Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology

College of Arts and Sciences

MATHEMATICS AND SCIENCES DEPARTMENT

Psy 102 – Psychological Statistics

Lecture prepared by: JAYNELLE G. DOMINGO, MSc. MathEd

 LESSON OBJECTIVES:

At the end of the lesson, the students are expected to:

ü Familiarize with the basic concepts, meaning, nature

and importance of statistics;

ü Distinguish type of data and levels of measurement;

ü Identify type of variable given a research problem

 Introduction

The term statistics may have different meanings to different

people. A psychologist for example who investigates an intervention
program to help reduce anxiety and depression, statistics are used as
evidence of the effectiveness of the program. To an appliance store
manager, statistics may refer to the brand of electric fan or refrigerator
most consumers buy. To a school principal, statistics are information
regarding increase or decrease in school enrolment, faculty salary,
dropout rate and absenteeism. To a college student, statistics are his
scores on quizzes, exams and assignments. While they use it in different
ways and purposes, they are all using statistics correctly.
 Statistics as a Tool in Research

STATISTICS – the science/methods of collecting, presenting, analyzing and

interpreting data.

When you collect data, you utilize questionnaires, interviews, tests,

observations and experiments. When you present data, you organize data
in the forms of tables, graphs or charts. When you analyze data, you extract
relevant significant information from the gathered data. Lastly, when you
interpret data, you draw conclusions or inferences.

Statistics may be divided into two broad categories – descriptive and

inferential statistics.
 Statistics as a Tool in Research

Descriptive statistics is concerned with summary calculations. It

largely involves gathering, classification and presentation
of data.

Examples:
class average of examination, average salary, range of family
income, percentage of students who obtained a grade higher
than 90
 Statistics as a Tool in Research

Inferential statistics involves making inferences, estimates or predictions about a

large set of data (called a population) using the information gathered
from a smaller set of data (called a sample). Aside from providing a
description of a particular data set, predictions and inferences are also
made.

Examples:
t-test, correlation and regression analyses, analysis of variance (ANOVA), and non-
parametric tests such as chi-squares.

In statistics, the descriptive measure of the population is called a parameter while

a descriptive measure of a sample is called statistic.
 Variables and Measurement

Variables are the characteristics or conditions that the experimenter

manipulates, controls or observes.

It is the characteristic or attribute of the person or objects, which

assumes different values (numerical/quantitative) or labels
(qualitative).

The process of assigning the value or label is called measurement.

 Variables and Measurement

Independent variable – variables that (probably) cause, influence,

or affect outcomes. It is also called treatment, manipulated,
antecedent or predictor variable.

Dependent variable – variables that depend on the independent

variables. They are the outcomes or results of the influence of the
independent variable. It is also called criterion, outcome or effect
variable.
 Variables and Measurement

Example: Do anxious students get lower scores on the test?

Anxiety Test Scores

(Independent) (Dependent)
 Variables and Measurement

Moderating variable – variables that influence the direction

and/or magnitude of the relationship between the independent
and the dependent variable.

Example: Do anxious students get lower scores on the test,

whether they have low or high IQ? (i.e. Students who are anxious
have lower test scores, only for those with low IQ, but not with
high IQ).
 Variables and Measurement

Anxiety Test Scores

(Independent) (Dependent)

IQ
(Moderator)
 Variables and Measurement

Mediating variable – “stand between” variable. The variable that

explains the relationship between the independent and the
dependent variable.

Example: Does effort mediate or explain why anxious students

get lower scores on the test? (i.e. If students are anxious, they
will not exert effort in studying, and this will lead to lower scores)
 Variables and Measurement

Anxiety Test Scores

(Independent) (Dependent)

Effort
(Mediator)
 Variables and Measurement

Control variable – a special type of independent variable that is

measured in a study because it potentially influence the
dependent variable

Example: Do anxious students get lower test sores when gender

and type of school are held constant. (i.e. When gender and type
of school are held constant, do anxious students get lower scores)
 Variables and Measurement

Anxiety Test Scores

(Independent) (Dependent)

Gender
Type of School
 Exercise

Directions: Identify the independent and dependent variables in

the following research problem/question.

1. Does gender affect work performance of the employees in

Company A?

2. Is there a significant relationship between employee’s

perceived work climate and work engagement?
 Exercise

3. Do motivation and self-efficacy influence work performance making

gender and type of school constant?

4. Is number of hours reviewing related to test scores regardless of the

time of day?

5. Do gender and type of school interact in influencing math and

science performance?
 Types of Variables

Qualitative variable yields categorical or qualitative response. It

refers to the attributes or characteristics of the sample.
Examples: Gender (male, female), Likert Scale (strongly disagree,
disagree, agree, strongly agree)

Quantitative variable yields numerical or continuous response

representing an amount or quantity.
Examples: age, temperature, length of service
 Types of Variables

Discrete variables assume finite or countable values. It takes

integral values and usually gives rise to counting numbers such as
number of children (0,1,2,3) , number of female students enrolled
(i.e. 15).

Continuous variables cannot take on finite values but the values are
related with points on an interval. Thus, it takes any value within a
specified range of values. It usually gives rise to measurement such
as height (i.e. 5’8”), temperature (i.e. 37.8 degrees Celsius)
 Levels of Measurements

The level of measurement refers to the relationship

among the values that are assigned to the attributes for a
variable. It is important to understand this for two very important
reasons:
1. It helps you decide how to interpret the data from that
variable.
2. It helps you decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on
the values that were assigned.
 Levels of Measurements

A. Nominal
Nominal level is the crudest form of measurement. It consists of numbers
which indicates categories. Variables can be named, but not quantified. The
categories are mutually exclusive, that is, being in one category automatically
excludes the other. Nominal variables are coded with numbers, but the magnitude
of the number is arbitrary. Thus the numbers have no mathematical value assigned
to them.

If for example one basketball player wears jersey number 23 (the center) and
another player wears jersey number 18 (the guard), it does not make sense to add
these numbers.
 Levels of Measurements

A. Nominal

Examples:
1. Sex: 1-male, 2-female
2. Marital Status: 1-single , 2-married, 3-divorced
3. Employee tenure: 1-permanent, 2-temporary
4. Language spoken: 1-English, 2-Filipino, 3-Mandarin
5. Type of school graduated from :1-public, 2-private

Note: If the variable has only two values, it is referred to as Dichotomous

variable.
 Levels of Measurements

B. Ordinal
It is a sort of improvement of nominal level in terms of precision of
measurement. The values given to measurement can be ordered, from “bottom
to top” or “low to high” manner. Values assigned represent a rough quantitative
sense to their measurement, but the differences between scores are not
necessarily equal. The variables are in order, but not fixed. Nevertheless, we can
use statements such as “greater than” or “less than”.

For instance, Student A ranked 1st on the test while Student B ranked 2nd. While
it is true that we do not know how much better Student A is as compared to
Student B, we can infer that the score of Student A is greater than the score of
Student B.
 Levels of Measurements

B. Ordinal

Examples:
1. Socio-economic status : 1-low 2-average 3-high 4. Highest educational
2. Letter grades : A,B,C,D,E,F attainment:
3. Likert Scale (5-point scale) 1-elementary
Strongly Agree 5 2- high school
Agree 4 3- college
Neither agree nor disagree 3 4- masteral
Disagree 2
Strongly Disagree 1 5. Evaluation: Low, High
(Dichotomized)
 Levels of Measurements

C. Interval
Interval level possesses the properties of the nominal and ordinal data. It
has equal intervals providing information about how much better one value is
compared with another. Measurements are not only classified and ordered, but
the distances between each scale are equal. However, zero is arbitrary. For
instance, ℃ does not mean the absence of temperature, rather the temperature
where water freezes, or an IQ of 0 does not indicate the absence of knowledge ,
rather the person belongs to the low (or very low) performer category. Moreover,
aside from determining that one value if greater or less than another, addition and
subtraction have meanings.
 Levels of Measurements

C. Interval

Examples:
1. Temperature (i.e., ℃). The distance between 10 ℃ - 20 ℃ is the same as
the distance between 50 ℃ - 60 ℃ . But, it does not mean that a
temperature of 50 ℃ is 5 times hotter than 10 ℃.

2. IQ scores . The IQ scores of four Students A, B , C and D are 90, 140,

80,and 130, respectively. The difference between 90 and 140 is the same
as the difference between 80 and 130 but we cannot claim that the
second student is twice as intelligent than the first.
 Levels of Measurements

D. Ratio
Ratio level possesses all the properties of the nominal, ordinal and
interval levels. In addition, this has an absolute zero point which indicates the total
absence of the property being measured. Numbers can be compared as multiples
of one another. For instance, If Carlo is 5 years old and his father is 30, then, his
father is six times older. Moreover, all mathematical procedures are appropriate
with ratio scales.

Examples: age, income, exam scores, grades of students, height, and weight.

Note: In statistical practice, ratio variables are subjected to operations that treat
them as interval and ignore their ratio properties.
 Levels of Measurements

The table below summarizes the characteristics of the various levels of measurement.

Levels of Measurement Classify Order Equal Limits Absolute Zero

A. Nominal Yes No No No
B. Ordinal Yes Yes No No
C. Interval Yes Yes Yes No
D. Ratio Yes Yes Yes Yes
 Basic Quantitative Research Design

Research design - the collective reference to what type of study a

researcher intends to conduct. It likewise includes the format of
research question needed to prepare paralleled to the content of the
research instrument, the type of hypotheses to be tested, the nature
of variables to be manipulated or hold constant, the data gathering
techniques to be employed, as well as the statistical tools to be
utilized, and other pertinent parts of the paper which embodied the
framework of the study.
 Basic Quantitative Research Design

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Descriptive Research – involves the description, recording, analysis, interpretation

of conditions that presently exist. Descriptive research purely involves the
"present" conditions and definitely not the past. It generally involves some type of
comparison, contrast, attempt to discover a relationship that exactly exists
between two variables.

∎ Descriptive-Normative ∎ Descriptive-Developmental
∎ Descriptive-Correlational ∎ Descriptive-Documentary
∎ Descriptive-Evaluative ∎ Descriptive-Comparative
 Basic Quantitative Research Design

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Experimental Research – involves involves the manipulation of at least one

independent variable, controls other relevant variables, and observes the
effect on one or more dependent variables. The relationship between cause
and effect is explained based on what transpires as the independent variable
(x) is manipulated which brings the changes to the dependent variable (y).

∎ Pre-experimental research
∎ True-experimental research
∎ Quasi-experimental research
 Basic Quantitative Research Design

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Historical Research – involves any activity which appeals to past experiences or

occurrences to better understand the present phenomena and plan for future
innovation. It, therefore, is concerned with describing past events, facts,
records, and actions in a spirit of inquiring critically for the whole truth.

Ex-post facto (Causal-Comparative) Research - involves groups of the variable

with qualities that already exist being compared to some dependent variable.
Known as "after the fact" research, an ex post facto is considered quasi-
experimental because the subjects are not randomly assigned.
 Basic Quantitative Research Design

TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS

Participatory Research – a long, slow, difficult but creative process. It

recognizes people's capabilities to discover, organize, and use knowledge. As a
research methodology, It considerably requires researchers to analyze and
decide about what values and views about research, an understanding which
consequently and inevitably spells the direction out of the careful and strict
investigation.
 References

Dela Rosa, E. D. (2019). Learning Module in Statistics with SPSS

Applications. Philippine Copyright 2019.

Cortez and Galman (2017). Writing Research in the Major Fields – A

guide in writing undergraduate thesis. Philippine Copyright
2017.