collections'.

Each element in a varray has an index associated with it. It also has a maximum
size that can be changed dynamically.

Creating a Varray Type

A varray type is created with the CREATE TYPE statement. You must specify the
maximum size and the type of elements stored in the varray.

The basic syntax for creating a VARRAY type at the schema level is −

CREATE OR REPLACE TYPE varray_type_name IS VARRAY(n) of

<element_type>

Where,

 varray_type_name is a valid attribute name,

 n is the number of elements (maximum) in the varray,

 element_type is the data type of the elements of the array.

Maximum size of a varray can be changed using the ALTER TYPE statement.

For example,

CREATE Or REPLACE TYPE namearray AS VARRAY(3) OF VARCHAR2(10);

Type created.

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The basic syntax for creating a VARRAY type within a PL/SQL block is −

TYPE varray_type_name IS VARRAY(n) of <element_type>

For example −

TYPE namearray IS VARRAY(5) OF VARCHAR2(10);

Type grades IS VARRAY(5) OF INTEGER;

Let us now work out on a few examples to understand the concept −

Example 1

The following program illustrates the use of varrays −

DECLARE

type namesarray IS VARRAY(5) OF VARCHAR2(10);

type grades IS VARRAY(5) OF INTEGER;

names namesarray;

marks grades;

total integer;

BEGIN

names := namesarray('Kavita', 'Pritam', 'Ayan', 'Rishav', 'Aziz');

marks:= grades(98, 97, 78, 87, 92);

total := names.count;

dbms_output.put_line('Total '|| total || ' Students');

FOR i in 1 .. total LOOP

dbms_output.put_line('Student: ' || names(i) || '

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Marks: ' || marks(i));

END LOOP;

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Total 5 Students

Student: Kavita Marks: 98

Student: Pritam Marks: 97

Student: Ayan Marks: 78

Student: Rishav Marks: 87

Student: Aziz Marks: 92

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Please note −

 In Oracle environment, the starting index for varrays is always 1.

 You can initialize the varray elements using the constructor method of the
varray type, which has the same name as the varray.

 Varrays are one-dimensional arrays.

 A varray is automatically NULL when it is declared and must be initialized

before its elements can be referenced.

Example 2

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Elements of a varray could also be a %ROWTYPE of any database table or

%TYPE of any database table field. The following example illustrates the concept.

We will use the CUSTOMERS table stored in our database as −

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Following example makes the use of cursor, which you will study in detail in a
separate chapter.

DECLARE

CURSOR c_customers is

SELECT name FROM customers;

type c_list is varray (6) of customers.name%type;

name_list c_list := c_list();

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counter integer :=0;

BEGIN

FOR n IN c_customers LOOP

counter := counter + 1;

name_list.extend;

name_list(counter) := n.name;

dbms_output.put_line('Customer('||counter ||'):'||name_list(counter));

END LOOP;

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Customer(1): Ramesh

Customer(2): Khilan

Customer(3): kaushik

Customer(4): Chaitali

Customer(5): Hardik

Customer(6): Komal

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

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A cursor is a pointer to this context area. PL/SQL controls the context area through
a cursor. A cursor holds the rows (one or more) returned by a SQL statement. The
set of rows the cursor holds is referred to as the active set.

You can name a cursor so that it could be referred to in a program to fetch and
process the rows returned by the SQL statement, one at a time. There are two types
of cursors −

 Implicit cursors

 Explicit cursors

Implicit Cursors

Implicit cursors are automatically created by Oracle whenever an SQL statement is

executed, when there is no explicit cursor for the statement. Programmers cannot
control the implicit cursors and the information in it.

Whenever a DML statement (INSERT, UPDATE and DELETE) is issued, an

implicit cursor is associated with this statement. For INSERT operations, the
cursor holds the data that needs to be inserted. For UPDATE and DELETE
operations, the cursor identifies the rows that would be affected.

In PL/SQL, you can refer to the most recent implicit cursor as the SQL cursor,
which always has attributes such as %FOUND, %ISOPEN, %NOTFOUND,
and %ROWCOUNT. The SQL cursor has additional
attributes, %BULK_ROWCOUNT and %BULK_EXCEPTIONS, designed for use
with the FORALL statement. The following table provides the description of the
most used attributes −

S.No Attribute & Description

%FOUND
1
Returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statement affected one or more
rows or a SELECT INTO statement returned one or more rows. Otherwise, it returns

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FALSE.

%NOTFOUND

2 The logical opposite of %FOUND. It returns TRUE if an INSERT, UPDATE, or

DELETE statement affected no rows, or a SELECT INTO statement returned no
rows. Otherwise, it returns FALSE.

%ISOPEN
3 Always returns FALSE for implicit cursors, because Oracle closes the SQL cursor
automatically after executing its associated SQL statement.

%ROWCOUNT
4 Returns the number of rows affected by an INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE
statement, or returned by a SELECT INTO statement.

Any SQL cursor attribute will be accessed as sql%attribute_name as shown below

in the example.

Example

We will be using the CUSTOMERS table we had created and used in the previous
chapters.

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

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| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following program will update the table and increase the salary of each
customer by 500 and use the SQL%ROWCOUNT attribute to determine the
number of rows affected −

DECLARE

total_rows number(2);

BEGIN

UPDATE customers

SET salary = salary + 500;

IF sql%notfound THEN

dbms_output.put_line('no customers selected');

ELSIF sql%found THEN

total_rows := sql%rowcount;

dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers selected ');

END IF;

END;

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When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

6 customers selected

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

If you check the records in customers table, you will find that the rows have been
updated −

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2500.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 2000.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2500.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 7000.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 9000.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 5000.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

Explicit Cursors

Explicit cursors are programmer-defined cursors for gaining more control over
the context area. An explicit cursor should be defined in the declaration section of

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the PL/SQL Block. It is created on a SELECT Statement which returns more than
one row.

The syntax for creating an explicit cursor is −

CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;

Working with an explicit cursor includes the following steps −

 Declaring the cursor for initializing the memory

 Opening the cursor for allocating the memory

 Fetching the cursor for retrieving the data

 Closing the cursor to release the allocated memory

Declaring the Cursor

Declaring the cursor defines the cursor with a name and the associated SELECT
statement. For example −

CURSOR c_customers IS

SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;

Opening the Cursor

Opening the cursor allocates the memory for the cursor and makes it ready for
fetching the rows returned by the SQL statement into it. For example, we will open
the above defined cursor as follows −

OPEN c_customers;

Fetching the Cursor

Fetching the cursor involves accessing one row at a time. For example, we will
fetch rows from the above-opened cursor as follows −

FETCH c_customers INTO c_id, c_name, c_addr;

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Closing the Cursor

Closing the cursor means releasing the allocated memory. For example, we will
close the above-opened cursor as follows −

CLOSE c_customers;

Example

Following is a complete example to illustrate the concepts of explicit cursors

&minua;

DECLARE

c_id customers.id%type;

c_name customer.name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;

CURSOR c_customers is

SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;

BEGIN

OPEN c_customers;

LOOP

FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;

EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;

dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' || c_addr);

END LOOP;

CLOSE c_customers;

END;

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When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

1 Ramesh Ahmedabad

2 Khilan Delhi

3 kaushik Kota

4 Chaitali Mumbai

5 Hardik Bhopal

6 Komal MP

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

In this chapter, we will discuss Exceptions in PL/SQL. An exception is an error

condition during a program execution. PL/SQL supports programmers to catch
such conditions using EXCEPTION block in the program and an appropriate
action is taken against the error condition. There are two types of exceptions −

 System-defined exceptions

 User-defined exceptions

Syntax for Exception Handling

The general syntax for exception handling is as follows. Here you can list down as
many exceptions as you can handle. The default exception will be handled
using WHEN others THEN −

DECLARE

<declarations section>

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BEGIN

<executable command(s)>

EXCEPTION

<exception handling goes here >

WHEN exception1 THEN

exception1-handling-statements

WHEN exception2 THEN

exception2-handling-statements

WHEN exception3 THEN

exception3-handling-statements

........

WHEN others THEN

exception3-handling-statements

END;

Example

Let us write a code to illustrate the concept. We will be using the CUSTOMERS
table we had created and used in the previous chapters −

DECLARE

c_id customers.id%type := 8;

c_name customerS.Name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;

BEGIN

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SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr

FROM customers

WHERE id = c_id;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);

EXCEPTION

WHEN no_data_found THEN

dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');

WHEN others THEN

dbms_output.put_line('Error!');

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

No such customer!

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The above program displays the name and address of a customer whose ID is
given. Since there is no customer with ID value 8 in our database, the program
raises the run-time exception NO_DATA_FOUND, which is captured in
the EXCEPTION block.

Raising Exceptions

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Exceptions are raised by the database server automatically whenever there is any
internal database error, but exceptions can be raised explicitly by the programmer
by using the command RAISE. Following is the simple syntax for raising an
exception −

DECLARE

exception_name EXCEPTION;

BEGIN

IF condition THEN

RAISE exception_name;

END IF;

EXCEPTION

WHEN exception_name THEN

statement;

END;

You can use the above syntax in raising the Oracle standard exception or any user-
defined exception. In the next section, we will give you an example on raising a
user-defined exception. You can raise the Oracle standard exceptions in a similar
way.

User-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL allows you to define your own exceptions according to the need of your
program. A user-defined exception must be declared and then raised explicitly,
using either a RAISE statement or the
procedure DBMS_STANDARD.RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.

The syntax for declaring an exception is −

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DECLARE

my-exception EXCEPTION;

Example

The following example illustrates the concept. This program asks for a customer
ID, when the user enters an invalid ID, the exception invalid_id is raised.

DECLARE

c_id customers.id%type := &cc_id;

c_name customerS.Name%type;

c_addr customers.address%type;

-- user defined exception

ex_invalid_id EXCEPTION;

BEGIN

IF c_id <= 0 THEN

RAISE ex_invalid_id;

ELSE

SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr

FROM customers

WHERE id = c_id;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);

END IF;

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EXCEPTION

WHEN ex_invalid_id THEN

dbms_output.put_line('ID must be greater than zero!');

WHEN no_data_found THEN

dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');

WHEN others THEN

dbms_output.put_line('Error!');

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Enter value for cc_id: -6 (let's enter a value -6)

old 2: c_id customers.id%type := &cc_id;

new 2: c_id customers.id%type := -6;

ID must be greater than zero!

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Pre-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL provides many pre-defined exceptions, which are executed when any
database rule is violated by a program. For example, the predefined exception
NO_DATA_FOUND is raised when a SELECT INTO statement returns no rows.
The following table lists few of the important pre-defined exceptions −

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Oracle
Exception SQLCODE Description
Error

It is raised when a null

ACCESS_INTO_NULL 06530 -6530 object is automatically
assigned a value.

It is raised when none of

the choices in the
WHEN clause of a
CASE_NOT_FOUND 06592 -6592
CASE statement is
selected, and there is no
ELSE clause.

It is raised when a
program attempts to
apply collection methods
other than EXISTS to an
uninitialized nested table
COLLECTION_IS_NULL 06531 -6531
or varray, or the program
attempts to assign values
to the elements of an
uninitialized nested table
or varray.

It is raised when
duplicate values are
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX 00001 -1 attempted to be stored in
a column with unique
index.

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It is raised when
attempts are made to
make a cursor operation
INVALID_CURSOR 01001 -1001
that is not allowed, such
as closing an unopened
cursor.

It is raised when the

conversion of a character
string into a number fails
INVALID_NUMBER 01722 -1722
because the string does
not represent a valid
number.

It is raised when a
program attempts to log
LOGIN_DENIED 01017 -1017 on to the database with
an invalid username or
password.

It is raised when a
SELECT INTO
NO_DATA_FOUND 01403 +100
statement returns no
rows.

It is raised when a
database call is issued
NOT_LOGGED_ON 01012 -1012
without being connected
to the database.

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It is raised when
PROGRAM_ERROR 06501 -6501 PL/SQL has an internal
problem.

It is raised when a cursor

fetches value in a
ROWTYPE_MISMATCH 06504 -6504
variable having
incompatible data type.

It is raised when a
member method is
SELF_IS_NULL 30625 -30625 invoked, but the instance
of the object type was
not initialized.

It is raised when
PL/SQL ran out of
STORAGE_ERROR 06500 -6500
memory or memory was
corrupted.

It is raised when a
SELECT INTO
TOO_MANY_ROWS 01422 -1422
statement returns more
than one row.

It is raised when an
arithmetic, conversion,
VALUE_ERROR 06502 -6502 truncation, or
sizeconstraint error
occurs.

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It is raised when an
ZERO_DIVIDE 01476 1476 attempt is made to divide
a number by zero.

Triggers

Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically executed or fired when
some events occur. Triggers are, in fact, written to be executed in response to any
of the following events −

 A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or

UPDATE)

 A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or DROP).

 A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP,

or SHUTDOWN).

Triggers can be defined on the table, view, schema, or database with which the
event is associated.

Benefits of Triggers

Triggers can be written for the following purposes −

 Generating some derived column values automatically

 Enforcing referential integrity

 Event logging and storing information on table access

 Auditing

 Synchronous replication of tables

 Imposing security authorizations

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 Preventing invalid transactions

Creating Triggers

The syntax for creating a trigger is −

CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name

{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }

{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}

[OF col_name]

ON table_name

[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]

[FOR EACH ROW]

WHEN (condition)

DECLARE

Declaration-statements

BEGIN

Executable-statements

EXCEPTION

Exception-handling-statements

END;

Where,

 CREATE [OR REPLACE] TRIGGER trigger_name − Creates or replaces

an existing trigger with the trigger_name.

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 {BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF} − This specifies when the trigger will
be executed. The INSTEAD OF clause is used for creating trigger on a view.

 {INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} − This specifies the DML

operation.

 [OF col_name] − This specifies the column name that will be updated.

 [ON table_name] − This specifies the name of the table associated with the
trigger.

 [REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n] − This allows you to refer new

and old values for various DML statements, such as INSERT, UPDATE,
and DELETE.

 [FOR EACH ROW] − This specifies a row-level trigger, i.e., the trigger will
be executed for each row being affected. Otherwise the trigger will execute
just once when the SQL statement is executed, which is called a table level
trigger.

 WHEN (condition) − This provides a condition for rows for which the
trigger would fire. This clause is valid only for row-level triggers.

Example

To start with, we will be using the CUSTOMERS table we had created and used in
the previous chapters −

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

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| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The following program creates a row-level trigger for the customers table that
would fire for INSERT or UPDATE or DELETE operations performed on the
CUSTOMERS table. This trigger will display the salary difference between the old
values and new values −

CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes

BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers

FOR EACH ROW

WHEN (NEW.ID > 0)

DECLARE

sal_diff number;

BEGIN

sal_diff := :NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;

dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);

dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);

dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);

END;

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When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Trigger created.

The following points need to be considered here −

 OLD and NEW references are not available for table-level triggers, rather
you can use them for record-level triggers.

 If you want to query the table in the same trigger, then you should use the
AFTER keyword, because triggers can query the table or change it again
only after the initial changes are applied and the table is back in a consistent
state.

 The above trigger has been written in such a way that it will fire before any
DELETE or INSERT or UPDATE operation on the table, but you can write
your trigger on a single or multiple operations, for example BEFORE
DELETE, which will fire whenever a record will be deleted using the
DELETE operation on the table.

Triggering a Trigger

Let us perform some DML operations on the CUSTOMERS table. Here is one
INSERT statement, which will create a new record in the table −

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (7, 'Kriti', 22, 'HP', 7500.00 );

When a record is created in the CUSTOMERS table, the above create

trigger, display_salary_changes will be fired and it will display the following result
−

Old salary:

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New salary: 7500

Salary difference:

Because this is a new record, old salary is not available and the above result comes
as null. Let us now perform one more DML operation on the CUSTOMERS table.
The UPDATE statement will update an existing record in the table −

UPDATE customers

SET salary = salary + 500

WHERE id = 2;

When a record is updated in the CUSTOMERS table, the above create

trigger, display_salary_changes will be fired and it will display the following result
−

Old salary: 1500

New salary: 2000

Salary difference: 500

conditions in PL/SQL

Decision-making structures require that the programmer specify one or more

conditions to be evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or
statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be true, and optionally,
other statements to be executed if the condition is determined to be false.

Following is the general form of a typical conditional (i.e., decision making)

structure found in most of the programming languages −

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PL/SQL programming language provides following types of decision-making

statements. Click the following links to check their detail.

S.No Statement & Description

IF - THEN statement

The IF statement associates a condition with a sequence of statements

1 enclosed by the keywords THEN and END IF. If the condition is true,
the statements get executed and if the condition is false or NULL then
the IF statement does nothing.

IF-THEN-ELSE statement

IF statement adds the keyword ELSE followed by an alternative

2 sequence of statement. If the condition is false or NULL, then only the
alternative sequence of statements get executed. It ensures that either of
the sequence of statements is executed.

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IF-THEN-ELSIF statement
3
It allows you to choose between several alternatives.

Case statement

Like the IF statement, the CASE statement selects one sequence of

statements to execute.
4
However, to select the sequence, the CASE statement uses a selector
rather than multiple Boolean expressions. A selector is an expression
whose value is used to select one of several alternatives.

Searched CASE statement

5 The searched CASE statement has no selector, and it's WHEN clauses
contain search conditions that yield Boolean values.

nested IF-THEN-ELSE
6 You can use one IF-THEN or IF-THEN-ELSIF statement inside
another IF-THEN or IF-THEN-ELSIF statement(s).

Loops in PL/SQL.

here may be a situation when you need to execute a block of code several number
of times. In general, statements are executed sequentially: The first statement in a
function is executed first, followed by the second, and so on.

Programming languages provide various control structures that allow for more
complicated execution paths.

A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple

times and following is the general form of a loop statement in most of the
programming languages −

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PL/SQL provides the following types of loop to handle the looping requirements.
Click the following links to check their detail.

S.No Loop Type & Description

PL/SQL Basic LOOP

In this loop structure, sequence of statements is enclosed between the

1 LOOP and the END LOOP statements. At each iteration, the sequence
of statements is executed and then control resumes at the top of the
loop.

PL/SQL WHILE LOOP

2 Repeats a statement or group of statements while a given condition is
true. It tests the condition before executing the loop body.

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PL/SQL FOR LOOP

3 Execute a sequence of statements multiple times and abbreviates the
code that manages the loop variable.

Nested loops in PL/SQL

4 You can use one or more loop inside any another basic loop, while, or
for loop.

Labeling a PL/SQL Loop

PL/SQL loops can be labeled. The label should be enclosed by double angle
brackets (<< and >>) and appear at the beginning of the LOOP statement. The
label name can also appear at the end of the LOOP statement. You may use the
label in the EXIT statement to exit from the loop.

The following program illustrates the concept −

DECLARE

i number(1);

j number(1);

BEGIN

<< outer_loop >>

FOR i IN 1..3 LOOP

<< inner_loop >>

FOR j IN 1..3 LOOP

dbms_output.put_line('i is: '|| i || ' and j is: ' || j);

END loop inner_loop;

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END loop outer_loop;

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

i is: 1 and j is: 1

i is: 1 and j is: 2

i is: 1 and j is: 3

i is: 2 and j is: 1

i is: 2 and j is: 2

i is: 2 and j is: 3

i is: 3 and j is: 1

i is: 3 and j is: 2

i is: 3 and j is: 3

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

The Loop Control Statements

Loop control statements change execution from its normal sequence. When
execution leaves a scope, all automatic objects that were created in that scope are
destroyed.

PL/SQL supports the following control statements. Labeling loops also help in
taking the control outside a loop. Click the following links to check their details.

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S.No Control Statement & Description

EXIT statement
1 The Exit statement completes the loop and control passes to the statement
immediately after the END LOOP.

CONTINUE statement
2 Causes the loop to skip the remainder of its body and immediately retest
its condition prior to reiterating.

GOTO statement
3 Transfers control to the labeled statement. Though it is not advised to use
the GOTO statement in your program.

string in PL/SQL

The string in PL/SQL is actually a sequence of characters with an optional size

specification. The characters could be numeric, letters, blank, special characters or
a combination of all. PL/SQL offers three kinds of strings −

 Fixed-length strings − In such strings, programmers specify the length while

declaring the string. The string is right-padded with spaces to the length so
specified.

 Variable-length strings − In such strings, a maximum length up to 32,767,

for the string is specified and no padding takes place.

 Character large objects (CLOBs) − These are variable-length strings that can
be up to 128 terabytes.

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PL/SQL strings could be either variables or literals. A string literal is enclosed

within quotation marks. For example,

'This is a string literal.' Or 'hello world'

To include a single quote inside a string literal, you need to type two single quotes
next to one another. For example,

'this isn''t what it looks like'

Declaring String Variables

Oracle database provides numerous string datatypes, such as CHAR, NCHAR,

VARCHAR2, NVARCHAR2, CLOB, and NCLOB. The datatypes prefixed with
an 'N' are 'national character set' datatypes, that store Unicode character data.

If you need to declare a variable-length string, you must provide the maximum
length of that string. For example, the VARCHAR2 data type. The following
example illustrates declaring and using some string variables −

DECLARE

name varchar2(20);

company varchar2(30);

introduction clob;

choice char(1);

BEGIN

name := 'John Smith';

company := 'Infotech';

introduction := ' Hello! I''m John Smith from Infotech.';

choice := 'y';

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IF choice = 'y' THEN

dbms_output.put_line(name);

dbms_output.put_line(company);

dbms_output.put_line(introduction);

END IF;

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

John Smith

Infotech

Hello! I'm John Smith from Infotech.

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

To declare a fixed-length string, use the CHAR datatype. Here you do not have to
specify a maximum length for a fixed-length variable. If you leave off the length
constraint, Oracle Database automatically uses a maximum length required. The
following two declarations are identical −

red_flag CHAR(1) := 'Y';

red_flag CHAR := 'Y';

PL/SQL String Functions and Operators

PL/SQL offers the concatenation operator (||) for joining two strings. The
following table provides the string functions provided by PL/SQL −

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S.No Function & Purpose

ASCII(x);
1
Returns the ASCII value of the character x.

CHR(x);
2
Returns the character with the ASCII value of x.

CONCAT(x, y);
3
Concatenates the strings x and y and returns the appended string.

INITCAP(x);
4 Converts the initial letter of each word in x to uppercase and returns that
string.

INSTR(x, find_string [, start] [, occurrence]);

5
Searches for find_string in x and returns the position at which it occurs.

INSTRB(x);
6 Returns the location of a string within another string, but returns the
value in bytes.

LENGTH(x);
7
Returns the number of characters in x.

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LENGTHB(x);
8 Returns the length of a character string in bytes for single byte character
set.

LOWER(x);
9
Converts the letters in x to lowercase and returns that string.

LPAD(x, width [, pad_string]) ;

10 Pads x with spaces to the left, to bring the total length of the string up to
width characters.

LTRIM(x [, trim_string]);
11
Trims characters from the left of x.

NANVL(x, value);
12 Returns value if x matches the NaN special value (not a number),
otherwise x is returned.

NLS_INITCAP(x);
13 Same as the INITCAP function except that it can use a different sort
method as specified by NLSSORT.

NLS_LOWER(x) ;
14 Same as the LOWER function except that it can use a different sort
method as specified by NLSSORT.

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NLS_UPPER(x);
15 Same as the UPPER function except that it can use a different sort
method as specified by NLSSORT.

NLSSORT(x);
16 Changes the method of sorting the characters. Must be specified before
any NLS function; otherwise, the default sort will be used.

NVL(x, value);
17
Returns value if x is null; otherwise, x is returned.

NVL2(x, value1, value2);

18
Returns value1 if x is not null; if x is null, value2 is returned.

REPLACE(x, search_string, replace_string);

19
Searches x for search_string and replaces it with replace_string.

RPAD(x, width [, pad_string]);

20
Pads x to the right.

RTRIM(x [, trim_string]);
21
Trims x from the right.

SOUNDEX(x) ;
22
Returns a string containing the phonetic representation of x.

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SUBSTR(x, start [, length]);

23 Returns a substring of x that begins at the position specified by start. An
optional length for the substring may be supplied.

SUBSTRB(x);
24 Same as SUBSTR except that the parameters are expressed in bytes
instead of characters for the single-byte character systems.

TRIM([trim_char FROM) x);

25
Trims characters from the left and right of x.

UPPER(x);
26
Converts the letters in x to uppercase and returns that string.

Let us now work out on a few examples to understand the concept −

Example 1

DECLARE

greetings varchar2(11) := 'hello world';

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line(UPPER(greetings));

dbms_output.put_line(LOWER(greetings));

dbms_output.put_line(INITCAP(greetings));

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/* retrieve the first character in the string */

dbms_output.put_line ( SUBSTR (greetings, 1, 1));

/* retrieve the last character in the string */

dbms_output.put_line ( SUBSTR (greetings, -1, 1));

/* retrieve five characters,

starting from the seventh position. */

dbms_output.put_line ( SUBSTR (greetings, 7, 5));

/* retrieve the remainder of the string,

starting from the second position. */

dbms_output.put_line ( SUBSTR (greetings, 2));

/* find the location of the first "e" */

dbms_output.put_line ( INSTR (greetings, 'e'));

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

HELLO WORLD

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hello world

Hello World

World

ello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Example 2

DECLARE

greetings varchar2(30) := '......Hello World.....';

BEGIN

dbms_output.put_line(RTRIM(greetings,'.'));

dbms_output.put_line(LTRIM(greetings, '.'));

dbms_output.put_line(TRIM( '.' from greetings));

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

......Hello World

Hello World.....

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Hello World

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Packages in PL/SQL

Packages are schema objects that groups logically related PL/SQL types, variables,
and subprograms.

A package will have two mandatory parts −

 Package specification

 Package body or definition

Package Specification

The specification is the interface to the package. It just DECLARES the types,
variables, constants, exceptions, cursors, and subprograms that can be referenced
from outside the package. In other words, it contains all information about the
content of the package, but excludes the code for the subprograms.

All objects placed in the specification are called public objects. Any subprogram
not in the package specification but coded in the package body is called
a private object.

The following code snippet shows a package specification having a single

procedure. You can have many global variables defined and multiple procedures or
functions inside a package.

CREATE PACKAGE cust_sal AS

PROCEDURE find_sal(c_id customers.id%type);

END cust_sal;

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When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Package created.

Package Body

The package body has the codes for various methods declared in the package
specification and other private declarations, which are hidden from the code
outside the package.

The CREATE PACKAGE BODY Statement is used for creating the package body.
The following code snippet shows the package body declaration for
the cust_sal package created above. I assumed that we already have CUSTOMERS
table created in our database as mentioned in the PL/SQL - Variables chapter.

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY cust_sal AS

PROCEDURE find_sal(c_id customers.id%TYPE) IS

c_sal customers.salary%TYPE;

BEGIN

SELECT salary INTO c_sal

FROM customers

WHERE id = c_id;

dbms_output.put_line('Salary: '|| c_sal);

END find_sal;

END cust_sal;

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When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Package body created.

Using the Package Elements

The package elements (variables, procedures or functions) are accessed with the
following syntax −

package_name.element_name;

Consider, we already have created the above package in our database schema, the
following program uses the find_sal method of the cust_sal package −

DECLARE

code customers.id%type := &cc_id;

BEGIN

cust_sal.find_sal(code);

END;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it prompts to enter the
customer ID and when you enter an ID, it displays the corresponding salary as
follows −

Enter value for cc_id: 1

Salary: 3000

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.

Example

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The following program provides a more complete package. We will use the
CUSTOMERS table stored in our database with the following records −

Select * from customers;

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 3000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 3000.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 3000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 7500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 9500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 5500.00 |

+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+

The Package Specification

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE c_package AS

-- Adds a customer

PROCEDURE addCustomer(c_id customers.id%type,

c_name customerS.No.ame%type,

c_age customers.age%type,

c_addr customers.address%type,

c_sal customers.salary%type);

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-- Removes a customer

PROCEDURE delCustomer(c_id customers.id%TYPE);

--Lists all customers

PROCEDURE listCustomer;

END c_package;

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it creates the above package
and displays the following result −

Package created.

Creating the Package Body

CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY c_package AS

PROCEDURE addCustomer(c_id customers.id%type,

c_name customerS.No.ame%type,

c_age customers.age%type,

c_addr customers.address%type,

c_sal customers.salary%type)

IS

BEGIN

INSERT INTO customers (id,name,age,address,salary)

VALUES(c_id, c_name, c_age, c_addr, c_sal);

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END addCustomer;

PROCEDURE delCustomer(c_id customers.id%type) IS

BEGIN

DELETE FROM customers

WHERE id = c_id;

END delCustomer;

PROCEDURE listCustomer IS

CURSOR c_customers is

SELECT name FROM customers;

TYPE c_list is TABLE OF customers.Name%type;

name_list c_list := c_list();

counter integer :=0;

BEGIN

FOR n IN c_customers LOOP

counter := counter +1;

name_list.extend;

name_list(counter) := n.name;

dbms_output.put_line('Customer(' ||counter|| ')'||name_list(counter));

END LOOP;

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END listCustomer;

END c_package;

The above example makes use of the nested table. We will discuss the concept of
nested table in the next chapter.

When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Package body created.

Using The Package

The following program uses the methods declared and defined in the
package c_package.

DECLARE

code customers.id%type:= 8;

BEGIN

c_package.addcustomer(7, 'Rajnish', 25, 'Chennai', 3500);

c_package.addcustomer(8, 'Subham', 32, 'Delhi', 7500);

c_package.listcustomer;

c_package.delcustomer(code);

c_package.listcustomer;

END;

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When the above code is executed at the SQL prompt, it produces the following
result −

Customer(1): Ramesh

Customer(2): Khilan

Customer(3): kaushik

Customer(4): Chaitali

Customer(5): Hardik

Customer(6): Komal

Customer(7): Rajnish

Customer(8): Subham

Customer(1): Ramesh

Customer(2): Khilan

Customer(3): kaushik

Customer(4): Chaitali

Customer(5): Hardik

Customer(6): Komal

Customer(7): Rajnish

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed

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Unit 3. Transaction Management

In this chapter, we will discuss the transactions in PL/SQL. A
database transaction is an atomic unit of work that may consist of one or more
related SQL statements. It is called atomic because the database modifications
brought about by the SQL statements that constitute a transaction can collectively
be either committed, i.e., made permanent to the database or rolled back (undone)
from the database.

A successfully executed SQL statement and a committed transaction are not same.
Even if an SQL statement is executed successfully, unless the transaction
containing the statement is committed, it can be rolled back and all changes made
by the statement(s) can be undone.

Starting and Ending a Transaction

A transaction has a beginning and an end. A transaction starts when one of the
following events take place −

 The first SQL statement is performed after connecting to the database.

 At each new SQL statement issued after a transaction is completed.

A transaction ends when one of the following events take place −

 A COMMIT or a ROLLBACK statement is issued.

 A DDL statement, such as CREATE TABLE statement, is issued; because

in that case a COMMIT is automatically performed.

 A DCL statement, such as a GRANT statement, is issued; because in that

case a COMMIT is automatically performed.

 User disconnects from the database.

 User exits from SQL*PLUS by issuing the EXIT command, a COMMIT is

automatically performed.

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 SQL*Plus terminates abnormally, a ROLLBACK is automatically

performed.

 A DML statement fails; in that case a ROLLBACK is automatically

performed for undoing that DML statement.

Committing a Transaction

A transaction is made permanent by issuing the SQL command COMMIT. The

general syntax for the COMMIT command is −

COMMIT;

For example,

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (3, 'kaushik', 23, 'Kota', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (4, 'Chaitali', 25, 'Mumbai', 6500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

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VALUES (5, 'Hardik', 27, 'Bhopal', 8500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (6, 'Komal', 22, 'MP', 4500.00 );

COMMIT;

Rolling Back Transactions

Changes made to the database without COMMIT could be undone using the
ROLLBACK command.

The general syntax for the ROLLBACK command is −

ROLLBACK [TO SAVEPOINT < savepoint_name>];

When a transaction is aborted due to some unprecedented situation, like system

failure, the entire transaction since a commit is automatically rolled back. If you
are not using savepoint, then simply use the following statement to rollback all the
changes −

ROLLBACK;

Savepoints

Savepoints are sort of markers that help in splitting a long transaction into smaller
units by setting some checkpoints. By setting savepoints within a long transaction,
you can roll back to a checkpoint if required. This is done by issuing
the SAVEPOINT command.

The general syntax for the SAVEPOINT command is −

SAVEPOINT < savepoint_name >;

For example

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INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (7, 'Rajnish', 27, 'HP', 9500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (8, 'Riddhi', 21, 'WB', 4500.00 );

SAVEPOINT sav1;

UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET SALARY = SALARY + 1000;

ROLLBACK TO sav1;

UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET SALARY = SALARY + 1000

WHERE ID = 7;

UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET SALARY = SALARY + 1000

WHERE ID = 8;

COMMIT;

ROLLBACK TO sav1 − This statement rolls back all the changes up to the point,
where you had marked savepoint sav1.

After that, the new changes that you make will start.

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Automatic Transaction Control

To execute a COMMIT automatically whenever an INSERT,

UPDATE or DELETE command is executed, you can set
the AUTOCOMMIT environment variable as −

SET AUTOCOMMIT ON;

You can turn-off the auto commit mode using the following command −

SET AUTOCOMMIT OFF;

Transaction

o The transaction is a set of logically related operation. It contains a group of

tasks.

o A transaction is an action or series of actions. It is performed by a single

user to perform operations for accessing the contents of the database.

Example: Suppose an employee of bank transfers Rs 800 from X's account to Y's
account. This small transaction contains several low-level tasks:

X's Account

1. Open_Account(X)

2. Old_Balance = X.balance

3. New_Balance = Old_Balance - 800

4. X.balance = New_Balance

5. Close_Account(X)

Y's Account

1. Open_Account(Y)

2. Old_Balance = Y.balance

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3. New_Balance = Old_Balance + 800

4. Y.balance = New_Balance

5. Close_Account(Y)

Operations of Transaction:

Following are the main operations of transaction:

Read(X): Read operation is used to read the value of X from the database and
stores it in a buffer in main memory.

Write(X): Write operation is used to write the value back to the database from the
buffer.

Let's take an example to debit transaction from an account which consists of

following operations:

1. 1. R(X);

2. 2. X = X - 500;

3. 3. W(X);

Let's assume the value of X before starting of the transaction is 4000.

o The first operation reads X's value from database and stores it in a buffer.

o The second operation will decrease the value of X by 500. So buffer will
contain 3500.

o The third operation will write the buffer's value to the database. So X's final
value will be 3500.

But it may be possible that because of the failure of hardware, software or power,
etc. that transaction may fail before finished all the operations in the set.

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For example: If in the above transaction, the debit transaction fails after executing
operation 2 then X's value will remain 4000 in the database which is not acceptable
by the bank.

To solve this problem, we have two important operations:

Commit: It is used to save the work done permanently.

Rollback: It is used to undo the work done.

Transaction property

The transaction has the four properties. These are used to maintain consistency in a
database, before and after the transaction.

Property of Transaction

1. Atomicity

2. Consistency

3. Isolation

4. Durability

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Atomicity

o It states that all operations of the transaction take place at once if not, the
transaction is aborted.

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o There is no midway, i.e., the transaction cannot occur partially. Each

transaction is treated as one unit and either run to completion or is not
executed at all.

Atomicity involves the following two operations:

Abort: If a transaction aborts then all the changes made are not visible.

Commit: If a transaction commits then all the changes made are visible.

Example: Let's assume that following transaction T consisting of T1 and T2. A

consists of Rs 600 and B consists of Rs 300. Transfer Rs 100 from account A to
account B.

T1 T2

Read(A) Read(B)
A:= A-100 Y:= Y+100
Write(A) Write(B)

After completion of the transaction, A consists of Rs 500 and B consists of Rs 400.

If the transaction T fails after the completion of transaction T1 but before

completion of transaction T2, then the amount will be deducted from A but not
added to B. This shows the inconsistent database state. In order to ensure
correctness of database state, the transaction must be executed in entirety.

Consistency

o The integrity constraints are maintained so that the database is consistent

before and after the transaction.

o The execution of a transaction will leave a database in either its prior stable
state or a new stable state.

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o The consistent property of database states that every transaction sees a

consistent database instance.

o The transaction is used to transform the database from one consistent state to
another consistent state.

For example: The total amount must be maintained before or after the transaction.

1. Total before T occurs = 600+300=900

2. Total after T occurs= 500+400=900

Therefore, the database is consistent. In the case when T1 is completed but T2

fails, then inconsistency will occur.

Isolation

o It shows that the data which is used at the time of execution of a transaction
cannot be used by the second transaction until the first one is completed.

o In isolation, if the transaction T1 is being executed and using the data item
X, then that data item can't be accessed by any other transaction T2 until the
transaction T1 ends.

o The concurrency control subsystem of the DBMS enforced the isolation

property.

Durability

o The durability property is used to indicate the performance of the database's

consistent state. It states that the transaction made the permanent changes.

o They cannot be lost by the erroneous operation of a faulty transaction or by

the system failure. When a transaction is completed, then the database
reaches a state known as the consistent state. That consistent state cannot be
lost, even in the event of a system's failure.

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o The recovery subsystem of the DBMS has the responsibility of Durability

property.

States of Transaction

In a database, the transaction can be in one of the following states -

Active state

o The active state is the first state of every transaction. In this state, the
transaction is being executed.

o For example: Insertion or deletion or updating a record is done here. But all
the records are still not saved to the database.

Partially committed

o In the partially committed state, a transaction executes its final operation, but
the data is still not saved to the database.

o In the total mark calculation example, a final display of the total marks step
is executed in this state.

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Committed

A transaction is said to be in a committed state if it executes all its operations

successfully. In this state, all the effects are now permanently saved on the
database system.

Failed state

o If any of the checks made by the database recovery system fails, then the
transaction is said to be in the failed state.

o In the example of total mark calculation, if the database is not able to fire a
query to fetch the marks, then the transaction will fail to execute.

Aborted

o If any of the checks fail and the transaction has reached a failed state then
the database recovery system will make sure that the database is in its
previous consistent state. If not then it will abort or roll back the transaction
to bring the database into a consistent state.

o If the transaction fails in the middle of the transaction then before executing
the transaction, all the executed transactions are rolled back to its consistent
state.

o After aborting the transaction, the database recovery module will select one
of the two operations:

1. Re-start the transaction

2. Kill the transaction

DBMS Concurrency Control

Concurrency Control is the management procedure that is required for controlling

concurrent execution of the operations that take place on a database.

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But before knowing about concurrency control, we should know about concurrent
execution.

Concurrent Execution in DBMS

o In a multi-user system, multiple users can access and use the same database
at one time, which is known as the concurrent execution of the database. It
means that the same database is executed simultaneously on a multi-user
system by different users.

o While working on the database transactions, there occurs the requirement of

using the database by multiple users for performing different operations, and
in that case, concurrent execution of the database is performed.

o The thing is that the simultaneous execution that is performed should be

done in an interleaved manner, and no operation should affect the other
executing operations, thus maintaining the consistency of the database.
Thus, on making the concurrent execution of the transaction operations,
there occur several challenging problems that need to be solved.

Problems with Concurrent Execution

In a database transaction, the two main operations

are READ and WRITE operations. So, there is a need to manage these two
operations in the concurrent execution of the transactions as if these operations are
not performed in an interleaved manner, and the data may become inconsistent. So,
the following problems occur with the Concurrent Execution of the operations:

Problem 1: Lost Update Problems (W - W Conflict)

The problem occurs when two different database transactions perform the
read/write operations on the same database items in an interleaved manner (i.e.,
concurrent execution) that makes the values of the items incorrect hence making
the database inconsistent.

For example:

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Consider the below diagram where two transactions TX and TY, are
performed on the same account A where the balance of account A is $300.

o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value of account A, i.e., $300 (only
read).

o At time t2, transaction TX deducts $50 from account A that becomes $250
(only deducted and not updated/write).

o Alternately, at time t3, transaction TY reads the value of account A that will
be $300 only because TX didn't update the value yet.

o At time t4, transaction TY adds $100 to account A that becomes $400 (only
added but not updated/write).

o At time t6, transaction TX writes the value of account A that will be updated
as $250 only, as TY didn't update the value yet.

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o Similarly, at time t7, transaction TY writes the values of account A, so it will

write as done at time t4 that will be $400. It means the value written by TX is
lost, i.e., $250 is lost.

Hence data becomes incorrect, and database sets to inconsistent.

Dirty Read Problems (W-R Conflict)

The dirty read problem occurs when one transaction updates an item of the
database, and somehow the transaction fails, and before the data gets rollback, the
updated database item is accessed by another transaction. There comes the Read-
Write Conflict between both transactions.

For example:

Consider two transactions TX and TY in the below diagram performing

read/write operations on account A where the available balance in account A
is $300:

o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value of account A, i.e., $300.

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o At time t2, transaction TX adds $50 to account A that becomes $350.

o At time t3, transaction TX writes the updated value in account A, i.e., $350.

o Then at time t4, transaction TY reads account A that will be read as $350.

o Then at time t5, transaction TX rollbacks due to server problem, and the
value changes back to $300 (as initially).

o But the value for account A remains $350 for transaction TY as committed,
which is the dirty read and therefore known as the Dirty Read Problem.

Unrepeatable Read Problem (W-R Conflict)

Also known as Inconsistent Retrievals Problem that occurs when in a transaction,

two different values are read for the same database item.

For example:

Consider two transactions, TX and TY, performing the read/write operations

on account A, having an available balance = $300. The diagram is shown
below:

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o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value from account A, i.e., $300.

o At time t2, transaction TY reads the value from account A, i.e., $300.

o At time t3, transaction TY updates the value of account A by adding $100 to

the available balance, and then it becomes $400.

o At time t4, transaction TY writes the updated value, i.e., $400.

o After that, at time t5, transaction TX reads the available value of account A,
and that will be read as $400.

o It means that within the same transaction TX, it reads two different values of
account A, i.e., $ 300 initially, and after updation made by transaction TY, it
reads $400. It is an unrepeatable read and is therefore known as the
Unrepeatable read problem.

Thus, in order to maintain consistency in the database and avoid such problems
that take place in concurrent execution, management is needed, and that is where
the concept of Concurrency Control comes into role.

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Concurrency Control

Concurrency Control is the working concept that is required for controlling and
managing the concurrent execution of database operations and thus avoiding the
inconsistencies in the database. Thus, for maintaining the concurrency of the
database, we have the concurrency control protocols.

Concurrency Control Protocols

The concurrency control protocols ensure the atomicity, consistency, isolation,

durability and serializability of the concurrent execution of the database
transactions. Therefore, these protocols are categorized as:

o Lock Based Concurrency Control Protocol

o Time Stamp Concurrency Control Protocol

o Validation Based Concurrency Control Protocol

We will understand and discuss each protocol one by one in our next section

Schedule

A series of operation from one transaction to another transaction is known as

schedule. It is used to preserve the order of the operation in each of the individual
transaction.

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1. Serial Schedule

The serial schedule is a type of schedule where one transaction is executed

completely before starting another transaction. In the serial schedule, when the first
transaction completes its cycle, then the next transaction is executed.

For example: Suppose there are two transactions T1 and T2 which have some
operations. If it has no interleaving of operations, then there are the following two
possible outcomes:

1. Execute all the operations of T1 which was followed by all the operations of
T2.

2. Execute all the operations of T1 which was followed by all the operations of
T2.

o In the given (a) figure, Schedule A shows the serial schedule where T1
followed by T2.

o In the given (b) figure, Schedule B shows the serial schedule where T2
followed by T1.

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2. Non-serial Schedule

o If interleaving of operations is allowed, then there will be non-serial

schedule.

o It contains many possible orders in which the system can execute the
individual operations of the transactions.

o In the given figure (c) and (d), Schedule C and Schedule D are the non-serial
schedules. It has interleaving of operations.

3. Serializable schedule

o The serializability of schedules is used to find non-serial schedules that

allow the transaction to execute concurrently without interfering with one
another.

o It identifies which schedules are correct when executions of the transaction

have interleaving of their operations.

o A non-serial schedule will be serializable if its result is equal to the result of

its transactions executed serially.

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Here,

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Schedule A and Schedule B are serial schedule.

Schedule C and Schedule D are Non-serial schedule.

Testing of Serializability

Serialization Graph is used to test the Serializability of a schedule.

Assume a schedule S. For S, we construct a graph known as precedence graph.

This graph has a pair G = (V, E), where V consists a set of vertices, and E consists
a set of edges. The set of vertices is used to contain all the transactions
participating in the schedule. The set of edges is used to contain all edges Ti ->Tj
for which one of the three conditions holds:

1. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes write (Q) before Tj executes read (Q).

2. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes read (Q) before Tj executes write (Q).

3. Create a node Ti → Tj if Ti executes write (Q) before Tj executes write (Q).

o If a precedence graph contains a single edge Ti → Tj, then all the

instructions of Ti are executed before the first instruction of Tj is executed.

o If a precedence graph for schedule S contains a cycle, then S is non-

serializable. If the precedence graph has no cycle, then S is known as
serializable.

For example:

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Explanation:

Read(A): In T1, no subsequent writes to A, so no new edges

Read(B): In T2, no subsequent writes to B, so no new edges
Read(C): In T3, no subsequent writes to C, so no new edges
Write(B): B is subsequently read by T3, so add edge T2 → T3
Write(C): C is subsequently read by T1, so add edge T3 → T1
Write(A): A is subsequently read by T2, so add edge T1 → T2
Write(A): In T2, no subsequent reads to A, so no new edges
Write(C): In T1, no subsequent reads to C, so no new edges
Write(B): In T3, no subsequent reads to B, so no new edges

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Precedence graph for schedule S1:

The precedence graph for schedule S1 contains a cycle that's why Schedule S1 is
non-serializable.

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Explanation:

Read(A): In T4,no subsequent writes to A, so no new edges

Read(C): In T4, no subsequent writes to C, so no new edges
Write(A): A is subsequently read by T5, so add edge T4 → T5
Read(B): In T5,no subsequent writes to B, so no new edges
Write(C): C is subsequently read by T6, so add edge T4 → T6
Write(B): A is subsequently read by T6, so add edge T5 → T6
Write(C): In T6, no subsequent reads to C, so no new edges

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Write(A): In T5, no subsequent reads to A, so no new edges

Write(B): In T6, no subsequent reads to B, so no new edges

Precedence graph for schedule S2:

The precedence graph for schedule S2 contains no cycle that's why ScheduleS2 is
serializable.

Conflict Serializable Schedule

o A schedule is called conflict serializability if after swapping of non-

conflicting operations, it can transform into a serial schedule.

o The schedule will be a conflict serializable if it is conflict equivalent to a

serial schedule.

Conflicting Operations

The two operations become conflicting if all conditions satisfy:

1. Both belong to separate transactions.

2. They have the same data item.

3. They contain at least one write operation.

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Example:

Swapping is possible only if S1 and S2 are logically equal.

Here, S1 = S2. That means it is non-conflict.

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Here, S1 ≠ S2. That means it is conflict.

Conflict Equivalent

In the conflict equivalent, one can be transformed to another by swapping non-

conflicting operations. In the given example, S2 is conflict equivalent to S1 (S1
can be converted to S2 by swapping non-conflicting operations).

Two schedules are said to be conflict equivalent if and only if:

1. They contain the same set of the transaction.

2. If each pair of conflict operations are ordered in the same way.

Example:

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Schedule S2 is a serial schedule because, in this, all operations of T1 are performed

before starting any operation of T2. Schedule S1 can be transformed into a serial
schedule by swapping non-conflicting operations of S1.

After swapping of non-conflict operations, the schedule S1 becomes:

T1 T2

Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(B)
Write(B)
Read(A)
Write(A)
Read(B)
Write(B)

Since, S1 is conflict serializable.

View Serializability

o A schedule will view serializable if it is view equivalent to a serial schedule.

o If a schedule is conflict serializable, then it will be view serializable.

o The view serializable which does not conflict serializable contains blind
writes.

View Equivalent

Two schedules S1 and S2 are said to be view equivalent if they satisfy the
following conditions:

1. Initial Read

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An initial read of both schedules must be the same. Suppose two schedule S1 and
S2. In schedule S1, if a transaction T1 is reading the data item A, then in S2,
transaction T1 should also read A.

Above two schedules are view equivalent because Initial read operation in S1 is
done by T1 and in S2 it is also done by T1.

2. Updated Read

In schedule S1, if Ti is reading A which is updated by Tj then in S2 also, Ti should

read A which is updated by Tj.

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Above two schedules are not view equal because, in S1, T3 is reading A updated
by T2 and in S2, T3 is reading A updated by T1.

3. Final Write

A final write must be the same between both the schedules. In schedule S1, if a
transaction T1 updates A at last then in S2, final writes operations should also be
done by T1.

Above two schedules is view equal because Final write operation in S1 is done by
T3 and in S2, the final write operation is also done by T3.

Example:

Schedule S

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With 3 transactions, the total number of possible schedule

1. = 3! = 6

2. S1 = <T1 T2 T3>

3. S2 = <T1 T3 T2>

4. S3 = <T2 T3 T1>

5. S4 = <T2 T1 T3>

6. S5 = <T3 T1 T2>

7. S6 = <T3 T2 T1>

Taking first schedule S1:

Schedule S1

Step 1: final updation on data items

In both schedules S and S1, there is no read except the initial read that's why we
don't need to check that condition.

Step 2: Initial Read

The initial read operation in S is done by T1 and in S1, it is also done by T1.

Step 3: Final Write

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The final write operation in S is done by T3 and in S1, it is also done by T3. So, S
and S1 are view Equivalent.

The first schedule S1 satisfies all three conditions, so we don't need to check
another schedule.

Hence, view equivalent serial schedule is:

1. T1 → T2 → T3

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Unit 4 Concurrency Control & Recovery System

RDBMS Concurrency Control

Concurrency Control is the management procedure that is required for controlling

concurrent execution of the operations that take place on a database.

But before knowing about concurrency control, we should know about concurrent
execution.

Concurrent Execution in RDBMS

o In a multi-user system, multiple users can access and use the same database
at one time, which is known as the concurrent execution of the database. It
means that the same database is executed simultaneously on a multi-user
system by different users.

o While working on the database transactions, there occurs the requirement of

using the database by multiple users for performing different operations, and
in that case, concurrent execution of the database is performed.

o The thing is that the simultaneous execution that is performed should be

done in an interleaved manner, and no operation should affect the other
executing operations, thus maintaining the consistency of the database.
Thus, on making the concurrent execution of the transaction operations,
there occur several challenging problems that need to be solved.

Problems with Concurrent Execution

In a database transaction, the two main operations

are READ and WRITE operations. So, there is a need to manage these two

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operations in the concurrent execution of the transactions as if these operations are

not performed in an interleaved manner, and the data may become inconsistent. So,
the following problems occur with the Concurrent Execution of the operations:

Problem 1: Lost Update Problems (W - W Conflict)

The problem occurs when two different database transactions perform the
read/write operations on the same database items in an interleaved manner (i.e.,
concurrent execution) that makes the values of the items incorrect hence making
the database inconsistent.

For example:

Consider the below diagram where two transactions TX and TY, are
performed on the same account A where the balance of account A is $300.

o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value of account A, i.e., $300 (only
read).

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o At time t2, transaction TX deducts $50 from account A that becomes $250
(only deducted and not updated/write).

o Alternately, at time t3, transaction TY reads the value of account A that will
be $300 only because TX didn't update the value yet.

o At time t4, transaction TY adds $100 to account A that becomes $400 (only
added but not updated/write).

o At time t6, transaction TX writes the value of account A that will be updated
as $250 only, as TY didn't update the value yet.

o Similarly, at time t7, transaction TY writes the values of account A, so it will

write as done at time t4 that will be $400. It means the value written by TX is
lost, i.e., $250 is lost.

Hence data becomes incorrect, and database sets to inconsistent.

Dirty Read Problems (W-R Conflict)

The dirty read problem occurs when one transaction updates an item of the
database, and somehow the transaction fails, and before the data gets rollback, the
updated database item is accessed by another transaction. There comes the Read-
Write Conflict between both transactions.

For example:

Consider two transactions TX and TY in the below diagram performing

read/write operations on account A where the available balance in account A
is $300:

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o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value of account A, i.e., $300.

o At time t2, transaction TX adds $50 to account A that becomes $350.

o At time t3, transaction TX writes the updated value in account A, i.e., $350.

o Then at time t4, transaction TY reads account A that will be read as $350.

o Then at time t5, transaction TX rollbacks due to server problem, and the
value changes back to $300 (as initially).

o But the value for account A remains $350 for transaction TY as committed,
which is the dirty read and therefore known as the Dirty Read Problem.

Unrepeatable Read Problem (W-R Conflict)

Also known as Inconsistent Retrievals Problem that occurs when in a transaction,

two different values are read for the same database item.

For example:

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Consider two transactions, TX and TY, performing the read/write operations

on account A, having an available balance = $300. The diagram is shown
below:

o At time t1, transaction TX reads the value from account A, i.e., $300.

o At time t2, transaction TY reads the value from account A, i.e., $300.

o At time t3, transaction TY updates the value of account A by adding $100 to

the available balance, and then it becomes $400.

o At time t4, transaction TY writes the updated value, i.e., $400.

o After that, at time t5, transaction TX reads the available value of account A,
and that will be read as $400.

o It means that within the same transaction TX, it reads two different values of
account A, i.e., $ 300 initially, and after updation made by transaction TY, it
reads $400. It is an unrepeatable read and is therefore known as the
Unrepeatable read problem.

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Thus, in order to maintain consistency in the database and avoid such problems
that take place in concurrent execution, management is needed, and that is where
the concept of Concurrency Control comes into role.

Concurrency Control

Concurrency Control is the working concept that is required for controlling and
managing the concurrent execution of database operations and thus avoiding the
inconsistencies in the database. Thus, for maintaining the concurrency of the
database, we have the concurrency control protocols.

Concurrency Control Protocols

The concurrency control protocols ensure the atomicity, consistency, isolation,

durability and serializability of the concurrent execution of the database
transactions. Therefore, these protocols are categorized as:

o Lock Based Concurrency Control Protocol

o Time Stamp Concurrency Control Protocol

o Validation Based Concurrency Control Protocol

We will understand and discuss each protocol one by one in our next sections.

Lock-Based Protocol

In this type of protocol, any transaction cannot read or write data until it acquires
an appropriate lock on it. There are two types of lock:

1. Shared lock:

o It is also known as a Read-only lock. In a shared lock, the data item can only
read by the transaction.

o It can be shared between the transactions because when the transaction holds
a lock, then it can't update the data on the data item.

2. Exclusive lock:

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o In the exclusive lock, the data item can be both reads as well as written by
the transaction.

o This lock is exclusive, and in this lock, multiple transactions do not modify
the same data simultaneously.

There are four types of lock protocols available:

1. Simplistic lock protocol

It is the simplest way of locking the data while transaction. Simplistic lock-based
protocols allow all the transactions to get the lock on the data before insert or
delete or update on it. It will unlock the data item after completing the transaction.

2. Pre-claiming Lock Protocol

o Pre-claiming Lock Protocols evaluate the transaction to list all the data items
on which they need locks.

o Before initiating an execution of the transaction, it requests DBMS for all

the lock on all those data items.

o If all the locks are granted then this protocol allows the transaction to begin.
When the transaction is completed then it releases all the lock.

o If all the locks are not granted then this protocol allows the transaction to
rolls back and waits until all the locks are granted.

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3. Two-phase locking (2PL)

o The two-phase locking protocol divides the execution phase of the

transaction into three parts.

o In the first part, when the execution of the transaction starts, it seeks
permission for the lock it requires.

o In the second part, the transaction acquires all the locks. The third phase is
started as soon as the transaction releases its first lock.

o In the third phase, the transaction cannot demand any new locks. It only
releases the acquired locks.

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There are two phases of 2PL:

Growing phase: In the growing phase, a new lock on the data item may be
acquired by the transaction, but none can be released.

Shrinking phase: In the shrinking phase, existing lock held by the transaction may
be released, but no new locks can be acquired.

In the below example, if lock conversion is allowed then the following phase can
happen:

1. Upgrading of lock (from S(a) to X (a)) is allowed in growing phase.

2. Downgrading of lock (from X(a) to S(a)) must be done in shrinking phase.

Example:

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The following way shows how unlocking and locking work with 2-PL.

Transaction T1:

o Growing phase: from step 1-3

o Shrinking phase: from step 5-7

o Lock point: at 3

Transaction T2:

o Growing phase: from step 2-6

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o Shrinking phase: from step 8-9

o Lock point: at 6

4. Strict Two-phase locking (Strict-2PL)

o The first phase of Strict-2PL is similar to 2PL. In the first phase, after
acquiring all the locks, the transaction continues to execute normally.

o The only difference between 2PL and strict 2PL is that Strict-2PL does not
release a lock after using it.

o Strict-2PL waits until the whole transaction to commit, and then it releases
all the locks at a time.

o Strict-2PL protocol does not have shrinking phase of lock release.

It does not have cascading abort as 2PL does.

Timestamp Ordering Protocol

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o The Timestamp Ordering Protocol is used to order the transactions based on

their Timestamps. The order of transaction is nothing but the ascending
order of the transaction creation.

o The priority of the older transaction is higher that's why it executes first. To
determine the timestamp of the transaction, this protocol uses system time or
logical counter.

o The lock-based protocol is used to manage the order between conflicting

pairs among transactions at the execution time. But Timestamp based
protocols start working as soon as a transaction is created.

o Let's assume there are two transactions T1 and T2. Suppose the transaction
T1 has entered the system at 007 times and transaction T2 has entered the
system at 009 times. T1 has the higher priority, so it executes first as it is
entered the system first.

o The timestamp ordering protocol also maintains the timestamp of last 'read'
and 'write' operation on a data.

Basic Timestamp ordering protocol works as follows:

1. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues a Read

(X) operation:

o If W_TS(X) >TS(Ti) then the operation is rejected.

o If W_TS(X) <= TS(Ti) then the operation is executed.

o Timestamps of all the data items are updated.

2. Check the following condition whenever a transaction Ti issues

a Write(X) operation:

o If TS(Ti) < R_TS(X) then the operation is rejected.

o If TS(Ti) < W_TS(X) then the operation is rejected and Ti is rolled back
otherwise the operation is executed.

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Where,

TS(TI) denotes the timestamp of the transaction Ti.

R_TS(X) denotes the Read time-stamp of data-item X.

W_TS(X) denotes the Write time-stamp of data-item X.

Advantages and Disadvantages of TO protocol:

o TO protocol ensures serializability since the precedence graph is as follows:

o TS protocol ensures freedom from deadlock that means no transaction ever

waits.

o But the schedule may not be recoverable and may not even be cascade- free.

Deadlock in DBMS

A deadlock is a condition where two or more transactions are waiting indefinitely

for one another to give up locks. Deadlock is said to be one of the most feared
complications in DBMS as no task ever gets finished and is in waiting state
forever.

For example: In the student table, transaction T1 holds a lock on some rows and
needs to update some rows in the grade table. Simultaneously, transaction T2 holds

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locks on some rows in the grade table and needs to update the rows in the Student
table held by Transaction T1.

Now, the main problem arises. Now Transaction T1 is waiting for T2 to release its
lock and similarly, transaction T2 is waiting for T1 to release its lock. All activities
come to a halt state and remain at a standstill. It will remain in a standstill until the
DBMS detects the deadlock and aborts one of the transactions.

Deadlock Avoidance

o When a database is stuck in a deadlock state, then it is better to avoid the

database rather than aborting or restating the database. This is a waste of
time and resource.

o Deadlock avoidance mechanism is used to detect any deadlock situation in

advance. A method like "wait for graph" is used for detecting the deadlock
situation but this method is suitable only for the smaller database. For the
larger database, deadlock prevention method can be used.

Deadlock Detection

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In a database, when a transaction waits indefinitely to obtain a lock, then the

DBMS should detect whether the transaction is involved in a deadlock or not. The
lock manager maintains a Wait for the graph to detect the deadlock cycle in the
database.

Wait for Graph

o This is the suitable method for deadlock detection. In this method, a graph is
created based on the transaction and their lock. If the created graph has a
cycle or closed loop, then there is a deadlock.

o The wait for the graph is maintained by the system for every transaction
which is waiting for some data held by the others. The system keeps
checking the graph if there is any cycle in the graph.

The wait for a graph for the above scenario is shown below:

Deadlock Prevention

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o Deadlock prevention method is suitable for a large database. If the resources

are allocated in such a way that deadlock never occurs, then the deadlock
can be prevented.

o The Database management system analyzes the operations of the transaction

whether they can create a deadlock situation or not. If they do, then the
DBMS never allowed that transaction to be executed.

Wait-Die scheme

In this scheme, if a transaction requests for a resource which is already held with a
conflicting lock by another transaction then the DBMS simply checks the
timestamp of both transactions. It allows the older transaction to wait until the
resource is available for execution.

Let's assume there are two transactions Ti and Tj and let TS(T) is a timestamp of
any transaction T. If T2 holds a lock by some other transaction and T1 is
requesting for resources held by T2 then the following actions are performed by
DBMS:

1. Check if TS(Ti) < TS(Tj) - If Ti is the older transaction and Tj has held
some resource, then Ti is allowed to wait until the data-item is available for
execution. That means if the older transaction is waiting for a resource
which is locked by the younger transaction, then the older transaction is
allowed to wait for resource until it is available.

2. Check if TS(Ti) < TS(Tj) - If Ti is older transaction and has held some
resource and if Tj is waiting for it, then Tj is killed and restarted later with
the random delay but with the same timestamp.

Wound wait scheme

o In wound wait scheme, if the older transaction requests for a resource which
is held by the younger transaction, then older transaction forces younger one
to kill the transaction and release the resource. After the minute delay, the
younger transaction is restarted but with the same timestamp.

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o If the older transaction has held a resource which is requested by the

Younger transaction, then the younger transaction is asked to wait until older
releases it.

Recovery and Atomicity

When a system crashes, it may have several transactions being executed and
various files opened for them to modify the data items. Transactions are made of
various operations, which are atomic in nature. But according to ACID properties
of DBMS, atomicity of transactions as a whole must be maintained, that is, either
all the operations are executed or none.

When a DBMS recovers from a crash, it should maintain the following −

 It should check the states of all the transactions, which were being executed.

 A transaction may be in the middle of some operation; the DBMS must

ensure the atomicity of the transaction in this case.

 It should check whether the transaction can be completed now or it needs to

be rolled back.

 No transactions would be allowed to leave the DBMS in an inconsistent

state.

There are two types of techniques, which can help a DBMS in recovering as well
as maintaining the atomicity of a transaction −

 Maintaining the logs of each transaction, and writing them onto some stable
storage before actually modifying the database.

 Maintaining shadow paging, where the changes are done on a volatile

memory, and later, the actual database is updated.

Log-based Recovery

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Log is a sequence of records, which maintains the records of actions performed by

a transaction. It is important that the logs are written prior to the actual
modification and stored on a stable storage media, which is failsafe.

Log-based recovery works as follows −

 The log file is kept on a stable storage media.

 When a transaction enters the system and starts execution, it writes a log
about it.

<Tn, Start>

 When the transaction modifies an item X, it write logs as follows −

<Tn, X, V1, V2>

It reads Tn has changed the value of X, from V1 to V2.

 When the transaction finishes, it logs −

<Tn, commit>

The database can be modified using two approaches −

 Deferred database modification − All logs are written on to the stable

storage and the database is updated when a transaction commits.

 Immediate database modification − Each log follows an actual database

modification. That is, the database is modified immediately after every
operation.

Recovery with Concurrent Transactions

When more than one transaction are being executed in parallel, the logs are
interleaved. At the time of recovery, it would become hard for the recovery system
to backtrack all logs, and then start recovering. To ease this situation, most modern
DBMS use the concept of 'checkpoints'.

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Checkpoint

Keeping and maintaining logs in real time and in real environment may fill out all
the memory space available in the system. As time passes, the log file may grow
too big to be handled at all. Checkpoint is a mechanism where all the previous logs
are removed from the system and stored permanently in a storage disk. Checkpoint
declares a point before which the DBMS was in consistent state, and all the
transactions were committed.

Recovery

When a system with concurrent transactions crashes and recovers, it behaves in the
following manner −

 The recovery system reads the logs backwards from the end to the last
checkpoint.

 It maintains two lists, an undo-list and a redo-list.

 If the recovery system sees a log with <Tn, Start> and <Tn, Commit> or just
<Tn, Commit>, it puts the transaction in the redo-list.

 If the recovery system sees a log with <Tn, Start> but no commit or abort log
found, it puts the transaction in undo-list.

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All the transactions in the undo-list are then undone and their logs are removed. All
the transactions in the redo-list and their previous logs are removed and then
redone before saving their logs.

Recovery with Concurrent Transaction

o Whenever more than one transaction is being executed, then the interleaved
of logs occur. During recovery, it would become difficult for the recovery
system to backtrack all logs and then start recovering.

o To ease this situation, 'checkpoint' concept is used by most DBMS.

As we have discussed checkpoint in Transaction Processing Concept of this

tutorial, so you can go through the concepts again to make things more clear.

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References:

o Database Management System Bipin Desai Galgotia Publications

New Delhi

o SQL/PLSQL the programming language of oracle Ivan Bayross

o Database System Concepts 5th Edition Silberschatz, Korth,

Sudershan McGraw-Hill

o https://www.javatpoint.com/

o https://www.tutorialspoint.com/

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