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Advanced Indexing Techniques: Bibliographical Notes

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Advanced Indexing Techniques: Bibliographical Notes

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CHAPTER

24
Advanced Indexing Techniques

We studied the concept of indexing, as well as a number of different index structures in


Chapter 14. While some index structures, such as B+ -trees, were covered in detail, oth-
ers such as hashing, write-optimized indices, bitmap indices, and spatial indices were
only briefly outlined in Chapter 14. In this chapter we provide further details of these
index structures. We provide detailed coverage of the LSM tree and its variants. We
then provide a detailed description of bitmap indices. Next, we provide more detailed
coverage of spatial indexing, covering quad trees and R-trees in more detail. Finally, we
cover hashing, with detailed coverage of dynamic hashing techniques.

Bibliographical Notes

The Log-Structured Merge (LSM) tree is presented in [O’Neil et al. (1996)], while the
Stepped Merge tree is presented in [Jagadish et al. (1997)]. [Vitter (2001)] provides
an extensive survey of external-memory data structures and algorithms.
Bitmap indices, and variants called bit-sliced indices and projection indices, are de-
scribed in [O’Neil and Quass (1997)]. They were first introduced in the IBM Model
204 file manager on the AS 400 platform. They provide very large speedups on certain
types of queries, and are today implemented on most database systems. Research on
bitmap indices includes [Wu and Buchmann (1998), Chan and Ioannidis (1998), Chan
and Ioannidis (1999)], and [Johnson (1999)].
[Samet (2006)] provides a textbook coverage of spatial data structures. [Samet
(1995)] provides an overview of the large amount of work on spatial index structures.
An early description of the quad tree is provided by [Finkel and Bentley (1974)].
[Samet (1990)] and [Samet (1995)] describe numerous variants of quad trees. [Bent-
ley (1975)] describes the k-d tree, and [Robinson (1981)] describes the k-d-B tree. The
R-tree was originally presented in [Guttman (1984)]. Extensions of the R-tree are pre-
sented by [Sellis et al. (1987)], which describes the R+ tree, and [Beckmann et al.
(1990)], which describes the R∗ tree. These structures provide better worst case com-
1175
1176 Chapter 24 Advanced Indexing Techniques

plexity guarantees for search than R-trees, but at a higher space cost. [Roussopoulos
et al. (1995)] describe algorithms for nearest neighbor search on R-trees.
Discussions of the basic data structures in hashing can be found in [Cormen et al.
(2009)]. [Knuth (1973)] analyzes a large number of different hashing techniques. Sev-
eral dynamic hashing schemes exist. Extendable hashing was introduced by [Fagin et al.
(1979)]. Linear hashing was introduced by [Litwin (1978)] and [Litwin (1980)]. A
performance comparison with extendable hashing is given by [Rathi et al. (1990)]. An
alternative given by [Ramakrishna and Larson (1989)] allows retrieval in a single disk
access at the price of a high overhead for a small fraction of database modifications.
Partitioned hashing is an extension of hashing to multiple attributes, and is covered in
[Rivest (1976), Burkhard (1976)], and [Burkhard (1979)].

Bibliography

[Beckmann et al. (1990)] N. Beckmann, H. P. Kriegel, R. Schneider, and B. Seeger, “The


R∗ -tree: An Efficient and Robust Access Method for Points and Rectangles”, In Proc. of the
ACM SIGMOD Conf. on Management of Data (1990), pages 322–331.
[Bentley (1975)] J. L. Bentley, “Multidimensional Binary Search Trees Used for Associative
Searching”, Communications of the ACM, Volume 18, Number 9 (1975), pages 509–517.
[Burkhard (1976)] W. A. Burkhard, “Hashing and Trie Algorithms for Partial Match Re-
trieval”, ACM Transactions on Database Systems, Volume 1, Number 2 (1976), pages 175–187.
[Burkhard (1979)] W. A. Burkhard, “Partial-match Hash Coding: Benefits of Redundancy”,
ACM Transactions on Database Systems, Volume 4, Number 2 (1979), pages 228–239.
[Chan and Ioannidis (1998)] C.-Y. Chan and Y. E. Ioannidis, “Bitmap Index Design and Eval-
uation”, In Proc. of the ACM SIGMOD Conf. on Management of Data (1998), pages 355–366.
[Chan and Ioannidis (1999)] C.-Y. Chan and Y. E. Ioannidis, “An Efficient Bitmap Encoding
Scheme for Selection Queries”, In Proc. of the ACM SIGMOD Conf. on Management of Data
(1999), pages 215–226.
[Cormen et al. (2009)] T. Cormen, C. Leiserson, R. Rivest, and C. Stein, Introduction to Al-
gorithms, 3rd edition, MIT Press (2009).
[Fagin et al. (1979)] R. Fagin, J. Nievergelt, N. Pippenger, and H. R. Strong, “Extendible
Hashing — A Fast Access Method for Dynamic Files”, ACM Transactions on Database Sys-
tems, Volume 4, Number 3 (1979), pages 315–344.
[Finkel and Bentley (1974)] R. A. Finkel and J. L. Bentley, “Quad Trees: A Data Structure
for Retrieval on Composite Keys”, Acta Informatica, Volume 4, (1974), pages 1–9.
[Guttman (1984)] A. Guttman, “R-Trees: A Dynamic Index Structure for Spatial Searching”,
In Proc. of the ACM SIGMOD Conf. on Management of Data (1984), pages 47–57.
[Jagadish et al. (1997)] H. V. Jagadish, P. P. S. Narayan, S. Seshadri, S. Sudarshan, and
R. Kanneganti, “Incremental Organization for Data Recording and Warehousing”, In Pro-
Further Reading 1177

ceedings of the 23rd International Conference on Very Large Data Bases, VLDB ’97 (1997),
pages 16–25.
[Johnson (1999)] T. Johnson, “Performance Measurements of Compressed Bitmap Indices”,
In Proc. of the International Conf. on Very Large Databases (1999), pages 278–289.
[Kim (1995)] W. Kim, editor, Modern Database Systems, ACM Press (1995).
[Knuth (1973)] D. E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 3, Addison Wesley,
Sorting and Searching (1973).
[Litwin (1978)] W. Litwin, “Virtual Hashing: A Dynamically Changing Hashing”, In Proc. of
the International Conf. on Very Large Databases (1978), pages 517–523.
[Litwin (1980)] W. Litwin, “Linear Hashing: A New Tool for File and Table Addressing”, In
Proc. of the International Conf. on Very Large Databases (1980), pages 212–223.
[O’Neil and Quass (1997)] P. O’Neil and D. Quass, “Improved Query Performance with
Variant Indexes”, In Proc. of the ACM SIGMOD Conf. on Management of Data (1997), pages
38–49.
[O’Neil et al. (1996)] P. O’Neil, E. Cheng, D. Gawlick, and E. O’Neil, “The Log-structured
Merge-tree (LSM-tree)”, Acta Inf., Volume 33, Number 4 (1996), pages 351–385.
[Ramakrishna and Larson (1989)] M. V. Ramakrishna and P. Larson, “File Organization Us-
ing Composite Perfect Hashing”, ACM Transactions on Database Systems, Volume 14, Num-
ber 2 (1989), pages 231–263.
[Rathi et al. (1990)] A. Rathi, H. Lu, and G. E. Hedrick, “Performance Comparison of Ex-
tendable Hashing and Linear Hashing Techniques”, In Proc. ACM SIGSmall/PC Symposium
on Small Systems (1990), pages 178–185.
[Rivest (1976)] R. L. Rivest, “Partial Match Retrieval Via the Method of Superimposed
Codes”, SIAM Journal of Computing, Volume 5, Number 1 (1976), pages 19–50.
[Robinson (1981)] J. Robinson, “The k-d-B Tree: A Search Structure for Large Multidimen-
sional Indexes”, In Proc. of the ACM SIGMOD Conf. on Management of Data (1981), pages
10–18.
[Roussopoulos et al. (1995)] N. Roussopoulos, S. Kelley, and F. Vincent, “Nearest Neighbor
Queries”, In Proc. of the ACM SIGMOD Conf. on Management of Data (1995), pages 71–79.
[Samet (1990)] H. Samet, The Design and Analysis of Spatial Data Structures, Addison Wesley
(1990).
[Samet (1995)] H. Samet. “Spatial Data Structures”, In [Kim (1995)], pages 361–385 (1995).
[Samet (2006)] H. Samet, Foundations of Multidimensional and Metric Data Structures, Mor-
gan Kaufmann (2006).
[Sellis et al. (1987)] T. K. Sellis, N. Roussopoulos, and C. Faloutsos, “The R+ -Tree: A Dy-
namic Index for Multi-Dimensional Objects”, In Proc. of the International Conf. on Very Large
Databases (1987), pages 507–518.
1178 Chapter 24 Advanced Indexing Techniques

[Vitter (2001)] J. S. Vitter, “External Memory Algorithms and Data Structures: Dealing with
Massive Data”, ACM Computing Surveys, Volume 33, (2001), pages 209–271.
[Wu and Buchmann (1998)] M. Wu and A. Buchmann, “Encoded Bitmap Indexing for Data
Warehouses”, In Proc. of the International Conf. on Data Engineering (1998), pages 220–230.

Credits

The photo of the sailboats in the beginning of the chapter is due to ©Pavel Nes-
vadba/Shutterstock.

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